Feather-plucking

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A salmon-crested cockatoo, showing signs of feather-plucking on its chest Moluccan Cockatoo (Cacatua moluccensis) -feather plucking.jpg
A salmon-crested cockatoo, showing signs of feather-plucking on its chest

Feather-plucking, sometimes termed feather-picking, feather damaging behaviour or pterotillomania, [1] is a maladaptive, behavioural disorder commonly seen in captive birds that chew, bite or pluck their own feathers with their beak, resulting in damage to the feathers and occasionally the skin. [2] [3] It is especially common among parrots (order Psittaciformes), with an estimated 10% of captive parrots exhibiting the disorder. [4] The areas of the body that are mainly pecked or plucked are the more accessible regions such as the neck, chest, flank, inner thigh and ventral wing area. Contour and down feathers are generally identified as the main target, although in some cases, tail and flight feathers are affected. Although feather-plucking shares characteristics with feather pecking commonly seen in commercial poultry, the two behaviours are currently considered to be distinct as in the latter, the birds peck at and pull out the feathers of other individuals.

Contents

Feather-plucking has characteristics that are similar to trichotillomania, an impulse control disorder in humans, and hair-pulling which has been reported in mice, guinea pigs, rabbits, sheep and muskox, dogs and cats, [5] leading to suggestions for a comparative psychology approach to alleviating these problems. [4] [6]

Causes

Captive parrots, such as the golden parakeet, are particularly prone to the problem. Guaruba guarouba -National Aviary -USA-6-2c.jpg
Captive parrots, such as the golden parakeet, are particularly prone to the problem.

Feather-plucking is generally regarded as a multifactorial disorder, although three main aspects of bird keeping may be related to the problem: (1) cage size often restricts the bird's movements; (2) cage design and barrenness of the environment often do not provide sufficient behavioural opportunities to meet the bird's sensitivity, intelligence and behavioural needs; and (3) solitary housing, which fails to meet the high social needs of the bird.

Social and environmental factors

Early experience

Feather-plucking is often attributed to a variety of social causes that may include poor socialisation or absence of parents during the rearing period and because of this, the individual subsequently expressing the disorder fails to learn appropriate preening behaviour. Several studies have focused on the importance of rearing methods (wild-caught, parent-raised, hand-reared). [7] [8]

Isolation

In captivity, pet birds are often kept isolated from conspecifics whereas in the wild they would form stable, sometimes large, flocks. These birds may not deal well with a solitary lifestyle. Deprivation of a social or sexual partner may lead to 'separation anxiety', ‘loneliness’, ‘boredom’, sexual ‘frustration’ and ‘attention-seeking’ behaviour. These factors may all contribute to feather-plucking, [9] although no empirical studies have been performed to test these ideas.

Barren environment

Increasing environmental complexity can reduce feather-plucking, [10] however, other studies have only managed to stabilise existing plumage problems. [11]

Re-directed foraging behaviour

Increasing foraging opportunities can markedly reduce feather-plucking. This has many similarities with the redirected foraging behaviour hypothesis proposed for feather pecking in commercial poultry. Birds in captivity are usually given energy-dense, readily available food that is consumed rapidly, whereas in the wild they would have to spend many hours foraging to find this. It is considered that a combination of a barren environment and the 'excess' foraging time available is then spent redirecting foraging to feathers of other individuals. When 18 feather-plucking grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus) were provided with food in pipe feeders rather than bowls, their foraging time significantly increased by 73 minutes each day and their plumage improved noticeably within one month. [1]

Stress

Feather-plucking has also been interpreted as a coping strategy for negative affective states e.g. stress, loneliness, boredom, induced by inappropriate social or environmental factors. [12] Findings in favour of the stress hypothesis include a study in which distinctive room position affected occurrence of the disorder. Orange-winged amazon parrots (Amazona amazonica) that were housed in proximity and direct line of sight to the door showed significantly more feather-plucking compared to individuals housed further away from the door, indicating presence of stressors as a causal factor. [13] In addition, parrots that feather-pluck have been found to have higher levels of corticosterone, [14] a hormone secreted by many animals when they are exposed to chronic stress. It has also been suggested that long day-lengths can cause feather-plucking; [9] presumably this could relate to birds becoming overly tired and therefore stressed.

Medical and physical factors

More accessible regions of the body, including the breast, flanks, wings, thighs and neck, are generally most often attacked. Cockatiel with plucked shoulder.jpg
More accessible regions of the body, including the breast, flanks, wings, thighs and neck, are generally most often attacked.

Many medical causes underlying the development of feather-plucking have been proposed including allergies (contact/inhalation/food), endoparasites, ectoparasites, skin irritation (e.g. by toxic substances, low humidity levels), skin desiccation, hypothyroidism, obesity, pain, reproductive disease, systemic illness (in particular liver and renal disease), hypocalcemia, psittacine beak and feather disease (PBFD), proventricular dilatation syndrome, colic, giardiasis, psittacosis, airsacculitis, heavy metal toxicosis, bacterial or fungal folliculitis, genetic feather abnormalities, nutritional deficiencies (in particular vitamin A) and dietary imbalances, and neoplasia. [4] [15] For many of the above-mentioned factors, a causative relationship or correlation has not been established and may therefore merely be the result of coincidental findings.

Approximately 50% of parrots exhibiting feather damaging behaviour have been diagnosed as having inflammatory skin disease based on paired skin and feather biopsies. [16] The birds try to relieve itching by grooming their feathers, but this often leads to over-grooming and eventually feather-plucking.

Neurobiological factors

Little is currently known on brain dysfunction in feather-plucking. However, it may be hypothesized that abnormal brain function is involved, especially in those cases that appear sensitive to treatment with behavioural intervention and environmental changes. [4] Psychotropic therapy for birds has been suggested as treatment for feather-plucking although responses seem variable. [9]

Genetic factors

In orange-winged amazon parrots, a heritability estimate of 1.14 ± 0.27 was found for feather-plucking, indicating that a genetic basis exists. [13] This study, however, only involved analysis of full siblings and a small number of birds, explaining the heritability value of greater than 1. Quantitative trait loci (QTL) analysis could provide more insight in possible genetic markers that are involved in feather-plucking.

Treatment

Veterinary treatment [9] [15] [17] [18] or an improved and more stimulating environment may help birds suffering from feather-plucking. Organic bitter sprays are sold in pet stores to discourage plucking, especially of newly grown feathers, although this may make general beak-based grooming difficult for the animal. This is not recommended since it does not address the real reason why the bird is picking feathers. Likewise, physical items such as collars or vests, which are commercially available or may be improvised by the parrot's owner from items such as pipe insulation tubes (placed around the neck) or socks (cut into a vest which the bird is made to wear) may prevent the bird from plucking by providing a barrier which makes the act more difficult, but does not deal with the underlying cause of the feather-plucking. [19]

Studies have shown that administration of haloperidol to affected birds will cause a long-term reduction in obsessive feather-plucking, however the birds always relapsed as soon as the medication was withdrawn. Clomipramine is also linked to minor long-term improvement for the condition, although it is not generally as effective as haloperidol. [20]

Administration of fluoxetine is also known to reduce feather-plucking activity but only for very short periods of time, with the birds generally relapsing after several weeks of therapy and requiring a continually increasing dose of the medication. Use of fluoxetine for this condition is also linked to major relapse of feather-plucking when the medication is withdrawn, and it is known to cause severe psychological side-effects in certain birds. [20]

See also

Related Research Articles

<i>Psittacus</i> Genus of birds

Psittacus is a genus of African grey parrots in the subfamily Psittacinae. It contains two species: the grey parrot and the Timneh parrot.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cockatoo</span> Any bird in the family Cacatuidae

A cockatoo is any of the 21 species of parrots belonging to the family Cacatuidae, the only family in the superfamily Cacatuoidea. Along with the Psittacoidea and the Strigopoidea, they make up the order Psittaciformes. The family has a mainly Australasian distribution, ranging from the Philippines and the eastern Indonesian islands of Wallacea to New Guinea, the Solomon Islands and Australia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sulphur-crested cockatoo</span> Species of bird

The sulphur-crested cockatoo is a relatively large white cockatoo found in wooded habitats in Australia, New Guinea, and some of the islands of Indonesia. They can be locally very numerous, leading to them sometimes being considered pests. A highly intelligent bird, they are well known in aviculture, although they can be demanding pets.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dog aggression</span> Behavior in dogs

Dog aggression expressed by dogs is considered to be normal behaviour and various types of aggression are influenced by a dog's environment and genetic predisposition. Dogs commonly display possessive aggression when defending resources or themselves.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cribbing (horse)</span> Stable vice in horses

Cribbing is a form of stereotypy (equine oral stereotypic behaviour), otherwise known as wind sucking or crib-biting. Cribbing is considered to be an abnormal, compulsive behavior seen in some horses, and is often labelled a stable vice. The major factors that cause cribbing include stress, stable management, genetic and gastrointestinal irritability.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Captivity (animal)</span> Animal being held by humans

Animal captivity is the confinement of domestic and wild animals. More specifically, animals that are held by humans and prevented from escaping are said to be in captivity. The term animal captivity is usually applied to wild animals that are held in confinement, but this term may also be used generally to describe the keeping of domesticated animals such as livestock or pets. This may include, for example, animals in farms, private homes, zoos, and laboratories. Animal captivity may be categorized according to the particular motives, objectives, and conditions of the confinement.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Psittacine beak and feather disease</span> Viral disease affecting parrots

Psittacine beak and feather disease (PBFD) is a viral disease affecting all Old World and New World parrots. The causative virus—beak and feather disease virus (BFDV)—belongs to the taxonomic genus Circovirus, family Circoviridae. It attacks the feather follicles and the beak and claw matrices of the bird, causing progressive feather, claw and beak malformation and necrosis. In later stages of the disease, feather shaft constriction occurs, hampering development until eventually all feather growth stops. It occurs in an acutely fatal form and a chronic form.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">White-crowned parrot</span> Species of bird

The white-crowned parrot, also known as the white-crowned pionus in aviculture, is a small parrot which is a resident breeding species ranging from eastern Mexico to western Panama.

Animal psychopathology is the study of mental or behavioral disorders in non-human animals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Parrot</span> Order of birds

Parrots, also known as psittacines, are birds of the order Psittaciformes and are found mostly in tropical and subtropical regions. They are made up of four families that contain roughly 410 species in 101 genera. The four families are: Psittaculidae, the Psittacidae, the Cacatuoidea (cockatoos), and the Strigopidae. One-third of all parrot species are threatened by extinction, with a higher aggregate extinction risk than any other comparable bird group. Parrots have a generally pantropical distribution with several species inhabiting temperate regions as well. The greatest diversity of parrots is in South America and Australasia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dust bathing</span> Animal behavior

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Separation anxiety in dogs</span>

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Feather pecking</span> When one bird repeatedly pecks at the feathers of another

Feather pecking is a behavioural problem that occurs most frequently amongst domestic hens reared for egg production, although it does occur in other poultry such as pheasants, turkeys, ducks, broiler chickens and is sometimes seen in farmed ostriches. Feather pecking occurs when one bird repeatedly pecks at the feathers of another. The levels of severity may be recognized as mild and severe. Gentle feather pecking is considered to be a normal investigatory behaviour where the feathers of the recipient are hardly disturbed and therefore does not represent a problem. In severe feather pecking, however, the feathers of the recipient are grasped, pulled at and sometimes removed. This is painful for the receiving bird and can lead to trauma of the skin or bleeding, which in turn can lead to cannibalism and death.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Abnormal behaviour of birds in captivity</span>

Abnormal behavior of birds in captivity has been found to occur among both domesticated and wild birds. Abnormal behavior can be defined in several ways. Statistically, 'abnormal' is when the occurrence, frequency or intensity of a behaviour varies statistically significantly, either more or less, from the normal value. This means that theoretically, almost any behaviour could become 'abnormal' in an individual. Less formally, 'abnormal' includes any activity judged to be outside the normal behaviour pattern for captive birds of that particular class or age. For example, running rather than flying may be a normal behaviour and regularly observed in one species, however, in another species it might be normal but becomes 'abnormal' if it reaches a high frequency, or in another species it is rarely observed and any incidence is considered 'abnormal'. This article does not include 'one-off' behaviours performed by individual birds that might be considered abnormal for that individual, unless these are performed repeatedly by other individuals in the species and are recognised as part of the ethogram of that species.

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Pacheco's disease is a highly infectious and acute bird disease caused by a species of herpesvirus, Psittacid alphaherpesvirus 1 (PsHV-1). All psittacine species are susceptible to Pacheco's disease, mainly those in zoological collections and aviaries in any geographic regions. Specifically, Pacheco's disease has a high occurrence rate in Amazon parrots, followed by African grey parrots, parrots, macaws, cockatoos and conures. Due to a very high mortality rate within these susceptible species, concerns are brought to companion bird markets and breeders.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Timneh parrot</span> Species of bird

The Timneh parrot, also known as the Timneh grey parrot or Timneh African grey parrot, is a West African parrot. Formerly classified as a subspecies of the grey parrot Psittacus erithacus timneh, it is now considered a full species Psittacus timneh. In aviculture, it is often referred to by the initials TAG and is commonly kept as a companion parrot.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Grey parrot</span> Species of bird

The grey parrot, also known as the Congo grey parrot, Congo African grey parrot or African grey parrot, is an Old World parrot in the family Psittacidae. The Timneh parrot (Psittacus timneh) once was identified as a subspecies of the grey parrot, but has since been elevated to a full species.

In zoology, a florivore is an animal which mainly eats products of flowers. Florivores are types of herbivores, yet within the feeding behaviour of florivory, there are a range of other more specific feeding behaviours, including, but not limited to:

References

  1. 1 2 Lumeij, Johannes T.; Hommers, Caroline J. (2008). "Foraging 'enrichment' as treatment for Pterotillomania" (PDF). Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 111 (1–2): 85–94. doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2007.05.015. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-11-23. Retrieved 2011-03-31.
  2. ↑ "Feather Plucking in Pet Birds". Beauty of Birds. 2011. Retrieved December 21, 2020.
  3. ↑ Steeves, Susan A. (December 21, 2005). "Parrots' behaviors mirror human mental disorders". Purdue University. Retrieved December 21, 2020.
  4. 1 2 3 4 van Zeeland, Y.R.A.; Spruit, B.M.; Rodenburg, T.B.; et al. (2009). "Feather damaging behaviour in parrots: A review with consideration of comparative aspects". Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 121 (2): 75–95. doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2009.09.006.
  5. ↑ Reinhardt, V. (2005). "Hair pulling: a review". Laboratory Animals. 39 (4): 361–369. doi: 10.1258/002367705774286448 . PMID   16197702.
  6. ↑ Bordnick, P.S.; Thyer, B.A.; Ritchie, B.W.; et al. (1994). "Feather picking disorder and trichotillomania: An avian model of human psychopathology". Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry. 25 (3): 189–196. doi:10.1016/0005-7916(94)90019-1. PMID   7852601.
  7. ↑ Schmid, R.; Doherr, M.G.; Steiger, A. (2006). "The influence of the breeding method on the behaviour of adult African grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus)" (PDF). Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 98 (3–4): 293–307. doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2005.09.002. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-25.
  8. ↑ Luescher, A.U.; Sheehan, K. (2005). "Rearing Environment and Behavioural Development of Psittacine Birds". Current Issues and Research: 35–41.
  9. 1 2 3 4 Chitty, J (1 October 2003). "Feather plucking in psittacine birds 2. Social, environmental and behavioural considerations". In Practice. 25 (9): 550–555. doi:10.1136/inpract.25.9.550. S2CID   72821875.
  10. ↑ Meehan, C.L.; Millam, J.R.; Mench, J.A. (2003). "Foraging opportunity and increased physical complexity both prevent and reduce psychogenic feather picking by young amazon parrots". Appl. Animal Behav. Sci. 80: 71–85. doi:10.1016/s0168-1591(02)00192-2.
  11. ↑ van Hock, C.S.; King, C.E. (1997). "Causation and Influence of Environmental Enrichment on Feather Picking of the Crimson-Bellied Conure (Pyrrhura perlata perlata)". Zoo Biology. 16 (2): 161–172. doi:10.1002/(sici)1098-2361(1997)16:2<161::aid-zoo6>3.0.co;2-8.
  12. ↑ Seibert, L.M. (2006). "Feather-picking disorder in pet birds". In Luescher, A.U. (ed.). Manual of Parrot Behavior . Oxford, England, UK: Blackwell Publishing. pp.  255–265. ISBN   978-0813827490.
  13. 1 2 Garner, J.P.; Meehan, C.L.; Famula, T.R.; Mench, J.A. (January 2006). "Genetic, environmental, and neighbouring effects on the severity of stereotypies and feather-picking in Orange-winged Amazon parrots (Amazona amazonica): an epidemiological study". Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 96 (1–2): 153–168. doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2005.09.009.
  14. ↑ Owen, D.J; Lane, J.M. (2006). "High levels of corticosterone in feather-plucking parrots (Psittacus erithacus)". Veterinary Record. 158 (23): 804–805. doi:10.1136/vr.158.23.804. PMID   16766730. S2CID   7447618.
  15. 1 2 Chitty, J. (1 September 2003). "Feather plucking in psittacine birds 1. Presentation and medical investigation". In Practice. 25 (8): 484–493. doi:10.1136/inpract.25.8.484. S2CID   72038007.
  16. ↑ Garner, M.M.; Clubb, S.L.; Mitchell, M.A.; et al. (2008). "Feather-picking psittacines: Histopathology and species trends" (PDF). Veterinary Pathology. 45 (3): 401–408. doi:10.1354/vp.45-3-401. PMID   18487502. S2CID   1023194. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-12-03. Retrieved 2011-03-31.
  17. ↑ Mertens, P.A. (1997). Mills, D.S.; Heath, S.E. (eds.). Pharmacological treatment of feather picking in pet birds (PDF). 1st International Conference on Veterinary Behavioural Medicine. Birmingham, UK. pp. 209–213. ISBN   0900767979.
  18. ↑ Eatwell, K (2009). "How to...investigate and treat a feather plucking parrot". Journal of Small Animal Practise. 50 (12): 12–16. PMID   19972639.
  19. ↑ "Feather Plucking in Pet Birds | Beauty of Birds". 11 March 2023.
  20. 1 2 Mertens, Petra (1997). "Pharmacological Treatment Of Feather Picking In Pet Birds" (PDF).

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