Applied behavior analysis

Last updated

Applied behavior analysis (ABA) is a scientific discipline that utilizes the principles of learning based upon respondent and operant conditioning to make socially significant changes in a subject's behavior. ABA is the applied form of behavior analysis. The impact ABA has on meaningful behaviors is a defining feature, and what differentiates it from experimental analysis of behavior, which focuses on basic experimental research. [1]

Contents

The term applied behavior analysis has replaced behavior modification because the latter approach suggested changing behavior without clarifying the relevant behavior-environment interactions. In contrast, ABA changes behavior by first assessing the functional relationship between a targeted behavior and the environment, a process known as a functional behavior assessment. Further, the approach seeks to develop socially acceptable alternatives for maladaptive behaviors, often through administering differential reinforcement contingencies.

Although ABA is most commonly associated with autism intervention, it has been utilized in a range of other areas, including organizational behavior management, behavior management in classrooms, and acceptance and commitment therapy. [2] [3] [4]

ABA is controversial, and generally rejected by the autism rights movement. Among other reasons, this is because of a history of suppressing autistic behaviors such as stimming; using aversives, such as physical pain, or in modern forms, withholding stimuli that bring comfort; and because of its weak evidence base and failure to investigate possible harms.

Definition

ABA is a field of study that focuses on using the principles of behaviorism to make changes in a client's behavior that are relevant to their everyday life. [5] The social validity of interventions is what differentiates ABA from experimental analysis of behavior, which focuses on basic experimental research. [6] Behavior analysis adopts the viewpoint of radical behaviorism, which states that all behavior occurs for a reason, and the cause can be understood based on the subject's learning history and current conditions. [7] This represents a shift away from methodological behaviorism, which restricts behavior-change procedures to behaviors that are overt, and was the conceptual underpinning of behavior modification.

Behavior analysts emphasize that the science of behavior must be a natural science as opposed to a social science. [8]

History

Lovaas prompting several young research subjects and using food as a reinforcer, ca. 1965

The field of behaviorism originated in 1913 by John B. Watson with his seminal work "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views it.". [9] In it, Watson argued against the field of psychology's focus on consciousness and proposed the field instead focus on the relationship between stimuli and observable behavioral responses (S-R behaviorism). [10]

The field of experimental behaviorism, which was partially based on Waton's work, was founded by B. F. Skinner in the 1930s and 1940s. [11] Skinner is credited with being the first person to describe the principals of operant conditioning and the philosophy of radical behaviorism, which are the foundations of Applied Behavior Analysis. Skinner was also one of the founders of the Journal of Experimental Analysis of Behavior (JEAB) in 1958, which was the first academic journal focused on the publication of research in experimental behaviorism.

The first experiments studying the effectiveness of behavior analysis on human subjects were published in the 1940s and 50s, including B.F. Skinner's "Baby in a box" in 1945 and Paul Fueller's 1949 "Operant conditioning of a vegetative human organism." Jack Michael's study "The psychiatric nurse as a behavioral engineer" in 1959 was the first to utilize the concepts of behaviorism to effect meaningful change in the subject's behavior. [11] [12] [13] The successful and meaningful use of behavior analysis in human subjects led researchers at the University of Kansas to start the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis (JABA) in 1968. [14] [15]

A group of researchers at the University of Washington, including Donald Baer, Sidney W. Bijou, Bill Hopkins, Jay Birnbrauer, Todd Risley, and Montrose Wolf, [16] [17] applied the principles of behavior analysis to treat autism, manage the behavior of children and adolescents in juvenile detention centers, and organize employees who required proper structure and management in businesses. In 1968, Baer, Bijou, Risley, Birnbrauer, Wolf, and James Sherman joined the Department of Human Development and Family Life at the University of Kansas, where they founded the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. [18]

From 1960 through 1997, Ivar Lovaas researched the efficacy of ABA techniques on autistic and schizophrenic children. While Lovaas's work was instrumental in establishing ABA as an effective treatment of autism through the Lovaas method, his use of shock treatment has considerable ethical concerns, and the practice has been condemned by the Association for Behavior Analysis Interntational. [19] [20]

Over the years, "behavior analysis" gradually superseded "behavior modification"; that is, from simply trying to alter problematic behavior, behavior analysts sought to understand the function of that behavior, what reinforcement histories (i.e., attention seeking, escape, sensory stimulation, etc.) promote and maintain it, and how it can be replaced by successful behavior. [21]

Characteristics

7 Characteristics of ABA ABA Characteristics.svg
7 Characteristics of ABA

Baer, Wolf, and Risley's 1968 article [22] is still used as the standard description of ABA. [15] [23] It lists the following seven characteristics of ABA. Another resource for the characteristics of applied behavior analysis is the textbook Behavior Modification: Principles and Procedures. [24]

Other proposed characteristics

In 2005, Heward et al. suggested the addition of the following five characteristics: [25]

Applications

Autism Intervention

Although there are many applications of ABA outside of autism intervention, a large majority of ABA practitioners specialize in autism, and ABA itself is often mistakenly considered synonymous with therapy for autism. [27] [6] Practitioners often use ABA-based techniques to teach adaptive behaviors to, or diminish challenging behaviors presented by, individuals with autism. [28] [29] ABA methodologies such as differential reinforcement, extinction, and task analysis, are among the most well-researched evidence-based practices for autism intervention. [30]

History

Early development of the techniques that would later become the Lovaas method involved use of electric shocks, scolding, and the withholding of food. [31] [32] By the time the children were enrolled in this study, such aversives were abandoned, and a loud "no", electric shock, or slap to the thigh were used only as a last resort to reduce aggressive and self-stimulatory behaviors.

In 1965, Ivar Lovaas published a series of articles that described a pioneering investigation of the antecedents and consequences that maintained a problem behavior, [33] including the use of electric shock on autistic children to suppress stimming and meltdowns (described as "self-stimulatory behavior" and "tantrum behaviors" respectively) and to coerce "affectionate" behavior, [34] and relied on the methods of errorless learning which was initially used by Charles Ferster to teach nonverbal children to speak. Lovaas also described how to use social (secondary) reinforcers, teach children to imitate, and what interventions (including electric shocks) may be used to reduce aggression and life-threatening self-injury. [33] [35]

In 1987, Lovaas published the study, "Behavioral treatment and normal educational and intellectual functioning in young autistic children". [14] The experimental group in this study received an average of 40 hours per week in a 1:1 teaching setting at a table using errorless discrete trial training (DTT) with a trained student therapist. [36] The treatment was implemented at home by student therapists. Parents were trained on the teaching techniques to allow near-constant ABA instruction. During episodes of aggressive or self-stimulatory behavior, interventionists used planned ignoring, reinforcing appropriate alternative behavior, and "as a last resort...the delivery of a loud "no" or a slap on the thigh contin- gent upon the presence of the undesirable behavior." [14] The outcome of this study indicated 47% of the experimental group (9/19) went on to lose their autism diagnosis and were described as indistinguishable from their typically developing adolescent peers. This included passing general education without assistance and forming and maintaining friendships. These gains were maintained as reported in the 1993 study, "Long-term outcome for children with autism who received early intensive behavioral treatment". Lovaas' work went on to be recognized by the US surgeon general in 1999, and his research were replicated in university and private settings. [37] [38] The "Lovaas Method" went on to become known as early intensive behavioral intervention (EIBI).

Modern practices

In 2018, a Cochrane meta-analysis database concluded that some recent research is beginning to suggest that there are two different ABA teaching approaches to acquiring spoken language: children with higher receptive language skills respond to 2.5 – 20 hours per week of the naturalistic approach, whereas children with lower receptive language skills need 25 hours per week of discrete trial training—the structured and intensive form of ABA. [39] A 2023 multi-site randomized control trial study of 164 participants showed similar findings. [40]

Applications outside of autism intervention

Although most research in ABA focuses on autism intervention, it is also used in a broad range of other areas. Recent notable areas of research in the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis include autism, [3] classroom instruction with typically developing students, pediatric feeding therapy, [2] [3] [41] and substance use disorders. [2] [3] Other applications of ABA include applied animal behavior, consumer behavior analysis, forensic behavior analysis, behavioral medicine, behavioral neuroscience, clinical behavior analysis, [2] [3] organizational behavior management, [2] [3] schoolwide positive behavior interventions and support, [2] [42] [43] [44] [45] and contact desensitization for phobias.

Animal Welfare

ABA has been successfully used in other species. [46] Morris uses ABA to reduce feather-plucking in the black vulture ( Coragyps atratus ). [46] [47] [48]

Concepts

Behavior

Behavior refers to the movement of some part of an organism that changes some aspect of the environment. [49] Often, the term behavior refers to a class of responses that share physical dimensions or functions, and in that case a response is a single instance of that behavior. [15] [50] If a group of responses have the same function, this group may be called a response class. Repertoire refers to the various responses available to an individual; the term may refer to responses that are relevant to a particular situation, or it may refer to everything a person can do.

Operant conditioning

Operant behavior is voluntary behavior that is sensitive to, or controlled by its consequences. Specifically, operant conditioning refers to the three-term contingency that uses stimulus control. In the three-term contingency, first, a discriminative stimulus signals to the subject that reinforcement (or, less commonly, punishment) is available. Then, the subject performs a behavior. After performing a behavior, a consequence will occur that either adds (positive) or removes (negative) something that will make the behavior either occur more (reinforcement) or less (punishment) frequently in the future.

Reinforcement

Reinforcement occurs when the consequence of a behavior makes it more likely for that behavior to occur in the future. Reinforcing consequences can be either positive, where something preferred is added, or negative, where something aversive is removed. [51] Reinforcement is the key element in operant conditioning and most behavior change programs. [52] [53] There are multiple schedules of reinforcement that affect the future probability of behavior.

Punishment

Punishment occurs when the consequences of a behavior make the behavior less likely to occur in the future. [54] As with reinforcement, a stimulus can be added (positive punishment) or removed (negative punishment). Broadly, there are three types of punishment: presentation of aversive stimuli (e.g., pain), response cost (removal of desirable stimuli as in monetary fines), and restriction of freedom (as in a 'time out'). [55] Punishment in practice can often result in unwanted side effects. [56] Some other potential unwanted effects include resentment over being punished, attempts to escape the punishment, expression of pain and negative emotions associated with it, and recognition by the punished individual between the punishment and the person delivering it. ABA therapist state that they use punishment is used infrequently as a last resort or when there is a direct threat caused by the behavior. [57]

Respondent (classical) conditioning

Respondent (classical) conditioning is based on involuntary reflexes. In his experiments with dogs, Ivan Pavlov usually used the salivary reflex, namely salivation (unconditioned response) following the taste of food (unconditioned stimulus). Pairing a neutral stimulus, for example, a bell (conditioned stimulus) with food caused the dog to elicit salivation (conditioned response). Thus, in classical conditioning, the conditioned stimulus becomes a signal for a biologically significant consequence. Note that in respondent conditioning, unlike operant conditioning, the response does not produce a reinforcer or punisher (e.g., the dog does not get food because it salivates).

Extinction

Extinction is the technical term to describe the procedure of withholding/discontinuing reinforcement of a previously reinforced behavior, resulting in the decrease of that behavior. [58] : 102  The behavior is then set to be extinguished (Cooper et al.). Extinction procedures are often preferred over punishment procedures, as many punishment procedures are deemed unethical and in many states prohibited. Nonetheless, extinction procedures must be implemented with utmost care by professionals, as they are generally associated with extinction bursts. An extinction burst is the temporary increase in the frequency, intensity, and/or duration of the behavior targeted for extinction. [58] : 104  Other characteristics of an extinction burst include an extinction-produced aggression—the occurrence of an emotional response to an extinction procedure often manifested as aggression; and b) extinction-induced response variability—the occurrence of novel behaviors that did not typically occur prior to the extinction procedure. These novel behaviors are a core component of shaping procedures.

Discriminated operant and three-term contingency

In addition to a relation being made between behavior and its consequences, operant conditioning also establishes relations between antecedent conditions and behaviors. This differs from the S–R formulations (If-A-then-B), and replaces it with an AB-because-of-C formulation. In other words, the relation between a behavior (B) and its context (A) is because of consequences (C), more specifically, this relationship between AB because of C indicates that the relationship is established by prior consequences that have occurred in similar contexts. [59] This antecedent–behavior–consequence contingency is termed the three-term contingency. A behavior which occurs more frequently in the presence of an antecedent condition than in its absence is called a discriminated operant. The antecedent stimulus is called a discriminative stimulus (SD). The fact that the discriminated operant occurs only in the presence of the discriminative stimulus is an illustration of stimulus control. [60] More recently behavior analysts have been focusing on conditions that occur prior to the circumstances for the current behavior of concern that increased the likelihood of the behavior occurring or not occurring. These conditions have been referred to variously as "Setting Event", "Establishing Operations", and "Motivating Operations" by various researchers in their publications.

Verbal behavior

B. F. Skinner's classification system of behavior analysis has been applied to treatment of a host of communication disorders. [61] Skinner's system includes:

Measuring behavior

In applied behavior analysis, the quantifiable measures are a derivative of the dimensions. These dimensions are repeatability, temporal extent, and temporal locus. [62]

Repeatability

Response classes occur repeatedly throughout time—i.e., how many times the behavior occurs.

Temporal extent

The temporal extent refers to the duration of the response, which is the measure of time from the start to the end of the response. The duration of a response is either the duration of each response or the duration of all responses during a specific timeframe, which is then recorded as a percentage. [63]

Temporal locus

Latency specifically measures the time that elapses between the event of a stimulus and the behavior that follows. This is important in behavioral research because it quantifies how quickly an individual may respond to external stimuli, providing insights into their perceptual and cognitive processing rates. [64] There are two measurements that are able to define temporal locus, they are response latency and interresponse time.

Derivative measures

Derivative measures are additional metrics derived from primary data, often by combining or transforming dimensional quantities to offer deeper insights into a phenomenon. Despite not being directly tied to specific dimensions, these measures provide valuable supplemental information. In applied behavior analysis (ABA), for example, percentage is a derivative measure that quantifies the ratio of specific responses to total responses, offering a nuanced understanding of behavior and assisting in evaluating progress and intervention effectiveness. Trials-to-criterion, another ABA derivative measure, tracks the number of response opportunities needed to achieve a set level of performance. This metric aids behavior analysts in assessing skill acquisition and mastery, influencing decisions on program adjustments and teaching methods. Applied behavior analysis relies on meticulous measurement and impartial evaluation of observable behavior as a foundational principle. Without accurate data collection and analysis, behavior analysts lack the essential information to assess intervention effectiveness and make informed decisions about program modifications. Therefore, precise measurement and assessment play a pivotal role in ABA practice, guiding practitioners to enhance behavioral outcomes and drive significant change.

Behavior analysts utilize a few distinct techniques to gather information. A portion of the ways of collect data information include:


Response latency

Latency refers to how much time after a particular boost has been given before the objective way of behaving happens. [67] [68]

Analyzing behavior change

Experimental control

In applied behavior analysis, all experiments should include the following: [69]

Methodologies developed through ABA research

Task analysis

Task analysis is the process of breaking down a multi-step instruction into its component parts. The student is then taught to complete a task analysis through chaining. For example, a task analysis of washing hands might include the following steps: Turn on the sink, put hands in the water, put soap on hands, scrub hands, rinse hands, turn off water.

Task analysis has been used in organizational behavior management, a behavior analytic approach to changing the behaviors of members of an organization (e.g., factories, offices, or hospitals). [70] Behavioral scripts often emerge from a task analysis. [71] [72] Bergan conducted a task analysis of the behavioral consultation relationship [73] and Thomas Kratochwill developed a training program based on teaching Bergan's skills. [74] A similar approach was used for the development of microskills training for counselors. [75] [76] [77] Ivey would later call this "behaviorist" phase a very productive one [78] and the skills-based approach came to dominate counselor training during 1970–90. [79] Task analysis was also used in determining the skills needed to access a career. [80] In education, Englemann (1968) used task analysis as part of the methods to design the direct instruction curriculum. [81]

Chaining

Chaining is the process of teaching the steps of a task analysis. The two methods of chaining, forward chaining and backward chaining, differ based on what step a learner is taught to complete first. In forward chaining, the ABA practitioner teaches the learner to independently complete the first step and prompts the learner for all subsequent steps. In backward chaining, the practitioner prompts all steps except the last step. As the learner begins to respond independently, the practitioner systematically removes the prompts and teaches the next step in the task analysis. [82] [83]

Total task presentation is a variation of forward chaining where the practitioner asks the learner to perform the entire task analysis and provides prompting only when the learner is unable to complete a step independently. [84]

Prompting

A prompt is a cue that encourages a desired response from an individual. [85] Prompts are often categorized into a prompt hierarchy from most intrusive to least intrusive, although there is some controversy about what is considered most intrusive, those that are physically intrusive or those that are hardest prompt to fade (e.g., verbal). [86] In order to minimize errors and ensure a high level of success during learning, prompts are given in a most-to-least sequence and faded systematically. [87] During this process, prompts are faded as quickly as possible so that the learner does not come to depend on them and eventually behaves appropriately without prompting. [88] [89]

Fading

The overall goal is for an individual to eventually not need prompts. As an individual gains mastery of a skill at a particular prompt level, the prompt is faded to a less intrusive prompt. This ensures that the individual does not become overly dependent on a particular prompt when learning a new behavior or skill.

One of the primary choices that was made while showing another way of behaving is the manner by which to fade the prompts or prompts. An arrangement should be set up to fade the prompts in an organized style. For instance, blurring the actual brief of directing a kid's hands might follow this succession: (a) supporting wrists, (b) contacting hands softly, (c) contacting lower arm or elbow, and (d) pulling out actual contact through and through. Fading guarantees that the kid does not turn out to be excessively subject to a specific brief while mastering another expertise. [68]

Thinning a reinforcement schedule

Thinning is often confused with fading. Fading refers to a prompt being removed, where thinning refers to an increase in the time or number of responses required between reinforcements. [90] Periodic thinning that produces a 30% decrease in reinforcement has been suggested as an efficient way to thin. [91] Schedule thinning is often an important and neglected issue in contingency management and token economy systems, especially when these are developed by unqualified practitioners (see professional practice of behavior analysis). [92]

Generalization

Generalization is the expansion of a student's performance ability beyond the initial conditions set for acquisition of a skill. [93] Generalization can occur across people, places, and materials used for teaching. For example, once a skill is learned in one setting, with a particular instructor, and with specific materials, the skill is taught in more general settings with more variation from the initial acquisition phase. For example, if a student has successfully mastered learning colors at the table, the teacher may take the student around the house or school and generalize the skill in these more natural environments with other materials. Behavior analysts have spent considerable amount of time studying factors that lead to generalization. [94]

Shaping

Shaping involves gradually modifying the existing behavior into the desired behavior. If the student engages with a dog by hitting it, then they could have their behavior shaped by reinforcing interactions in which they touch the dog more gently. Over many interactions, successful shaping would replace the hitting behavior with patting or other gentler behavior. Shaping is based on a behavior analyst's thorough knowledge of operant conditioning principles and extinction. Recent efforts to teach shaping have used simulated computer tasks. [95]

One teaching technique found to be effective with some students, particularly children, is the use of video modeling (the use of taped sequences as exemplars of behavior). It can be used by therapists to assist in the acquisition of both verbal and motor responses, in some cases for long chains of behavior. [96] [97]

Another example of shaping is when a toddler learns to walk. The child is reinforced by crawling, standing, taking a few steps, and then eventually walking. When a child is learning to walk, they are praised by a lot of claps and excitements. [98]

Acceptance and Commitment Therapy

Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT), is a therapeutic approach based on behavior analytic principles with the theoretical framework of Relational Frame Theory. [99] The primary goal of ACT is to help the client acknowledge negative or unwanted private events described by Skinner, such as thoughts and feelings, and shift their self-identity from one based on psychological phenomenon to one based in self-as-context. [100]

Interventions based on an FBA

Functional behavioral assessment (FBA) is an individualized critical thinking process that may be used to address problem behavior. An evaluation is initiated to distinguish the causality of a problem behavior. This interactive evaluation includes gathering data about the ecological circumstances that occur prior to an identified conduct issue and the resulting rewards that reinforce the behavior. The data that is collected is then used to recognize and execute individualized interventions pointed toward lessening problem behaviors and expanding positive behavior outcomes.

Critical to behavior analytic interventions is the concept of a systematic behavioral case formulation with a functional behavioral assessment or analysis at the core. [101] [102] This approach should apply a behavior analytic theory of change (see Behavioral change theories). This formulation should include a thorough functional assessment, a skills assessment, a sequential analysis (behavior chain analysis), an ecological assessment, a look at existing evidenced-based behavioral models for the problem behavior (such as Fordyce's model of chronic pain) [103] and then a treatment plan based on how environmental factors influence behavior. Some argue that behavior analytic case formulation can be improved with an assessment of rules and rule-governed behavior. [104] [105] [106] Some of the interventions that result from this type of conceptualization involve training specific communication skills to replace the problem behaviors as well as specific setting, antecedent, behavior, and consequence strategies. [107]

Pivotal Response Treatment

Pivotal Response Treatment (PRT) is an ABA-based intervention that targets skills that, when mastered, "can elicit more widespread positive clinical gains in the child’s other domains of functioning." [108] PRT's primary focus is increasing the learner's motivation to engage socially. PRT recognizes that learners may be unmotivated to communicate due to natural causes, like genetic influences, and how learned helplessness from previously unsuccessful communication attempts can discourage future communication attempts. [109]

Criticisms

Neurodiversity Movement

Some Neurodiversity advocates, including some autistic people who have experienced ABA interventions, believe that ABA attempts to eliminate, suppress or reduce autistic behaviors and reinforces autistic people to mask their true personalities in order to imitate neurotypical behaviors (e.g. eye contact, body language) and conform to an overly narrow conception of normal behavior. [110] [111] Masking is generally associated with suicidality and poor long-term mental health. [112] [113] Instead, these critics advocate for increased social acceptance of harmless and sometimes adaptive autistic traits and interventions focused on improving well being and quality of life. [114] The Autistic Self Advocacy Network, campaigns against the use of ABA in autism. [115] [116] The European Council of Autistic People (EUCAP) published a 2024 position statement expressing deep concern about the harm caused by ABA being overlooked. They emphasize that most surveyed autistic individuals view ABA as harmful, abusive, and counterproductive to their well-being. EUCAP advocates for a variety of support methods and the inclusion of autistic individuals in decision-making processes regarding their care. [117]

A 2020 study examined perspectives of autistic adults that received ABA as children and found that the overwhelming majority reported that "behaviorist methods create painful lived experiences", that ABA led to the "erosion of the true actualizing self", and that they felt they had a "lack of self-agency within interpersonal experiences". [118] Another study published in 2023 at Autism, one of the leading journals in autism, found similar results, with evidence of increased masking and causing mental health challenges for some autistic people. [119]

Research Validity

Conflicts of interest, methodological concerns, and a high risk of bias pervade most ABA studies. [120] [121] A 2019 meta-analysis noted that "methodological rigor remains a pressing concern" in research into ABA's use as therapy for autism; while the authors found some evidence in favour of behavioral interventions, the effects disappeared when they limited the scope of their review to randomized controlled trial designs and outcomes for which there was no risk of detection bias. [122]

Conflicts of Interest in Research

One study revealed extensive undisclosed conflicts of interest (COI) in published ABA studies. 84% of studies published in top behavioral journals over a period of one year had at least one author with a COI involving their employment, either as an ABA clinical provider or a training consultant to ABA clinical providers. However, only 2% of these studies disclosed the COI. [120]

Quality of evidence

Low-quality evidence is likewise a concern in some research reporting on the potential harms of ABA on autistic children. [123]

Another concern is that ABA research only measures behavior as a means of success, which has led to a lack of qualitative research about autistic experiences of ABA, a lack of research examining the internal effects of ABA and a lack of research for autistic children who are non-speaking or have comorbid intellectual disabilities. [118] [124] [125] [126] Research is also lacking about whether ABA is effective long-term and very little longitudinal outcomes have been studied. [124]

Ethical Concerns

Opponents of ABA have denounced the ABA ethical code as too lenient, citing its failure to restrict or clarify the use of aversives, the absence of an autism or child development education requirement for ABA therapists, and its emphasis on parental consent rather than the consent of the person receiving services. [124] [127] Numerous researchers have argued that some forms of ABA interventions can be abusive and can increase symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in people undergoing the intervention. [118] [124] [127] [128] [129] Some bioethicists argue that employing ABA violates the principles of justice and nonmaleficence and infringes on the autonomy of both autistic children and their parents. [127]

Use of aversives

Lovaas incorporated aversives into some of the ABA practices he developed, including employing electric shocks, slapping, and shouting to modify undesirable behavior. Although the use of aversives in ABA became less common over time, and in 2012 their use was described as inconsistent with contemporary practice, [130] aversives persisted in some ABA programs. In comments made in 2014 to the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), a clinician previously employed by the Judge Rotenberg Educational Center claimed that "all textbooks used for thorough training of applied behavior analysts include an overview of the principles of punishment, including the use of electrical brain stimulation." [131]

Skinner's verbal operants were critiqued by the linguist Noam Chomsky who argued that Skinner's view of language as behavior did not explain the complexity of human language.[ irrelevant citation ] [132]

Response to Criticisms

Justin B. Leaf and others examined and responded to several of these criticisms of ABA in three papers published in 2018 [133] 2019, [134] and 2022 [135] in which they questioned the evidence for such criticisms, concluding that the claim that all ABA is abusive has no basis in the published literature. Others have published similar responses. [136]

See also

Related Research Articles

Operant conditioning, also called instrumental conditioning, is a learning process where voluntary behaviors are modified by association with the addition of reward or aversive stimuli. The frequency or duration of the behavior may increase through reinforcement or decrease through punishment or extinction.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Reinforcement</span> Consequence affecting an organisms future behavior

In behavioral psychology, reinforcement refers to consequences that increase the likelihood of an organism's future behavior, typically in the presence of a particular antecedent stimulus. For example, a rat can be trained to push a lever to receive food whenever a light is turned on. In this example, the light is the antecedent stimulus, the lever pushing is the operant behavior, and the food is the reinforcer. Likewise, a student that receives attention and praise when answering a teacher's question will be more likely to answer future questions in class. The teacher's question is the antecedent, the student's response is the behavior, and the praise and attention are the reinforcements.

Radical behaviorism is a "philosophy of the science of behavior" developed by B. F. Skinner. It refers to the philosophy behind behavior analysis, and is to be distinguished from methodological behaviorism—which has an intense emphasis on observable behaviors—by its inclusion of thinking, feeling, and other private events in the analysis of human and animal psychology. The research in behavior analysis is called the experimental analysis of behavior and the application of the field is called applied behavior analysis (ABA), which was originally termed "behavior modification."

The experimental analysis of behavior is a science that studies the behavior of individuals across a variety of species. A key early scientist was B. F. Skinner who discovered operant behavior, reinforcers, secondary reinforcers, contingencies of reinforcement, stimulus control, shaping, intermittent schedules, discrimination, and generalization. A central method was the examination of functional relations between environment and behavior, as opposed to hypothetico-deductive learning theory that had grown up in the comparative psychology of the 1920–1950 period. Skinner's approach was characterized by observation of measurable behavior which could be predicted and controlled. It owed its early success to the effectiveness of Skinner's procedures of operant conditioning, both in the laboratory and in behavior therapy.

Behaviorism is a systematic approach to understand the behavior of humans and other animals. It assumes that behavior is either a reflex elicited by the pairing of certain antecedent stimuli in the environment, or a consequence of that individual's history, including especially reinforcement and punishment contingencies, together with the individual's current motivational state and controlling stimuli. Although behaviorists generally accept the important role of heredity in determining behavior, they focus primarily on environmental events. The cognitive revolution of the late 20th century largely replaced behaviorism as an explanatory theory with cognitive psychology, which unlike behaviorism views internal mental states as explanations for observable behavior.

<i>Verbal Behavior</i> Psychology book

Verbal Behavior is a 1957 book by psychologist B. F. Skinner, in which he describes what he calls verbal behavior, or what was traditionally called linguistics. Skinner's work describes the controlling elements of verbal behavior with terminology invented for the analysis - echoics, mands, tacts, autoclitics and others - as well as carefully defined uses of ordinary terms such as audience.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aversives</span> Unpleasant stimulus that induces changes in behavior through punishment

In psychology, aversives are unpleasant stimuli that induce changes in behavior via negative reinforcement or positive punishment. By applying an aversive immediately before or after a behavior, the likelihood of the target behavior occurring in the future may be reduced. Aversives can vary from being slightly unpleasant or irritating to physically, psychologically and/or emotionally damaging.

Ole Ivar Løvaas was a Norwegian-American clinical psychologist and professor at the University of California, Los Angeles. He is most well known for his research on what is now called applied behavior analysis (ABA) to teach autistic children through prompts, modeling, and positive reinforcement. His application of the science was also noted for its use of aversives (punishment) to reduce undesired behavior, which are no longer supported as a part of most ABA treatment plans.

Discrete trial training (DTT) is a technique used by practitioners of applied behavior analysis (ABA) that was developed by Ivar Lovaas at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA). DTT uses mass instruction and reinforcers that create clear contingencies to shape new skills. Often employed as an early intensive behavioral intervention (EIBI) for up to 25–40 hours per week for children with autism, the technique relies on the use of prompts, modeling, and positive reinforcement strategies to facilitate the child's learning. It previously used aversives to punish unwanted behaviors. DTT has also been referred to as the "Lovaas/UCLA model", "rapid motor imitation antecedent", "listener responding", "errorless learning", and "mass trials".

Behavior modification is a treatment approach that uses respondent and operant conditioning to change behavior. Based on methodological behaviorism, overt behavior is modified with (antecedent) stimulus control and consequences, including positive and negative reinforcement contingencies to increase desirable behavior, as well as positive and negative punishment, and extinction to reduce problematic behavior.

Extinction is a behavioral phenomenon observed in both operantly conditioned and classically conditioned behavior, which manifests itself by fading of non-reinforced conditioned response over time. When operant behavior that has been previously reinforced no longer produces reinforcing consequences, the behavior gradually returns to operant levels. In classical conditioning, when a conditioned stimulus is presented alone, so that it no longer predicts the coming of the unconditioned stimulus, conditioned responding gradually stops. For example, after Pavlov's dog was conditioned to salivate at the sound of a metronome, it eventually stopped salivating to the metronome after the metronome had been sounded repeatedly but no food came. Many anxiety disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder are believed to reflect, at least in part, a failure to extinguish conditioned fear.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Autism therapies</span> Therapy aimed at autistic people

Autism therapies include a wide variety of therapies that help people with autism, or their families. Such methods of therapy seek to aid autistic people in dealing with difficulties and increase their functional independence.

Contingency management (CM) is the application of the three-term contingency, which uses stimulus control and consequences to change behavior. CM originally derived from the science of applied behavior analysis (ABA), but it is sometimes implemented from a cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) framework as well.

Pivotal response treatment (PRT), also referred to as pivotal response training, is a naturalistic form of applied behavior analysis used as an early intervention for children with autism that was invented by Robert Koegel and Lynn Kern Koegel. PRT advocates contend that behavior hinges on "pivotal" behavioral skills—motivation and the ability to respond to multiple cues—and that development of these skills will result in collateral behavioral improvements. It's an alternative approach to ABA from the more common form, sometimes called discrete trial training (DTT).

Punishment is any change in a human or animal's surroundings which, occurring after a given behavior or response, reduces the likelihood of that behavior occurring again in the future. Reinforcement, referring to any behavior that increases the likelihood that a response will occurs, plays a large role in punishment. Motivating operations (MO) can be categorized in abolishing operations, decrease the effectiveness of the stimuli and establishing, increase the effectiveness of the stimuli. For example, a painful stimulus which would act as a punisher for most people may actually reinforce some behaviors of masochistic individuals.

The professional practice of behavior analysis is a domain of behavior analysis, the others being radical behaviorism, experimental analysis of behavior and applied behavior analysis. The practice of behavior analysis is the delivery of interventions to consumers that are guided by the principles of radical behaviorism and the research of both experimental and applied behavior analysis. Professional practice seeks to change specific behavior through the implementation of these principles. In many states, practicing behavior analysts hold a license, certificate, or registration. In other states, there are no laws governing their practice and, as such, the practice may be prohibited as falling under the practice definition of other mental health professionals. This is rapidly changing as behavior analysts are becoming more and more common.

The behavioral analysis of child development originates from John B. Watson's behaviorism.

Tact is a term that B.F. Skinner used to describe a verbal operant which is controlled by a nonverbal stimulus and is maintained by nonspecific social reinforcement (praise).

Functional behavior assessment (FBA) is an ongoing process of collecting information with a goal of identifying the environmental variables that control a problem or target behavior. The purpose of the assessment is to prove and aid the effectiveness of the interventions or treatments used to help eliminate the problem behavior. Through functional behavior assessments, we have learned that there are complex patterns to people's seemingly unproductive behaviors. It is important to not only pay attention to consequences that follow the behavior but also the antecedent that evokes the behavior. More work needs to be done in the future with functional assessment including balancing precision and efficiency, being more specific with variables involved and a more smooth transition from assessment to intervention.

Component analysis is the analysis of two or more independent variables which comprise a treatment modality. It is also known as a dismantling study.

References

  1. 1 2 3 Baer DM, Wolf MM, Risley TR (1968). "Some current dimensions of applied behavior analysis". Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 1 (1): 91–97. doi:10.1901/jaba.1968.1-91. PMC   1310980 . PMID   16795165.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Madden G, ed. (2013). APA Handbook of Behavior Analysis. APA Handbooks in Psychology Series; APA Reference Books Collection. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. ISBN   978-1-4338-1111-1. OCLC   771425225 . Retrieved 24 December 2014.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Roane HS, Ringdahl JE, Falcomata TS (2015). Clinical and Organizational Applications of Applied Behavior Analysis. Elsevier Science. ISBN   978-0-12-420249-8.[ page needed ]
  4. ↑ "Division 25 - About Behavior analysis". American Psychological Association . Retrieved 12 August 2024.
  5. ↑ Cooper JO, Heron TE, Heward WL (2019). Applied Behavior Analysis (3rd ed.). Pearson Education (US). p. 19. ISBN   978-0134752556.
  6. 1 2 Dillenburger K, Keenan M (June 2009). "None of the As in ABA stand for autism: dispelling the myths". Journal of Intellectual & Developmental Disability. 34 (2): 193–195. doi:10.1080/13668250902845244. PMID   19404840. S2CID   1818966.
  7. ↑ Baum WM (2011). "What is Radical Behaviorism? A Review of Jay Moore's Conceptual Foundations of Radical Behaviorism". Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. 95 (1): 119–126. doi:10.1901/jeab.2011.95-119. PMC   3014776 .
  8. ↑ Marr M (2009). "The natural selection: behavior analysis as a natural science" (PDF). European Journal of Behavior Analysis. 10 (2): 103–118. doi:10.1080/15021149.2009.11434313. S2CID   218768283. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 November 2014.
  9. ↑ Cooper JO, Heron TE, Heward WL (2019). Applied Behavior Analysis (3rd ed.). Pearson Education (US). p. 11. ISBN   978-0134752556.
  10. ↑ Watson JB (1913). "Psychology as the behaviorist views it". Psychological Review. 20 (2): 158–177. doi:10.1037/h0074428. hdl: 21.11116/0000-0001-9182-7 .
  11. 1 2 Morris EK, Altus DE, Smith NG (2013). "A study in the founding of applied behavior analysis through its publications". The Behavior Analyst. 35 (1): 73–107. doi:10.1007/BF03392293. PMC   3640891 . PMID   25729133.
  12. ↑ Cooper JO, Heron TE, Heward WL (2019). Applied Behavior Analysis (3rd ed.). Pearson Education (US). pp. 11–14. ISBN   978-0134752556.
  13. ↑ Ayllon T, Michael J (October 1959). "The psychiatric nurse as a behavioral engineer". Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. 2 (4): 323–334. doi:10.1901/jeab.1959.2-323. PMC   1403907 . PMID   13795356.
  14. 1 2 3 Eikeseth S, Smith T, Jahr E, Eldevik S (May 2007). "Outcome for children with autism who began intensive behavioral treatment between ages 4 and 7: a comparison controlled study". Behavior Modification. 31 (3): 264–278. doi:10.1007/BF03392239. PMC   3089401 . PMID   17438342.
  15. 1 2 3 Cooper JO, Heron TE, Heward WL (2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN   978-0-13-142113-4. Archived from the original on 9 February 2023. Retrieved 5 August 2017.
  16. ↑ Lovitt TC (1993). "A brief history of applied behavior analysis at the University of Washington". Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 26 (4): 563–567. doi:10.1901/jaba.1993.26-563. PMC   1297893 . PMID   16795814.
  17. ↑ "Identifying applied behavior analysis interventions" (PDF). Association of Professional Behavior Analysts. 25 July 2016. Retrieved 3 December 2018.
  18. ↑ Baer DM (1993). "A brief, selective history of the Department of Human Development and Family Life at the University of Kansas: The early years". Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 26 (4): 569–572. doi:10.1901/jaba.1993.26-569. PMC   1297894 . PMID   16795815.
  19. ↑ Larsson EV, Wright S (2011). "O. Ivar Lovaas (1927-2010". The Behavior Analyist. 34 (1): 111, 114. doi:10.1007/BF03392239. PMC   3089401 .
  20. ↑ Association for Behavior Analysis International. "Position Statement on the Use of CESS - 2022". Association for Behavior Analysis International.
  21. ↑ Mace FC, Critchfield TS (May 2010). "Translational research in behavior analysis: historical traditions and imperative for the future". Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. 93 (3): 293–312. doi:10.1901/jeab.2010.93-293. PMC   2861871 . PMID   21119847.
  22. ↑ Cooper JO, Heron TE (2019). Applied Behavior Analysis (3rd ed.). Pearson Education. p. 19. ISBN   978-0134752556.
  23. ↑ Cooper, Heron & Heward 1987 , p. 16
  24. ↑ Miltenberger R, Virues-Ortega J (1 May 2020). Modificación de conducta: Principios y Procedimientos (6th ed.). doi:10.26741/2020/miltenberger6e. S2CID   218936697.
  25. 1 2 Heward WL, Heron TE, Neef NA, Peterson SM, Sainato DM, Cartlege GY, Cardner III R, Peterson LD, Hersch SB, Dardig JC, eds. (2005). Focus on behavior analysis in education: Achievements, challenges, and opportunities. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall/Merrill. ISBN   978-0-13-111339-8.
  26. ↑ Cooper, Heron & Heward 1987 , p. 19
  27. ↑ "BACB CERTIFICANT DATA". Behavior Analyst Certification Board. Retrieved 14 May 2022.
  28. ↑ Matson JL, Hattier MA, Belva B (January–March 2012). "Treating adaptive living skills of persons with autism using applied behavior analysis: A review". Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders. 6 (1): 271–276. doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2011.05.008.
  29. ↑ Myers SM, Johnson CP (November 2007). "Management of children with autism spectrum disorders". Pediatrics. 120 (5): 1162–1182. doi: 10.1542/peds.2007-2362 . PMID   17967921.
  30. ↑ Wong C, Odom S, Hume K, Cox A, Fettig A, Kucharczyk S, et al. (2015). "Evidence-based practices for children, youth, and young adults with autism spectrum disorder: A comprehensive review". Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 45 (7): 1951–1966. doi:10.1007/s10803-014-2351-z. PMID   25578338.
  31. ↑ Kirkham P (1 April 2017). "'The line between intervention and abuse' – autism and applied behaviour analysis". History of the Human Sciences. 30 (2): 107–126. doi:10.1177/0952695117702571. S2CID   152017417.
  32. ↑ Bowman RA, Baker JP (March 2014). "Screams, slaps, and love: The strange birth of applied behavior analysis" . Pediatrics. 133 (3): 364–66. doi:10.1542/peds.2013-2583. PMID   24534411. S2CID   28137037.
  33. 1 2 Smith T, Eikeseth S (March 2011). "O. Ivar lovaas: pioneer of applied behavior analysis and intervention for children with autism". Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 41 (3): 375–378. doi:10.1007/s10803-010-1162-0. PMID   21153872. S2CID   207159059.
  34. ↑ Lovaas OI, Schaeffer B, Simmons JQ (1965). "Building social behavior in autistic children by use of electric shock" (PDF). Journal of Experimental Research in Personality. 1 (2): 99–109.
  35. ↑ Chance P (January 1974). "After you hit a child, you can't just get up and leave him; you are hooked to that kid interview with Ole Ivar Lovaas" (PDF). Psychology Today: 76–84. Retrieved 3 March 2022– via Neurodiversity.[ dead link ] (excerpt from Psychology Today)
  36. ↑ Lovaas OI (February 1987). "Behavioral treatment and normal educational and intellectual functioning in young autistic children". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 55 (1): 3–9. doi:10.1037/0022-006x.55.1.3. PMID   3571656.
  37. ↑ Sallows GO, Graupner TD (November 2005). "Intensive behavioral treatment for children with autism: four-year outcome and predictors". American Journal of Mental Retardation. 110 (6): 417–438. doi:10.1352/0895-8017(2005)110[417:IBTFCW]2.0.CO;2. PMID   16212446. S2CID   12305283.
  38. ↑ Cohen H, Amerine-Dickens M, Smith T (April 2006). "Early intensive behavioral treatment: replication of the UCLA model in a community setting". Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics. 27 (2 Suppl): S145–S155. doi:10.1097/00004703-200604002-00013. PMID   16685181. S2CID   15927226.
  39. ↑ Brignell A, Chenausky KV, Song H, Zhu J, Suo C, Morgan AT (November 2018). "Communication interventions for autism spectrum disorder in minimally verbal children". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2018 (11): CD012324. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD012324.pub2. PMC   6516977 . PMID   30395694.
  40. ↑ Kasari C, Shire S, Shih W, Landa R, Levato L, Smith T (June 2023). "Spoken language outcomes in limited language preschoolers with autism and global developmental delay: RCT of early intervention approaches". Autism Research. 16 (6): 1236–1246. doi:10.1002/aur.2932. PMC   10460274 . PMID   37070270.
  41. ↑ "Pediatric Feeding Therapy & ABA: General Info & Systematic Review". Nevada Autism Center, 7730 West Sahara Avenue #115, Las Vegas, NV 89117, (702) 660–2005. 3 April 2021. Retrieved 3 July 2022.
  42. ↑ Anderson CM, Freeman KA (Spring 2000). "Positive behavior support: Expanding the application of applied behavior analysis". The Behavior Analyst. 23 (1): 85–94. doi:10.1007/BF03392001. PMC   2731369 . PMID   22478340.
  43. ↑ Anderson CM, Kincaid D (2005). "Applying behavior analysis to school violence and discipline problems: Schoolwide positive behavior support". The Behavior Analyst. 28 (1): 49–63. doi:10.1007/BF03392103. PMC   2755344 . PMID   22478439.
  44. ↑ Waasdorp TE, Bradshaw CP, Leaf PJ (February 2012). "The impact of schoolwide positive behavioral interventions and supports on bullying and peer rejection: a randomized controlled effectiveness trial". Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine. 166 (2): 149–156. doi: 10.1001/archpediatrics.2011.755 . PMID   22312173.
  45. ↑ "What is PBIS?" . Retrieved 26 September 2024.
  46. 1 2 Morris KL, Slocum SK (October 2019). "Functional analysis and treatment of self-injurious feather plucking in a black vulture (Coragyps atratus)". Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 52 (4): 918–927. doi: 10.1002/jaba.639 . PMID   31523815. S2CID   54842798.
  47. ↑ Gottlieb D, Pomerantz O (2021). "Utilizing Behavior to Assess Welfare". Behavioral Biology of Laboratory Animals. pp. 51–64. doi:10.1201/9780429019517-5. ISBN   978-0-429-01951-7.
  48. ↑ Fernandez EJ, Martin AL (January 2023). "Applied behavior analysis and the zoo: Forthman and Ogden (1992) thirty years later". Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 56 (1): 29–54. doi:10.1002/jaba.969. PMC   10107353 . PMID   36562615. S2CID   255078968.
  49. ↑ Johnston JM, Pennypacker HS (1993a). Strategies and tactics of behavioral research. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Associates. p. 23. ISBN   978-0-8058-0905-3.
  50. ↑ Cooper, Heron & Heward 1987 , p. 26
  51. ↑ Cooper JO, Heron TE, Heward WL (2019). Applied Behavior Analysis (3rd ed.). Pearson Education (US). p. 36. ISBN   978-0134752556.
  52. ↑ Flora SR (2004). The Power of Reinforcement. SUNY Press. ISBN   978-0-7914-5916-4.[ page needed ]
  53. ↑ Northup J, Vollmer TR, Serrett K (1993). "Publication trends in 25 years of the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis". Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 26 (4): 527–537. doi:10.1901/jaba.1993.26-527. PMC   1297882 . PMID   16795803.
  54. ↑ Learning L. "Reinforcement and Punishment". Lumen Learning. OpenStax.
  55. ↑ Cooper, Heron & Heward 1987 , p. 355
  56. ↑ Reese EP (1966). The analysis of human operant behavior. Dubuque, Iowa: Brown.
  57. ↑ "BACB". Behavior Analyst Certification Board. Retrieved 10 May 2024.
  58. 1 2 Miltenberger RG (2008). Behavior modification: Principles and procedures (4th ed.). Thomson/Wadsworth. ISBN   978-0-495-09153-0.
  59. ↑ Moxley RA (2004). "Pragmatic selectionism. The philosophy of behavior analysis". The Behavior Analyst Today. 5: 108–25. doi:10.1037/h0100137.
  60. ↑ Cooper, Heron & Heward 1987 , p. 41
  61. ↑ Peterson P (2007). "Promoting generalization and maintenance of skills learned via natural language teaching". The Journal of Speech and Language Pathology – Applied Behavior Analysis. 4 (1): 90–131. doi:10.1037/h0100252.
  62. ↑ Johnston JM, Pennypacker HA (1993). Readings for Strategies and tactics of behavioral research (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, HF: Erlbaum. ISBN   978-0-8058-0906-0.
  63. ↑ Cooper JO, Heron TE (2019). Applied Behavior Analysis (3rd ed.). Pearson Education. p. 78. ISBN   978-0134752556.
  64. 1 2 Dowdy A, Nepo K, Miodus S, Quigley S, Sevon M (2023). "Operational Definitions, Observation, and Behavioral Recording in Applied Behavior Analysis". In Matson JL (ed.). Handbook of Applied Behavior Analysis for Children with Autism: Clinical Guide to Assessment and Treatment. Autism and Child Psychopathology Series. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 107–129. doi:10.1007/978-3-031-27587-6_6. ISBN   978-3-031-27587-6.
  65. ↑ Thomason-Sassi JL, Iwata BA, Neidert PL, Roscoe EM (March 2011). "Response Latency As An Index Of Response Strength During Functional Analyses Of Problem Behavior". Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 44 (1): 51–67. doi:10.1901/jaba.2011.44-51. PMC   3050468 . PMID   21541141.
  66. ↑ Pinkston JW (August 2022). "Operant responding: Beyond rate and interresponse times". Brain Research Bulletin. 186: 79–87. doi:10.1016/j.brainresbull.2022.05.009. PMID   35644432.
  67. ↑ "Module 5: Measurement". Applied Behavior Analysis (PSYCH 581). University of Massachusetts Amherst.
  68. 1 2 Prince K (13 March 2013). "The importance of measuring behavior". Behavioral Consulting of Tampa Bay, Inc. Archived from the original on 9 February 2023. Retrieved 3 July 2022.
  69. ↑ Cooper, Heron & Heward 1987 , p. 422
  70. ↑ Crowell CR, Anderson DC, Abel DM, Sergio JP (1988). "Task clarification, performance feedback, and social praise: Procedures for improving the customer service of bank tellers". Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 21 (1): 65–71. doi:10.1901/jaba.1988.21-65. PMC   1286094 . PMID   16795713.
  71. ↑ MacDuff GS, Krantz PJ, McClannahan LE (1993). "Teaching children with autism to use photographic activity schedules: maintenance and generalization of complex response chains". Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 26 (1): 89–97. doi:10.1901/jaba.1993.26-89. PMC   1297722 . PMID   8473261.
  72. ↑ Krantz PJ, McClannahan LE (1993). "Teaching children with autism to initiate to peers: effects of a script-fading procedure". Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 26 (1): 121–132. doi:10.1901/jaba.1993.26-121. PMC   1297725 . PMID   8473251.
  73. ↑ Bergan JR (1977). Behavioral Consultation. Merrill. ISBN   978-0-675-08488-8.
  74. ↑ Kratochwill TR, Van Someren KR, Sheridan SM (1989). "Training behavioral consultants: a competency-based model to teach interview skills". Professional School Psychology. 4: 41–58. doi:10.1037/h0090570.
  75. ↑ Ivey AE, Normington CJ, Miller CD, Morrill WH, Haase RF (1968). "Microcounseling and attending behavior: an approach to prepracticum counselor training". J Couns Psychol . 15 (5, pt. 2): 1–12. doi:10.1037/h0026129.
  76. ↑ Ivey AE, Ivey MB (1998). Intentional Interviewing and Counseling: Facilitating Client Development in a Multicultural Society (4th ed.). Brooks/Cole. ISBN   978-0-534-35756-6.
  77. ↑ Iwata BA, Wong SE, Riordan MM, Dorsey MF, Lau MM (1982). "Assessment and training of clinical interviewing skills: analogue analysis and field replication". Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 15 (2): 191–203. doi:10.1901/jaba.1982.15-191. PMC   1308264 . PMID   7118753.
  78. ↑ Littrell JM (2001). "Allen E. Ivey: transforming counseling theory and practice". J Couns Dev. 79 (1): 105–18. doi:10.1002/j.1556-6676.2001.tb01949.x . Retrieved 4 January 2008.
  79. ↑ McLennan J (1994). "The skills-based model of counselling training: a review of the evidence". Aust Psychol. 29 (2): 79–88. doi:10.1080/00050069408257328.
  80. ↑ Krumboltz JD, Mitchell AM, Jones GB (1980). "A social learning theory of career selection". In Wentling TL (ed.). Annual Review of Research in Vocational Education. Vol. 1. Office of Vocational Education Research, University of Illinois. pp. 259–82.
  81. ↑ Englemann S (1968). "Relating operant techniques to programming and teaching". J Sch Psychol. 6 (2): 89–96. doi:10.1016/0022-4405(68)90002-2.
  82. ↑ Malott RW, Kohler KT (2021). Principles of Behavior.
  83. ↑ Weiss KM (March 1978). "A comparison of forward and backward procedures for the acquisition of response chains in humans". Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. 29 (2): 255–259. doi:10.1901/jeab.1978.29-255. PMC   1332753 . PMID   16812053.
  84. ↑ Cooper JO, Heron TE, Heward WL (2019). Applied Behavior Analysis (3rd ed.). Pearson Education (US). pp. 563–569. ISBN   978-0134752556.
  85. ↑ Ontario Ministry of Education (2007). Effective Educational Practices for Students with ASD. Queen's Printer for Ontario.
  86. ↑ Barnett D, Bauer A, Bell S, Elliott N, Haski H, Barkley E, et al. (2006). "Preschool Intervention Scripts: Lessons from 20 years of Research and Practice". Journal of Speech-Language Pathology and Applied Behavior Analysis. 2 (2): 158–81. doi:10.1037/h0100216.
  87. ↑ Martin G, Pear J (2003). Behavior Modification: What is it and how to do it? (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River NJ: Pearson Education.
  88. ↑ VanDerHeyden AM, Snyder P, DiCarlo CF, Stricklin SB, Vagianos LA (2002). "Comparison of within-stimulus and extra-stimulus prompts to increase targeted play behaviors in an inclusive early intervention program". Behav Analyst Today. 3 (2): 188–97. doi:10.1037/h0099967.
  89. ↑ Chesnut M, Williamson PN, Morrow JE (2003). "The use of visual cues to teach receptive skills to children with severe auditory discrimination deficits". Behav Analyst Today. 4 (2): 212–24. doi:10.1037/h0100120.
  90. ↑ LeBlanc LA, Hagoplan LP, Maglieri KA, Poling A (2002). "Decreasing the intensity of reinforcement-based interventions for reducing behavior: conceptual issues and a proposed model for clinical practice". Behav Analyst Today. 3 (3): 289–300. doi:10.1037/h0099991.
  91. ↑ Cautilli J (2005). "Brief report: application of proposed model of decreasing reinforcement intensity". Int J Behav Consult Ther. 1 (1): 21–36. doi:10.1037/h0100731.
  92. ↑ Bailey J, Burch M (2016). Ethics for Behavior Analysts. doi:10.4324/9781315669212. ISBN   978-1-317-36344-6.
  93. ↑ Alberto P, Troutman AC (2006). Applied Behavior Analysis for Teachers. Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall. ISBN   978-0-13-117994-3.[ page needed ]
  94. ↑ Osnes PG, Lieblein T (2003). "An explicit technology of generalization". Behav Analyst Today. 3 (4): 364–74. doi:10.1037/h0099994.
  95. ↑ Kemp SM, Eckerman DA (2002). "Simulating a shaping task". Behav Analyst Today. 3 (2): 166–78. doi:10.1037/h0099975.
  96. ↑ D'Ateno P, Mangiapanello K, Taylor BA (2002). "Using video modeling to teach complex play sequences to a preschooler with autism". J Posit Behav Interv. 5 (1): 5–11. doi:10.1177/10983007030050010801. S2CID   146586695.
  97. ↑ Corbett BA, Abdullah M (2005). "Video modeling: why does it work for children with autism?". J Early Intensive Behav Interv. 2 (1): 2–8. doi:10.1037/h0100294. S2CID   14762829.
  98. ↑ Gilmore H (20 February 2020). "Shaping, Chaining, & Task Analysis with an Example from Everyday Life".
  99. ↑ Hayes SC, Pierson H (2005). "Acceptance and Commitment Therapy". Encyclopedia of Cognitive Behavior Therapy: 1–2. doi:10.1007/0-306-48581-8_1. ISBN   0-306-48580-X.
  100. ↑ Kelly AD, Kelly ME (March 2022). "Acceptance and Commitment Training in Applied Behavior Analysis: Where Have You Been All My Life?". Behavior Analysis in Practice. 15 (1): 43–54. doi:10.1007/s40617-021-00587-3. PMC   8320414 . PMID   34341679.
  101. ↑ Tryon WW (1976). "A system of behavioral diagnosis". Prof Psychol . 7 (4): 495–506. doi:10.1037/0735-7028.7.4.495.
  102. ↑ Shapiro ES, Browder DM (1990). "Behavioral Assessment". Handbook of Behavior Modification with the Mentally Retarded. pp. 93–122. doi:10.1007/978-1-4899-2501-5_5. ISBN   978-1-4899-2503-9.
  103. ↑ Romano JM, Jensen MP, Turner JA, Good AB, Hops H (2000). "Chronic pain patient-partner interactions: further support for a behavioral model of chronic pain". Behav Ther. 31 (3): 415–40. doi:10.1016/S0005-7894(00)80023-4.
  104. ↑ Malott RW (1992). "A theory of rule-governed behavior and organizational behavior management". J Organ Behav Manage. 12 (2): 45–65. doi:10.1300/J075v12n02_03.
  105. ↑ Malott RW, Shimamune S, Malott ME (1992). "Rule-governed behavior and organizational behavior management: an analysis of interventions". J Organ Behav Manage. 12 (2): 103–16. doi:10.1300/J075v12n02_09.
  106. ↑ Hayes SC, Brownstein AJ, Zettle RD, Rosenfarb I, Korn Z (May 1986). "Rule-governed behavior and sensitivity to changing consequences of responding". Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. 45 (3): 237–256. doi:10.1901/jeab.1986.45-237. PMC   1348236 . PMID   16812448.
  107. ↑ Gerhardt PF, Weiss MJ, Delmolino L (2003). "Treatment of severe aggression in an adolescent with autism: non-contingent reinforcement and functional communication training". Behav Analyst Today. 4 (4): 386–94. doi:10.1037/h0100124.
  108. ↑ Lei J, Ventola P (June 2017). "Pivotal response treatment for autism spectrum disorder: current perspectives". Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment. 13: 1613–1626. doi: 10.2147/NDT.S120710 . PMC   5488784 . PMID   28790824.
  109. ↑ Koegel RL, Koegel LK (2019). Pivotal response treatment for autism spectrum disorders (PDF) (Second ed.). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. ISBN   9781681252988 . Retrieved 29 November 2024.
  110. ↑ Soloman A (23 May 2008). "The Autism Rights Movement". New York Magazine. Retrieved 8 March 2016.
  111. ↑ Cernius Y (13 May 2022). "Commentary: The autistic community is having a reckoning with ABA therapy. We should listen". Fortune. Retrieved 15 May 2022.
  112. ↑ Cassidy S, Bradley L, Shaw R, Baron-Cohen S (2018). "Risk markers for suicidality in autistic adults". Molecular Autism. 9: 42. doi: 10.1186/s13229-018-0226-4 . PMC   6069847 . PMID   30083306.
  113. ↑ Cook J, Hull L, Crane L, Mandy W (November 2021). "Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review". Clinical Psychology Review. 89: 102080. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2021.102080. PMID   34563942. S2CID   237942158.
  114. ↑
  115. ↑ "For Whose Benefit? Evidence, Ethics, and Effectiveness of Autism Interventions" (PDF). Autistic Self Advocacy Network . 12 June 2021. Retrieved 22 May 2024.
  116. ↑ DeVita-Raeburn E (11 August 2016). "Is the Most Common Therapy for Autism Cruel?". The Atlantic .
  117. ↑ "EUCAP Position Statement on ABA". EUCAP. 2 April 2024. Retrieved 8 August 2024.
  118. 1 2 3 McGill O, Robinson A (October 2020). "'Recalling hidden harms': autistic experiences of childhood applied behavioural analysis (ABA)" (PDF). Advances in Autism. 7 (4): 269–282. doi:10.1108/AIA-04-2020-0025. S2CID   225282499.
  119. ↑ Anderson LK (2023). "Autistic experiences of applied behavior analysis". Autism. 27 (3): 737–750. doi:10.1177/13623613221118216. PMID   35999706.
  120. 1 2 Bottema-Beutel K, Crowley S (2021). "Pervasive Undisclosed Conflicts of Interest in Applied Behavior Analysis Autism Literature". Frontiers in Psychology. 12: 676303. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.676303 . PMC   8131529 . PMID   34025538.
  121. ↑ Reichow B, Hume K, Barton EE, Boyd BA (May 2018). "Early intensive behavioral intervention (EIBI) for young children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD)". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 5 (5): CD009260. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD009260.pub3. PMC   6494600 . PMID   29742275.
  122. ↑ Sandbank M, Bottema-Beutel K, Crowley S, Cassidy M, Dunham K, Feldman JI, et al. (January 2020). "Project AIM: Autism intervention meta-analysis for studies of young children". Psychological Bulletin. 146 (1): 1–29. doi:10.1037/bul0000215. PMC   8783568 . PMID   31763860.
  123. ↑ Davis R, Den Houting J, Nordahl-Hansen A, Fletcher-Watson S (2022). "Helping Autistic Children". The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of Childhood Social Development. pp. 729–746. doi:10.1002/9781119679028.ch39. ISBN   978-1-119-67898-4.
  124. 1 2 3 4 Sandoval-Norton AH, Shkedy G, Shkedy D (June 2021). "Long-term ABA Therapy Is Abusive: A Response to Gorycki, Ruppel, and Zane". Advances in Neurodevelopmental Disorders. 5 (2): 126–134. doi: 10.1007/s41252-021-00201-1 . S2CID   234848417.
  125. ↑ Shreck KA, Metz B, Mulick JA, Smith A (2000). "Making it fit: A Provocative Look at Models of Early Intensive Behavioral Intervention for Children with Autism". The Behavior Analyst Today. 1 (3): 27–32. doi:10.1037/h0099886.
  126. ↑ Weiss MJ, Delmolino L (2006). "The Relationship Between Early Learning Rates and Treatment Outcome For Children With Autism Receiving Intensive Home-Based Applied Behavior Analysis". The Behavior Analyst Today. 7 (1): 96–105. doi:10.1037/h0100140.
  127. 1 2 3 Wilkenfeld DA, McCarthy AM (2020). "Ethical Concerns with Applied Behavior Analysis for Autism Spectrum "Disorder"". Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal. 30 (1): 31–69. doi:10.1353/ken.2020.0000. PMID   32336692. S2CID   216557299.
  128. ↑ Kupferstein H (2 January 2018). "Evidence of increased PTSD symptoms in autistics exposed to applied behavior analysis". Advances in Autism. 4 (1): 19–29. doi:10.1108/AIA-08-2017-0016. S2CID   4638346.
  129. ↑ Sandoval-Norton AH, Shkedy G, Shkedy D (1 January 2019). Rushby JA (ed.). "How much compliance is too much compliance: Is long-term ABA therapy abuse?". Cogent Psychology. 6 (1): 1641258. doi: 10.1080/23311908.2019.1641258 . S2CID   199041640.
  130. ↑ Spreat S (2012). "Behavioral treatments for children with ASDs". The Autism Spectrum. pp. 239–257. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511978616.011. ISBN   978-0-521-11687-9.
  131. ↑ Cameron M (14 April 2014). Aversive comments – part 1 (PDF) (Report). United States Food and Drug Administration. p. 4. FDA-2014-N-0238. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 January 2017. Retrieved 10 October 2020.
  132. ↑ Skinner BF (17 November 2014). Verbal behavior. Echo Point Books and Media. ISBN   978-1-62654-014-9. OCLC   931706319.
  133. ↑ Leaf JB, Ross RK, Cihon JH, Weiss MJ (4 October 2018). "Evaluating Kupferstein's claims of the relationship of behavioral intervention to PTSS for individuals with autism". Advances in Autism. 4 (3): 122–129. doi: 10.1108/AIA-02-2018-0007 .
  134. ↑ Leaf JB, Townley-Chochran D, Cihon JH, Mitchell E, Leaf R, Taubman M, et al. (June 2019). "Descriptive Analysis of the Use of Punishment-Based Techniques with Children Diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder". Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities. 54 (2): 107–118. JSTOR   26663970.
  135. ↑ Leaf JB, Cihon JH, Leaf R, McEachin J, Liu N, Russell N, et al. (June 2022). "Concerns About ABA-Based Intervention: An Evaluation and Recommendations". Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 52 (6): 2838–2853. doi:10.1007/s10803-021-05137-y. PMC   9114057 . PMID   34132968. S2CID   235449575.
  136. ↑ Gorycki KA, Ruppel PR, Zane T (31 December 2020). "Is long-term ABA therapy abusive: A response to Sandoval-Norton and Shkedy". Cogent Psychology. 7 (1). doi:10.1080/23311908.2020.1823615. hdl: 1808/31691 .

Sources

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.