Discrete trial training

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Discrete trial training (DTT) is a technique used by practitioners of applied behavior analysis (ABA) that was developed by Ivar Lovaas at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA). DTT uses mass instruction and reinforcers that create clear contingencies to shape new skills. Often employed as an early intensive behavioral intervention (EIBI) for up to 25–40 hours per week for autistic children, the technique relies on the use of prompts, modeling, and positive reinforcement strategies to facilitate the child's learning. It previously used aversives to punish unwanted behaviors. DTT has also been referred to as the "Lovaas/UCLA model", [1] "rapid motor imitation antecedent", [2] "listener responding", [3] [4] [5] "errorless learning", and "mass trials". [6]

Contents

Many intensive behavioral interventions rely heavily on discrete trial teaching (DTT) methods, which use stimulus-response-reward techniques to teach foundational skills such as attention, compliance, and imitation. [7] While DTT is effective for teaching foundational skills such as attention, compliance, and imitation, children may struggle to apply these skills to real-world settings. [8] These students are also taught with naturalistic teaching procedures to help generalize these skills. In functional assessment, a common technique, a teacher formulates a clear description of a problem behavior, identifies antecedents, consequences, and other environmental factors that influence and maintain the behavior, develops hypotheses about what occasions and maintains the behavior, and collects observations to support the hypotheses. [8] A few more-comprehensive ABA programs use multiple assessment and intervention methods individually and dynamically. [9]

ABA-based techniques have demonstrated effectiveness in several controlled studies: children have been shown to make sustained gains in academic performance, adaptive behavior, and language, with outcomes significantly better than control groups. [8] A 2009 review of educational interventions for children, whose mean age was six years or less at intake, found that the higher-quality studies all assessed ABA, that ABA is well-established and no other educational treatment is considered probably efficacious, and that intensive ABA treatment, carried out by trained therapists, is demonstrated effective in enhancing global functioning in preschool children. [10] These gains may be complicated by initial IQ. [11]

A 2008 evidence-based review of comprehensive treatment approaches found that ABA is well established for improving intellectual performance of young children with ASD. [6] A 2009 comprehensive synthesis of early intensive behavioral intervention (EIBI), a form of ABA treatment, found that EIBI produces strong effects, suggesting that it can be effective for some children with autism; it also found that the large effects might be an artifact of comparison groups with treatments that have yet to be empirically validated, and that no comparisons between EIBI and other widely recognized treatment programs have been published. [12]

A 2009 systematic review came to the same principal conclusion that EIBI is effective for some but not all children, with wide variability in response to treatment; it also suggested that any gains are likely to be greatest in the first year of intervention. [13] A 2009 meta-analysis concluded that EIBI has a large effect on full-scale intelligence and a moderate effect on adaptive behavior. [14] However, a 2009 systematic review and meta-analysis found that applied behavior intervention (ABI), another name for EIBI, did not significantly improve outcomes compared with standard care of preschool children with ASD in the areas of cognitive outcome, expressive language, receptive language, and adaptive behavior. [15] ABA is cost effective for administrators. [16]

A multi-site randomized control trial study in 2023 compared 25 hours per week of discrete trial training (DTT) to 2.5 to 20 hours per week of JASPER therapy, a naturalistic developmental behavioral intervention. Progress was identified with both approaches: 45% of participants gained typical spoken language, and the children with lower receptive language skills who received DTT showed larger gains in the long-term. [17]

Recently, behavior analysts have built comprehensive models of child development (see Behavior analysis of child development) to generate models for prevention as well as treatment for autism.

Technique

Discrete trial training (DTT) is a process whereby an activity is divided into smaller distinct sub-tasks and each of these is repeated continuously until a person is proficient. The trainer rewards successful completion and uses errorless correction procedures if there is unsuccessful completion by the subject to condition them into mastering the process. When proficiency is gained in each sub-task, they are re-combined into the whole activity: in this way proficiency at complex activities can be taught. [18] : 93 

The intervention is often used in conjunction with the Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS) as it primes the child for an easy transition between treatment types. The PECS program serves as another common intervention technique used to conform autistic individuals.[ non-primary source needed ] [19] As many as 25% of autistic individuals have no functional speech. [20] The program teaches spontaneous social communication through symbols or pictures by relying on ABA techniques.[ page needed ] [21] PECS operates on a similar premise to DTT in that it uses systematic chaining to teach the individual to pair the concept of expressive speech with an object. It is structured in a similar fashion to DTT, in that each session begins with a preferred reinforcer survey to ascertain what would most motivate the child and effectively facilitate learning. [21]

Effectiveness

Research shows limited likelihood that DTT is effective in enhancing spoken language, [17] [22] [23] academic and adaptive skills, [6] [24] [25] [26] as many studies are of low quality, having small sample sizes and high risk of bias. [27] [28]

Society and culture

In media

A 1965 article in Life magazine entitled Screams, Slaps and Love has had a lasting impact on public attitudes towards Lovaas's therapy. Giving little thought to how their work might be portrayed, Lovaas and parent advocate Bernie Rimland, M.D., were surprised when the magazine article appeared, since it focussed on text and selected images showing the use of aversives, including a close up of a child being slapped. Even after the use of aversives had been largely discontinued, the article continued to have an effect, galvanizing public concerns about behavior modification techniques. [29] [30]

United States cost

In April 2002 treatment cost in the U.S. was about US$4,200 per month ($50,000 annually) per child.[ needs update ] [31] The 20–40 hours per week intensity of the program, often conducted at home, may place additional stress on already challenged families. [32]

History

Discrete trial training is rooted in the hypothesis of Charles Ferster who theorized that autism was caused in part by a person's inability to react appropriately to "social reinforcers", such as praise or criticism. Lovaas's early work concentrated on showing that it was possible to strengthen autistic people's responses to these social reinforcers, but he found these improvements were not associated with any general improvement in overall behavior. [1]

In a 1987 paper, psychologists Frank Gresham and Donald MacMillan described a number of weaknesses in Lovass's research and judged that it would be better to call the evidence for his interventions "promising" rather than "compelling". [33]

Lovaas's original technique used aversives such as striking, shouting, and electrical shocks to punish undesired behaviors. [30] By 1979, Lovaas had abandoned the use of aversives, and in 2012 the use of electric shocks was described as being inconsistent with contemporary practice. [1] [29]

See also

References

  1. 1 2 3 Spreat S (2012). "Chapter 10: Behavioral treatments for children with ASDs". In Reber M (ed.). The Autism Spectrum: Scientific Foundations and Treatment. Cambridge University Press. pp. 239–257. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511978616.011. ISBN   978-0-511-97861-6.(subscription required)
  2. ↑ Tsuroi I, Simmons ES, Paul R (2012). "Enhancing the application and evaluation of a discrete trial intervention package for eliciting first words in preverbal preschoolers with ASD". Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 42 (7): 1281–1293. doi:10.1007/s10803-011-1358-y. PMID   21918912. S2CID   7164416.
  3. ↑ Causin KG, Albert KM, Carbone VJ, Sweeney-Kerwin EJ (September 2013). "The role of join control in teaching listener responding to children with autism and other developmental disabilities" . Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders. 7 (9): 997–1011. doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2013.04.011.
  4. ↑ Grow L, LeBlanc L (2013). "Teaching receptive language". Behavior Analysis in Practice. 6 (1): 56–75. doi:10.1007/BF03391791. PMC   3680153 . PMID   25729507.
  5. ↑ Geiger KB, Carr JE, LeBlanc LA, Hanney NM, Polick AS, Heinicke MR (2012). "Teaching receptive discriminations to children with autism: A comparison of traditional and embedded discrete trial teaching". Behavior Analysis in Practice. 5 (2): 49–59. doi:10.1007/BF03391823. PMC   3592489 . PMID   23730466.
  6. 1 2 3 Rogers SJ, Vismara LA (January 2008). "Evidence-based comprehensive treatments for early autism". Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology. 37 (1): 8–38. doi:10.1080/15374410701817808. PMC   2943764 . PMID   18444052.
  7. ↑ Ryan CS, Hemmes NS (2005). "Post-training Discrete-Trial Teaching Performance by Instructors of Young Children with Autism in Early Intensive Behavioral Intervention". The Behavior Analyst Today. 6 (1): 1–16. doi: 10.1037/h0100052 .
  8. 1 2 3 Myers SM, Johnson CP (November 2007). "Management of children with autism spectrum disorders". Pediatrics. 120 (5): 1162–82. doi: 10.1542/peds.2007-2362 . PMID   17967921. S2CID   1656920.
  9. ↑ Steege MW, Mace FC, Perry L, Longenecker H (2007). "Applied behavior analysis: beyond discrete trial teaching". Psychology in the Schools. 44 (1): 91–9. doi:10.1002/pits.20208.
  10. ↑ Eikeseth S (2009). "Outcome of comprehensive psycho-educational interventions for young children with autism". Research in Developmental Disabilities. 30 (1): 158–78. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2008.02.003. PMID   18385012.
  11. ↑ Weiss MJ, Delmolino L (2006). "The Relationship Between Early Learning Rates and Treatment Outcome For Children With Autism Receiving Intensive Home-Based Applied Behavior Analysis". The Behavior Analyst Today. 7 (1): 96–100. doi: 10.1037/h0100140 .
  12. ↑ Reichow B, Wolery M (January 2009). "Comprehensive synthesis of early intensive behavioral interventions for young children with autism based on the UCLA young autism project model". Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 39 (1): 23–41. doi:10.1007/s10803-008-0596-0. PMID   18535894. S2CID   6932830.
  13. ↑ Howlin P, Magiati I, Charman T (January 2009). "Systematic review of early intensive behavioral interventions for children with autism". American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities. 114 (1): 23–41. doi:10.1352/2009.114:23-41. PMID   19143460.
  14. ↑ Eldevik S, Hastings RP, Hughes JC, Jahr E, Eikeseth S, Cross S (May 2009). "Meta-analysis of Early Intensive Behavioral Intervention for children with autism". Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology. 38 (3): 439–50. doi:10.1080/15374410902851739. PMID   19437303. S2CID   205873629.
  15. ↑ Spreckley M, Boyd R (March 2009). "Efficacy of applied behavioral intervention in preschool children with autism for improving cognitive, language, and adaptive behavior: a systematic review and meta-analysis". The Journal of Pediatrics. 154 (3): 338–44. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2008.09.012. PMID   18950798.
  16. ↑ Jacobson JW (2000). "Converting to a Behavior Analysis Format for Autism Services: Decision-Making for Educational Administrators, Principals, and Consultants". The Behavior Analyst Today. 1 (3): 6–16. doi: 10.1037/h0099889 .
  17. 1 2 Kasari C, Shire S, Shih W, Landa R, Levato L, Smith T (June 2023). "Spoken language outcomes in limited language preschoolers with autism and global developmental delay: RCT of early intervention approaches". Autism Research. 16 (6): 1236–1246. doi:10.1002/aur.2932. PMC   10460274 . PMID   37070270.
  18. ↑ Waltz M (2013). Autism: A Social and Medical History. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN   978-1-349-35819-9.
  19. ↑ Howlin P, Gordon RK, Pasco G, Wade A, Charman T (May 2007). "The effectiveness of picture exchange communication system training for those who teach children with autism: a pragmatic, group randomised controlled trial". J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 48 (5): 473–81. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01707.x. PMID   17501728.
  20. ↑ Volkmar FR, Lord C, Bailey A, Schultz RT, Klin A (January 2004). "Autism and pervasive developmental disorders". J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 45 (1): 135–70. doi:10.1046/j.0021-9630.2003.00317.x. PMID   14959806.
  21. 1 2 Frost LA, Bondy AS (2002). The picture exchange communication system training manual (Second ed.). Newark, DE: Pyramid Educational Products Inc.
  22. ↑ Brignell A, Chenausky KV, Song H, Zhu J, Suo C, Morgan AT (November 2018). "Communication interventions for autism spectrum disorder in minimally verbal children". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2018 (11): CD01234PMC. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD012324.pub2. PMC   6516977 . PMID   30395694.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  23. ↑ Paul R, Campbell D, Gilbert K, Tsiouri I (February 2013). "Comparing spoken language treatments for minimally verbal preschoolers with autism spectrum disorders". Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 43 (11): 418–431. doi:10.1007/s10803-012-1583-z. PMID   22733301. S2CID   263518387.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  24. ↑ Smith T, Iadarola S (2 November 2015). "Evidence Base Update for Autism Spectrum Disorder". Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology. 44 (6). Taylor & Francis: 897–922. doi: 10.1080/15374416.2015.1077448 . ISSN   1537-4416. PMID   26430947.
  25. ↑ Myers SM, Johnson CP (November 2007). "Management of children with autism spectrum disorders" . Pediatrics. 120 (5): 1162–1182. doi:10.1542/peds.2007-2362. PMID   17967921. S2CID   1656920.
  26. ↑ Eikeseth S (2009). "Outcome of comprehensive psycho-educational interventions for young children with autism". Research in Developmental Disabilities. 30 (1): 158–178. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.615.3336 . doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2008.02.003. PMID   18385012.
  27. ↑ Ospina MB, Krebs Seida J, Clark B, Karkhaneh M, Hartling L, Tjosvold L, Vandermeer B, Smith V (2008). "Behavioural and developmental interventions for autism spectrum disorder: a clinical systematic review". PLOS ONE. 3 (11) e3755. Bibcode:2008PLoSO...3.3755O. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0003755 . PMC   2582449 . PMID   19015734.
  28. ↑ Reichow B, Hume K, Barton EE, Boyd BA (May 2018). "Early intensive behavioral intervention (EIBI) for young children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD)". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 5 (10) CD009260. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD009260.pub3. PMC   6494600 . PMID   29742275.
  29. 1 2 Silverman C (2011). Understanding Autism: Parents, Doctors, and the History of a Disorder. Princeton University Press. p. 90. ISBN   978-0-691-15968-3.
  30. 1 2 Bowman RA, Baker JP (March 2014). "Screams, slaps, and love: The strange birth of applied behavior analysis" . Pediatrics. 133 (3): 364–66. doi:10.1542/peds.2013-2583. PMID   24534411. S2CID   28137037.
  31. ↑ Elder JH (2002). "Current treatments in autisms: Examining scientific evidence and clinical implications" . Journal of Neuroscience Nursing. 34 (2): 67–73. doi:10.1097/01376517-200204000-00005. S2CID   145106552 . Retrieved 2007-07-23.
  32. ↑ Lovaas O.I.; Wright Scott (2006). "A reply to recent public critiques…". JEIBI. 3 (2): 221–229.
  33. ↑ Gresham FM, MacMillan DL (1998). "Early Intervention Project: can its claims be substantiated and its effects replicated?". J Autism Dev Disord (Review). 28 (1): 5–13. doi:10.1023/a:1026002717402. PMID   9546297. S2CID   7219819.


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