Autism-spectrum quotient

Last updated
Autism Quotient for Adults
Synonyms AQ
LOINC 62738-0
Autism Quotient, Adolescent Version
LOINC 62739-8

The autism-spectrum quotient (AQ) is a questionnaire published in 2001 by Simon Baron-Cohen and his colleagues at the Autism Research Centre in Cambridge, UK. Consisting of fifty questions, it aims to investigate whether adults of average intelligence have symptoms of autism spectrum conditions. [1] More recently, versions of the AQ for children [2] and adolescents [3] have also been published.

Contents

The test was popularised by Wired in December 2001 when published alongside their article, "The Geek Syndrome". [4] It is commonly used for self diagnosis of autism spectrum disorders, although it is not intended to be a diagnostic test. [5] The PhenX Toolkit uses age-specific versions of AQ as its adult and adolescent screening protocols for Symptoms of Autism Spectrum Disorders. [6] [7]

Format

The test consists of 50 statements, each of which is in a forced choice format. Each question allows the subject to indicate "definitely agree", "slightly agree", "slightly disagree" or "definitely disagree". Approximately half the questions are worded to elicit an "agree" response from neurotypical individuals, and half to elicit a "disagree" response. The subject scores one point for each question which is answered "autistically" either slightly or definitely. [1] [8]

The questions cover five different domains associated with the autism spectrum: social skills; communication skills; imagination; attention to detail; and attention switching/tolerance of change. Factor analysis of sample results have been inconsistent, with various studies finding two, three or four factors instead of five. [9]

Use as a diagnostic tool

In the initial trials of the test, [10] the average score in the control group was 16.4, with men scoring slightly higher than women (about 17 versus about 15). 80% of adults diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders scored 32 or more, compared with only 2% of the control group.

The authors cited a score of 32 or more as indicating "clinically significant levels of autistic traits". However, although the test is popularly used for self-diagnosis of autism spectrum disorders, the authors caution that it is not intended to be diagnostic, and advise that anyone who obtains a high score and is suffering some distress should seek professional medical advice and not jump to any conclusions.

A further research paper indicated that the questionnaire could be used for screening in clinical practice, with scores less than 26 indicating that a diagnosis of Asperger syndrome can effectively be ruled out. [1]

It is also often used to assess milder variants of autistic-like traits in neurotypical individuals. [11] [12] [13]

Mathematicians, scientists and engineers

Although most students with an autism spectrum disorder have average mathematical ability and test slightly worse in mathematics than in general intelligence, some are gifted in mathematics [14] and autism spectrum disorder has not prevented adults from major accomplishments. [15]

The questionnaire was tried on Cambridge University students and a group of 16 winners of the British Mathematical Olympiad to determine whether there was a link between a talent for mathematical and scientific disciplines and traits associated with the autism spectrum. Mathematics, physical sciences, and engineering students were found to score significantly higher, e.g., 21.8 on average for mathematicians and 21.4 for computer scientists. The average score for the British Mathematical Olympiad winners was 24. [10]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Asperger syndrome</span> Formerly recognized neurodevelopmental condition

Asperger syndrome (AS), also known as Asperger's syndrome or Asperger's, is a term formerly used to describe a neurodevelopmental condition characterized by significant difficulties in social interaction and nonverbal communication, along with restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior and interests. Asperger syndrome has been merged with other conditions into autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and is no longer considered a stand-alone diagnosis. It was considered milder than other diagnoses which were merged into ASD due to relatively unimpaired spoken language and intelligence.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Conditions comorbid to autism</span> Medical conditions more common in autistic people

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that begins in early childhood, persists throughout adulthood, and affects two crucial areas of development: social communication and restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior. There are many conditions comorbid to autism spectrum disorder such as attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and epilepsy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Simon Baron-Cohen</span> British psychologist and author

Sir Simon Philip Baron-Cohen is a British clinical psychologist and professor of developmental psychopathology at the University of Cambridge. He is the director of the university's Autism Research Centre and a Fellow of Trinity College.

High-functioning autism (HFA) was historically an autism classification where a person exhibits no intellectual disability, but may experience difficulty in communication, emotion recognition, expression, and social interaction.

The epidemiology of autism is the study of the incidence and distribution of autism spectrum disorders (ASD). A 2022 systematic review of global prevalence of autism spectrum disorders found a median prevalence of 1% in children in studies published from 2012 to 2021, with a trend of increasing prevalence over time. However, the study's 1% figure may reflect an underestimate of prevalence in low- and middle-income countries.

The empathising–systemising (E–S) theory is a controversial theory on the psychological basis of autism and male–female neurological differences originally put forward by English clinical psychologist Simon Baron-Cohen. It classifies individuals based on abilities in empathic thinking (E) and systematic thinking (S). It measures skills using an Empathy Quotient (EQ) and Systemising Quotient (SQ) and attempts to explain the social and communication symptoms in autism spectrum disorders as deficits and delays in empathy combined with intact or superior systemising.

The weak central coherence theory (WCC), also called the central coherence theory (CC), suggests that a specific perceptual-cognitive style, loosely described as a limited ability to understand context or to "see the big picture", underlies the central issue in autism and related autism spectrum disorder. Autism is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by impaired social interaction and communication, repetitive behaviours, restricted interests, and sensory processing issues.

Asperger syndrome (AS) was formerly a separate diagnosis under autism spectrum disorder. Under the DSM-5 and ICD-11, patients formerly diagnosable with Asperger syndrome are diagnosable with Autism Spectrum Disorder. The term is considered offensive by some autistic individuals. It was named after Hans Asperger (1906–80), who was an Austrian psychiatrist and pediatrician. An English psychiatrist, Lorna Wing, popularized the term "Asperger's syndrome" in a 1981 publication; the first book in English on Asperger syndrome was written by Uta Frith in 1991 and the condition was subsequently recognized in formal diagnostic manuals later in the 1990s.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Classic autism</span> Former neurodevelopmental disorder now classified under autism spectrum disorder

Classic autism, also known as childhood autism, autistic disorder, (early) infantile autism, infantile psychosis, Kanner's autism, Kanner's syndrome, or (formerly) just autism, is a neurodevelopmental condition first described by Leo Kanner in 1943. It is characterized by atypical and impaired development in social interaction and communication as well as restricted, repetitive behaviors, activities, and interests. These symptoms first appear in early childhood and persist throughout life.

Autism, also called autism spectrum disorder (ASD) or autism spectrum condition (ASC), is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterised by symptoms of deficient reciprocal social communication and the presence of restricted, repetitive and inflexible patterns of behavior that are impairing in multiple contexts and excessive or atypical to be developmentally and socioculturally inappropriate. Other common signs include difficulty with social interaction, verbal and nonverbal communication, along with perseverative interests, stereotypic body movements, rigid routines, and hyper- or hyporeactivity to sensory input. Autism is clinically regarded as a spectrum disorder, meaning that it can manifest very differently in each person. For example, some are nonspeaking, while others have proficient spoken language. Because of this, there is wide variation in the support needs of people across the autism spectrum.

The Childhood Autism Spectrum Test, abbreviated as CAST and formerly titled the Childhood Asperger Syndrome Test, is a tool to screen for autism spectrum disorder in children aged 4–11 years, in a non-clinical setting. It is also called the Social and Communication Development Questionnaire.

Empathy quotient (EQ) is a psychological self-report measure of empathy developed by Simon Baron-Cohen and Sally Wheelwright at the Autism Research Centre at the University of Cambridge. EQ is based on a definition of empathy that includes cognition and affect.

The history of autism spans over a century; autism has been subject to varying treatments, being pathologized or being viewed as a beneficial part of human neurodiversity. The understanding of autism has been shaped by cultural, scientific, and societal factors, and its perception and treatment change over time as scientific understanding of autism develops.

The Checklist for Autism in Toddlers (CHAT) is a psychological questionnaire designed to evaluate risk for autism spectrum disorder in children ages 18–24 months. The 14-question test is filled out by the parent and a pediatrician or physician and takes approximately 5 minutes to complete. The CHAT has shown good reliability and validity in assessing child autism risk in recent studies. Some research has identified barriers, such as socioeconomic status and parent education level, to the validation of both the CHAT and the Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers (M-CHAT) as a reliable and valid screener for children of all backgrounds.

Sex and gender differences in autism exist regarding prevalence, presentation, and diagnosis.

The Social Responsiveness Scale, developed by John Constantino in 2002 and expanded upon by Constantino et al. in 2003, is a quantitative measure of autistic traits in 4–18 year olds. Its correlation with behaviour problems and autism spectrum disorder symptoms has been studied. It can be assessed with an 18 question survey filled out by the child's parents or teacher.

The Ritvo Autism & Asperger Diagnostic Scale (RAADS) is a psychological self-rating scale developed by Dr. Riva Ariella Ritvo. An abridged and translated 14 question version was then developed at the Department of Clinical Neuroscience at the Karolinska Institute, to aid in the identification of patients who may have undiagnosed ASD.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Autism and LGBT identities</span>

Current research indicates that autistic people have higher rates of LGBT identities and feelings than the general population. A variety of explanations for this have been proposed, such as prenatal hormonal exposure, which has been linked with sexual orientation, gender dysphoria and autism. Alternatively, autistic people may be less reliant on social norms and thus are more open about their orientation or gender identity. A narrative review published in 2016 stated that while various hypotheses have been proposed for an association between autism and gender dysphoria, they lack strong evidence.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Double empathy problem</span> Psychological theory regarding individuals on the autism spectrum

The theory of the double empathy problem is a psychological and sociological theory first coined in 2012 by Damian Milton, an autistic autism researcher. This theory proposes that many of the difficulties autistic individuals face when socializing with non-autistic individuals are due, in part, to a lack of mutual understanding between the two groups, meaning that most autistic people struggle to understand and empathize with non-autistic people, whereas most non-autistic people also struggle to understand and empathize with autistic people. This lack of understanding may stem from bidirectional differences in communication style, social-cognitive characteristics, and experiences between autistic and non-autistic individuals, but not necessarily an inherent deficiency. Recent studies have shown that most autistic individuals are able to socialize, communicate effectively, empathize well, and display social reciprocity with most other autistic individuals. This theory and subsequent findings challenge the commonly held belief that the social skills of autistic individuals are inherently impaired, as well as the theory of "mind-blindness" proposed by prominent autism researcher Simon Baron-Cohen in the mid-1980s, which suggested that empathy and theory of mind are universally impaired in autistic individuals.

References

  1. 1 2 3 Woodbury-Smith MR, Robinson J, Wheelwright S, Baron-Cohen S (2005). "Screening adults for Asperger Syndrome using the AQ: a preliminary study of its diagnostic validity in clinical practice" (PDF). J Autism Dev Disord. 35 (3): 331–5. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.653.8639 . doi:10.1007/s10803-005-3300-7. PMID   16119474. S2CID   13013701 . Retrieved 2009-01-02.
  2. ↑ Auyeung B, Baron-Cohen S, Wheelwright S, Allison C (2008). "The Autism Spectrum Quotient: Children's Version (AQ-Child)" (PDF). J Autism Dev Disord. 38 (7): 1230–40. doi:10.1007/s10803-007-0504-z. PMID   18064550. S2CID   12682486 . Retrieved 2009-01-02.
  3. ↑ Baron-Cohen S, Hoekstra RA, Knickmeyer R, Wheelwright S (2006). "The Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ)—adolescent version" (PDF). J Autism Dev Disord. 36 (3): 343–50. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.654.1966 . doi:10.1007/s10803-006-0073-6. PMID   16552625. S2CID   12934864 . Retrieved 2009-01-02.
  4. ↑ The Geek Syndrome Archived February 15, 2014, at the Wayback Machine
  5. ↑ Take the AQ Test Archived March 28, 2014, at the Wayback Machine , Embarrassing Bodies website, Channel 4, 2011. Accessed 2011-09-16.
  6. ↑ "Protocol Overview: Symptoms of Autism Spectrum Disorders - Adult". PhenX Toolkit, Ver 20.0. RTI International. 31 January 2017. Archived from the original on 3 February 2017.
  7. ↑ "Protocol Overview: Symptoms of Autism Spectrum Disorders - Adolescent". PhenX Toolkit, Ver 20.0. RTI International. 31 January 2017. Archived from the original on 3 February 2017.
  8. ↑ "Each item scores one point if the respondent records the abnormal behaviour either mildly or strongly"
  9. ↑ Hoekstra RA, Bartels M, Cath DC, Boomsma DI (September 2008). "Factor structure, reliability and criterion validity of the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ): A study in Dutch population and patient groups". Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 38 (8): 1555–66. doi: 10.1007/s10803-008-0538-x . PMC   2516538 . PMID   18302013.
  10. 1 2 Baron-Cohen S, Wheelwright S, Skinner R, Martin J, Clubley E (2001). "The Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ): evidence from Asperger syndrome/high-functioning autism, males and females, scientists and mathematicians" (PDF). J Autism Dev Disord. 31 (1): 5–17. doi:10.1023/A:1005653411471. PMID   11439754. S2CID   24451473 . Retrieved 2008-08-28.
  11. ↑ Wakabayashi A, Baron-Cohen S, Wheelwright S (October 2006). "Are autistic traits an independent personality dimension? A study of the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ) and the NEO-PI-R". Personality and Individual Differences. 41 (5): 873–883. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2006.04.003.
  12. ↑ Austin EJ (January 2005). "Personality correlates of the broader autism phenotype as assessed by the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ)". Personality and Individual Differences. 38 (2): 451–460. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2004.04.022.
  13. ↑ Hoekstra RA, Bartels M, Verweij CJ, Boomsma DI (April 2007). "Heritability of Autistic Traits in the General Population". Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine. 161 (4): 372–377. doi: 10.1001/archpedi.161.4.372 . PMID   17404134.
  14. ↑ Chiang HM, Lin YH (2007). "Mathematical ability of students with Asperger syndrome and high-functioning autism". Autism. 11 (6): 547–56. doi:10.1177/1362361307083259. PMID   17947290. S2CID   37125753.
  15. ↑ Herera S (2005-02-25). "Mild autism has 'selective advantages'". CNBC. Archived from the original on September 13, 2013. Retrieved 2007-11-14.
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