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Neurodiversity is a framework for understanding human brain function and mental illness. It argues that diversity in human cognition is normal and that some conditions classified as mental disorders are differences and disabilities that are not necessarily pathological.
The framework grew out of the autism rights movement and builds on the social model of disability, arguing that disability partly arises from societal barriers, rather than attributing disability purely to inherent deficits. [1] It instead situates human cognitive variation in the context of biodiversity and the politics of minority groups. [2] [3] [4] Some neurodiversity advocates and researchers argue that the neurodiversity paradigm is the middle ground between a strong medical model and a strong social model. [5] [6] [7]
The neurodiversity paradigm has been controversial among disability advocates, with opponents arguing it risks downplaying the suffering associated with some disabilities, and that it calls for the acceptance of things some would wish to be treated. [8] [9] [10] [11] [12]
The word "neurodiversity" first appeared in publication in 1998, in an article by American journalist Harvey Blume, [13] as a portmanteau of the words "neurological diversity", which had been used as early as 1996 in online spaces such as independent living to describe the growing concept of a natural diversity in humanity's neurological expression. [1] It was later popularized by Judy Singer, a social scientist who has described herself as "likely somewhere on the autistic spectrum". [14] She used the term in her sociology honours thesis published in 1999, [15] [14] drawing on discussions on the independent living mailing list that included Blume. [16] Blume was an early advocate who predicted the role the Internet would play in fostering the international neurodiversity movement. [17] In a New York Times piece on June 30, 1997, Blume described the foundation of neurodiversity using the term "neurological pluralism". [18] Some authors [19] [20] also credit the earlier work of autistic advocate Jim Sinclair in laying the foundation for the movement. Sinclair's 1993 speech "Don't Mourn For Us" emphasized autism as a way of being, claiming "it is not possible to separate the person from the autism." [21]
Damian Milton notes that, in 2014, Nick Walker attempted to define neurodiversity, the neurodiversity movement, and the neurodiversity paradigm. Walker tied neurodiversity to the idea that "all brains are to a degree unique". She also defined the movement as a rights movement, and the paradigm as a broader discussion of diversity, cultural constructions and social dynamics. [22] [23]
In recent years the concept of neurodiversity has gained traction among members of the scientific community, [24] [25] who have argued that autism researchers have sometimes been too ready to interpret differences as deficits. [26] [27] It has also been suggested that there are both ethical and practical risks in attempting to reduce or suppress autistic traits through interventions, as some recent studies have indicated that higher levels of masking are generally associated with poorer mental health outcomes among autistic people, and perhaps even suicidality. [28] [29] [30] [31] [32] Researchers have found that psychoeducation based on medical model is associated with higher stigma. [33] Similarly, some researchers and advocates also argue that a medicalizing approach can contribute to stigma [34] and that the persistent focus on biological research in autism is at odds with the priorities of those in the autism community. [35] [36] [37]
Autistic self-advocate and researcher Ari Ne'eman has suggested a trait-based approach, where elements of the medical (or pathology) model can be applied in treating certain traits, behaviors, or conditions that are intrinsically harmful (e.g. self-injury behaviors, epilepsy, or other co-occurring health conditions), while neurodiversity approaches can be applied to non-harmful or adaptive autistic traits (e.g. stimming, intense interests) of the same individual. [38] [39] In recent years, both new intervention strategies and neurodiversity-based reforms of existing intervention strategies have been developed. [40] [28]
Neurotypical (an abbreviation of neurologically typical, sometimes NT) is a neologism widely used in the neurodiversity movement as a label for anyone who has a typical neurotype and fits into the norm of thinking patterns. Thus, neurotypicals are anyone who is not autistic, diagnosed with ADHD, dyslexia, anxiety, or any other condition that would be considered neurodivergent. [41] [42] [43] The term has been adopted by both the neurodiversity movement and some members of the scientific community. [44] [45]
Early definitions described neurotypicals as individuals who do not have autism and do not meet the criteria to be diagnosed with autism. [46] [47] Early uses of "NT" were often satirical, as in the Institute for the Study of the Neurologically Typical, [48] [49] but it has been adopted by the neurodiversity movement, too, and is now used unironically. [50]
People with any form of neurocognitive or mental disorder, whether congenital or acquired, have also sometimes been excluded from the neurotypical label, particularly in academic studies for specific disorders that use neurotypical control groups. [51] In this sense, the term is now contrasted to neurodivergent, an umbrella term used to describe people with atypical mental and behavioral traits, such as mood, [52] anxiety, dissociative, psychotic, personality, [53] and eating disorders. [54] Under the neurodiversity framework, these conditions are often referred to as "neurodivergencies", in an effort to move away from the medical model of disability (sometimes referred to in the neurodiversity community as the "pathology paradigm" [55] ).
Some people prefer the term allistic, [56] which unambiguously means "not autistic". [57]
The National Autistic Society of the United Kingdom describes the word as "mainly used by autistic people so may not be applicable in, for example, the popular press". [58]
The theory of the double empathy problem argues that autistic people do not lack empathy as often supposed by people who see autism as pathological. Rather, the experiences of autistic and non-autistic people are so different that it is hard for one to understand how the other thinks; for example, non-autistic people may not understand when an autistic person is overwhelmed. [60]
It was originally conceived in 2012 by autistic scholar Damian Milton. [61] One study comparing the conversations and socialization of autistic groups, non-autistic groups, and mixed groups found that autistic people were more able to build rapport with other autistic people than with non-autistic people, and at a level similar to the purely non-autistic group. [62]
The double empathy problem theory implies there is no simple fix that can help each group better empathize with each other. Moreover, attempting to "treat" an autistic person by teaching them to empathize with non-autistic people could generate mental health issues and feelings of inferiority and self-blame. The same risks do not apply when seeking to teach non-autistic people, because their allistic neurology is not stigmatized. The advantage of the theory is reducing pathologization of autistic people by identifying that everyone struggles to empathize with different neurotypes. It can also help neurotypical individuals to better understand how neurodivergent people think and empathize and to recognize their own limitations in empathizing with autistic people. [63] Jaswal and Akhtar (2019) highlight the difference between being socially uninterested and appearing socially uninterested, and challenge preconceived notions of a lack of social motivation. For example, testimonies from autistic individuals report that avoiding eye contact serves an important function of helping them to concentrate during conversation, and should not be interpreted as expressing social disinterest. [64]
Neurodiversity paradigm |
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The neurodiversity paradigm was developed and embraced first by autistic people, [65] [66] but has been applied to other conditions such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), developmental speech disorders, dyslexia, dysgraphia, dyspraxia, [67] dyscalculia, dysnomia, intellectual disability, Tourette syndrome, [68] and sometimes mental illnesses such as schizophrenia, [7] [69] bipolar disorder, [70] schizoaffective disorder, and, somewhat more controversially, personality disorders such as antisocial personality disorder. [71] Neurodiversity advocates[ which? ] who support those with autism, ADHD, dyslexia, and other neurodevelopmental disorders do not agree in framing medical interventions as a way to "cure" or "fix" these individuals. Rather, they promote support systems such as inclusion-focused services, accommodations, communication and assistive technologies, occupational training, and independent living support. [40] [72] [73] [74] The intention is for individuals to receive support that honors human diversity and feel that they are able to freely express themselves. Other forms of treatment may cause them to feel as though they are being coerced or forced to adapt to social norms, or to conform to a behavioral standard or clinical ideal. [75] [76]
Proponents of neurodiversity strive to reconceptualize autism and related conditions in society by acknowledging that neurodiversity does not require a cure, changing the language from the current "condition, disease, disorder, or illness"-based nomenclature, "broadening the understanding of healthy or independent living", acknowledging new types of autonomy, and giving neurodivergent individuals more control over their treatment, including the type, timing, and whether there should be treatment at all. [20] [7]
Activists such as Jennifer White-Johnson have helped bring attention to the neurodiversity movement, by creating symbols of protest and recognition, including a combination of the black power fist and infinity symbol. [77]
A 2009 study [78] separated 27 students with conditions including autism, dyslexia, developmental coordination disorder, ADHD, and having suffered a stroke into two categories of self-view: "A 'difference' view—where neurodiversity was seen as a difference incorporating a set of strengths and weaknesses, or a 'medical/deficit' view—where neurodiversity was seen as a disadvantageous medical condition". They found that, although all of the students reported uniformly difficult schooling careers involving exclusion, abuse, and bullying, those who viewed themselves from the "difference" view (41% of the study cohort) "indicated higher academic self-esteem and confidence in their abilities and many (73%) expressed considerable career ambitions with positive and clear goals". [78] Many of these students reported gaining this view of themselves through contact with neurodiversity advocates in online support groups. [78]
A 2013 online survey which aimed to assess conceptions of autism and neurodiversity suggested that conception of autism as a difference, and not a deficit, is developmentally beneficial and "transcend[s] a false dichotomy between celebrating differences and ameliorating deficit". [79]
Neurodiversity advocate John Elder Robison argues that the disabilities and strengths conferred by neurological differences may be mutually inseparable. "When 99 neurologically identical people fail to solve a problem, it's often the 1% fellow who's different who holds the key. Yet that person may be disabled or disadvantaged most or all of the time. To neurodiversity proponents, people are disabled because they are at the edges of the bell curve, not because they are sick or broken." [80]
Diversity in the education system is not always observed from a neurodiverse perspective. There are several models that are used to understand disability. One is the medical model of disability that views people with disabilities as needing to be treated or cured. [81] Another is the social model of disability putting emphasis on the way that society treats people with disabilities. [81] The social model argues that people with disabilities experience more difficulties from society than the disability alone. [81]
Nachman and colleagues reviewed several articles published by 2-year community colleges and found some discrepancies in the way that they perceived and categorized "disabled" students and "non-disabled" students. [82] They found that all of the articles were attempting to normalize disability. [82] Many of them put distinct separation between typical and atypical learners as well as their potential academic achievement. [82] Nachman also found that many of the articles showed a lack of autonomy for neurodivergent students. [82] They had little power in regard to academic choices and classroom management. [82]
Another study explored minority stress through the lens of transgender and gender diverse students who were neurodivergent. [83] The researchers found that these students were likely to experience multiple forms of oppression rather than just one. [83] Some of those types include gender related oppression and oppression related to their neurodivergence. [83] The students who had a higher level of minority stress due to stigma awareness were expected to have lower academic performance and higher risk of psychological distress. [83]
Career preparation that is specifically targeted for neurodivergent students is lacking. [81] There are several programs, such as supported employment, that exist to help assist neurodivergent individuals in finding and obtaining a job but not many of those programs exist within schools. [81] This can make it difficult for neurodivergent students to find a career path that they feel is attainable for them.
Universities and educational institutions could constitute a place of fulfillment and development for neurodivergent people. According to an article published in 2023, universities and post-secondary establishments would show more tolerance towards neurodivergent people. Furthermore, this kind of environment gives rise to independence and autonomy and can thus lead to kindness and understanding. This is why implementing strategies based on the concept of compassion could be an asset for educational institutions and therefore mask this difference that exists between people. [84] Neurodivergent students in higher education also report a need for non-academic supports, such as social mentorships and resources for strength-based interventions in order to further assist neurodivergent students in the social aspects of college life. [85]
Neurodivergent individuals are subjected to bias when applying and interviewing for job positions. [86] Specifically, neurodivergent individuals can have their social engagement style compared to neurotypical individuals, which can affect their ability to obtain a job position. [86] Stigmas against neurodivergence (especially against autistic individuals) and cognition challenges in social situations can hinder an individual's ability to perform well in a traditional job interview. [87]
In a systematic review that considered developmental dyslexia as "an expression of neurodiversity", it was suggested that neurodiversity is not yet an established concept in the workplace, and therefore, support from social relationships and work accommodations is minimal. [88] Furthermore, another systematic review that focused on pharmacological and combined pharmacological/psychosocial interventions for adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder found that there were few workplace-based intervention studies, and suggested that additional research needs to be conducted to figure out how to best support neurodivergent employees in the workplace. [89]
A study conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic suggested that neurodivergent individuals would benefit from remote work as it allowed them to engage in their interests, but that social engagement is still necessary for productivity and performance. [90] Another study supported these findings and stressed the need for redesigned work and social conditions to be more inclusive for individuals with autism. [91]
The increase of representation of the neurodiversity movement in the media came about with changes in the technology of the media platforms themselves. [40] The recent addition of text-based options on various social media sites allow disabled users to communicate, enjoy, and share at a more accessible rate. [40] Social media has a two-fold benefit to the neurodivergent community: it can help spread awareness and pioneer the neurodiversity movement, and it can also allow members of the communities themselves to connect. [92] [93]
Media platforms allow the connection of individuals of similar backgrounds to find a community of support with one another. [92] Online networking and connections allows for the user to decide their level of comfort with interactions, and allow them to retain control of a relationship with another user. For the neurodivergent community, the use of social media to create relationships has proven a useful tool for those with difficulty in social situations. [94] By connecting neurodivergent users, media platforms provide 'safe spaces' that are helpful in forming relationships. [94] Some media developers have created platforms such as Blossom, which are designed specifically to connect neurodivergent users and families. [95]
Social media also allows users to spread awareness about the neurodiversity movement. [96] Increasing awareness about disorders has been shown to increase the amount of factual information spread. [96] The spread of information through social media exposure can assist the neurodiversity movement in educating the public about understanding disabilities such as autism and sifting out misinformation. [93] By sharing neurodivergent experiences from a first hand perspective, social media can educate the public and destigmatize certain disorders, but negative portrayals of neurodivergence can have an obstructive impact on members of the community. [96] [97]
Although representation of the neurodivergent community has grown with the help of social media platforms, those users are often criticized and misunderstood. [98] Social media has not entirely removed the social barriers that restrict inclusion of neurodivergent peoples. Some have reported needing to conform to the mainstream view of their disability to be seen as "authentic" users. [98] Doing so has indirectly made it more difficult for neurodivergent users to grow platforms. [98] [99] Non-disabled users evaluating the authenticity of neurodivergent users based on stereotypes shows that the neurodiversity movement has not reached its goal of inclusion. [98]
Medical and healthcare professionals have begun to acknowledge neurodivergence among its employees. [100] [101] Specifically, more groups are being created that are centered around advocacy and peer support among medical and healthcare professionals who associate themselves with neurodiversity, such as the Autistic Doctors International created by Dr. Mary Doherty. [100] Another approach is the implementation of a 5-minute video summary (5MVS) for medical learners and physicians who have attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). [101] It consists of a 5-minute recorded video summary in which an engaging speaker presents the relevant information from a scientific article about ADHD using a brief PowerPoint presentation shared using videoconferencing technology. The researchers state that providing this educational tool for helping medical learners and physicians with ADHD acquire relevant information from scientific articles could help in addressing their inattention, impulsivity and/or hyperactivity, and improve their development of critical appraisal skills when working in healthcare. [101]
Similarly, healthcare systems may benefit from hiring neurodiverse individuals to gain a unique perspective when caring for patients. [102] Some healthcare staff agree that inviting neurodiverse individuals to join patient advisory groups and/or hire them as staff are essential steps to acceptance and integration in the workforce. Neurodiverse people's unique strengths can be vital to health system innovation and improvement efforts. [102] One example of the push toward this is the Stanford Neurodiversity Project, in which one of their goals is to discover the strengths of neurodiverse individuals and make use of their talents to increase innovation and productivity of their society, such as working in the field of healthcare and medicine. [103]
Neurodiversity has also recently been investigated as a new way of working within neurodevelopmental clinics in the UK. [104] A team of researchers in Portsmouth, England, have created an approach in aiding neurodiverse individuals known as PANDA, or the Portsmouth Alliance Neurodiversity Approach. This approach may help medical and healthcare professionals facilitate understanding, communication and early support for children who may identify as being neurodiverse. [104]
Neurodiversity and the role it plays in therapeutic settings has been a central focal point in recent years. Many therapists and mental health professionals have pushed for more inclusive psychotherapeutic frameworks appropriate for neurodivergent individuals. [105] [106] One example is neurodivergence-informed therapy, which reframes dysfunction as interconnectedness among society rather than strictly individual, advocating for acceptance and pride in the neurodiversity community, and the push for therapists to pursue humility regarding the knowledge and education associated with individuals who identify as neurodivergent. [105] Similarly, neurodiversity affirming therapy supports neurodivergent differences, rather than viewing them as something that should be "cured", and to offer ways to support the individual with difficult areas, while still appreciating their needs and strengths. [106]
Therapeutic programs and interventions are also being investigated for the neurodivergent community. [107] [108] Self-determination programs to help neurodivergent individuals achieve goals in their life has been founded to be successful, with neurodivergent participants finding it to be "appropriate, acceptable, and feasible". [107] Various approaches (e.g., eye-tracking, longitudinal data, computational modeling) in understanding perceptual decision-making in neurodivergent individuals are also being studied and the implications it may have in the therapeutic environment in working with the neurodivergent population. [108]
Another form of therapeutic intervention in that has been investigated in neurodivergent individuals is the use of Naturalistic Developmental Behavioral Interventions (NDBIs). [109] NDBIs have been shown to have positive effects on language and social-communication while, at the same time, respecting individuals’ needs and autonomy. One of the key goals in this type of intervention is putting the focus of therapy on the neurodivergent individual themselves in the creation of intervention goals, procedures, and outcomes. In doing so, they are likely to be seen as more acceptable, useful, and effective to that individual. [109]
In addition to support from neurodiversity advocates for affirming therapies, concerns have been raised about the role of certain approaches such as applied behavior analysis. Neurodiverse individuals and activists tend to emphasize the tendency of these interventions to set a goals-focused approach that, to a neurodivergent patient, might seem to center societal participation rather than the goals of the individual. In this sense, concerns from neurodivergent individuals tends to argue that these interventions aim to enforce conformity with expectations of society rather than addressing the needs of the person receiving the treatment. [110] While a large body of research on the role of ABA seems to support its efficacy in long term outcomes, there remains concerns with the measures used in determining social validity by those who have raised these concerns. In addition to advocates from within the neurodivergent community, some behavioral analysts have begun to reconsider the role of these therapies with the context of a neurodiversity framework. [110]
Further information: Controversies in autism § Advocacy initiatives
The neurodiversity paradigm is controversial in autism advocacy. The dominant paradigm, the medical model of disability holds that neurodivergent individuals have medical conditions which should be treated. The neurodiverse paradigm, under the understanding that differences in neural function are natural variations in function, suggests that not all conditions that would be classified as neurodiverse need medical intervention. A prevalent criticism about application of the neurodiversity paradigm to autism comes from the understanding that even with a framework of natural variance that neurodiversity includes, individuals with functional difficulties would continue to have challenges. Some critics of the neurodiversity paradigm, such as family members that are responsible for the care of an autistic individual, consider it detached from the needs of individuals that would continue to be functionally disabled through the frame of natural variation. [111]
A common criticism is that the neurodiversity paradigm is too widely encompassing and that its conception should exclude those whose functioning is more severely impaired. In response, autistic advocate Nick Walker suggested that neurodiversity refers specifically to "pervasive neurocognitive differences [...] intimately related to the formation and constitution of the self", in contrast to medical conditions such as epilepsy.[ undue weight? – discuss ]
"Critiques of the Neurodiversity Movement", a 2020 review, raised two concerns regarding the term "Neurotypical":
Asperger syndrome (AS), also known as Asperger's syndrome, formerly described a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by significant difficulties in social interaction and nonverbal communication, along with restricted and repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, and activities. The syndrome has been merged with other disorders into autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and is no longer considered a stand-alone diagnosis. It was considered milder than other diagnoses that were merged into ASD due to relatively unimpaired spoken language and intelligence.
Diagnoses of autism have become more frequent since the 1980s, which has led to various controversies about both the cause of autism and the nature of the diagnoses themselves. Whether autism has mainly a genetic or developmental cause, and the degree of coincidence between autism and intellectual disability, are all matters of current scientific controversy as well as inquiry. There is also more sociopolitical debate as to whether autism should be considered a disability on its own.
The autism rights movement, also known as the autistic acceptance movement, is a social movement allied with disability rights that emphasizes a neurodiversity paradigm, viewing autism as a disability with variations in the human brain rather than as a disease to be cured. The movement advocates for several goals, including greater acceptance of autistic traits and behaviors; reforms of services - i.e. services that focus on improving quality of life and well-being instead of suppression and masking of autistic traits that are adaptive or not harmful or imitations of social behaviors of allistic (non-autistic) peers ; the creation of social networks and events that allow autistic people to socialize on their own terms; and the recognition of the autistic community as a minority group.
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to autism:
In psychology and sociology, masking is the process in which an individual camouflages their natural personality or behavior to conform to social pressures, abuse, or harassment. Masking can be strongly influenced by environmental factors such as authoritative parents, rejection, and emotional, physical, or sexual abuse. Masking can be a behavior individuals adopt subconsciously as coping mechanisms or a trauma response, or it can be a conscious behavior an individual adopts to fit in within perceived societal norms. Masking is interconnected with maintaining performative behavior within social structures and cultures.
Autism therapies include a wide variety of therapies that help people with autism, or their families. Such methods of therapy seek to aid autistic people in dealing with difficulties and increase their functional independence.
Self-stimulatory behavior, also known as "stimming" and self-stimulation, is the repetition of physical movements, sounds, words, moving objects, or other behaviors. Such behaviors are found to some degree in all people, especially those with developmental disabilities such as ADHD, as well as autistic people. People diagnosed with sensory processing disorder are also known to potentially exhibit stimming behaviors.
Societal and cultural aspects of autism or sociology of autism come into play with recognition of autism, approaches to its support services and therapies, and how autism affects the definition of personhood. The autistic community is divided primarily into two camps; the autism rights movement and the Pathology paradigm. The pathology paradigm advocates for supporting research into therapies, treatments, and/or a cure to help minimize or remove autistic traits, seeing treatment as vital to help individuals with autism, while the neurodiversity movement believes autism should be seen as a different way of being and advocates against a cure and interventions that focus on normalization, seeing it as trying to exterminate autistic people and their individuality. Both are controversial in autism communities and advocacy which has led to significant infighting between these two camps. While the dominant paradigm is the pathology paradigm and is followed largely by autism research and scientific communities, the neurodiversity movement is highly popular among most autistic people, within autism advocacy, autism rights organizations, and related neurodiversity approaches have been rapidly growing and applied in the autism research field in the last few years.
Classic autism, also known as childhood autism, autistic disorder, (early) infantile autism, infantile psychosis, Kanner's autism,Kanner's syndrome, or (formerly) just autism, is a neurodevelopmental condition first described by Leo Kanner in 1943. It is characterized by atypical and impaired development in social interaction and communication as well as restricted, repetitive behaviors, activities, and interests. These symptoms first appear in early childhood and persist throughout life.
Autism, formally called autism spectrum disorder (ASD) or autism spectrum condition (ASC), is a neurodevelopmental disorder marked by deficits in reciprocal social communication and the presence of restricted and repetitive patterns of behavior. Other common signs include difficulties with social interaction, verbal and nonverbal communication, along with perseverative interests, stereotypic body movements, rigid routines, and hyper- or hyporeactivity to sensory input. Autism is clinically regarded as a spectrum disorder, meaning that it can manifest very differently in each person. For example, some are nonspeaking, while others have proficient spoken language. Because of this, there is wide variation in the support needs of people across the autism spectrum.
Diagnosis, treatment, and experiences of autism varies globally. Although the diagnosis of autism is rising in post-industrial nations, diagnosis rates are much lower in developing nations.
The history of autism spans over a century; autism has been subject to varying treatments, being pathologized or being viewed as a beneficial part of human neurodiversity. The understanding of autism has been shaped by cultural, scientific, and societal factors, and its perception and treatment change over time as scientific understanding of autism develops.
Sex and gender differences in autism exist regarding prevalence, presentation, and diagnosis.
Discrimination against autistic people is the discrimination, persecution, and oppression that autistic people have been subjected to. Discrimination against autistic people is a form of ableism.
Autistic masking, also referred to as camouflaging or neurodivergent masking, is the conscious or subconscious suppression of autistic behaviors and compensation of difficulties in social interaction by autistic people with the goal of being perceived as neurotypical. Masking is a learned coping strategy that can be successful from the perspective of autistic people, but can also lead to adverse mental health outcomes.
Current research indicates that autistic people have higher rates of LGBT identities and feelings than the general population. A variety of explanations for this have been proposed, such as prenatal hormonal exposure, which has been linked with both sexual orientation, gender dysphoria and autism. Alternatively, autistic people may be less reliant on social norms and thus are more open about their orientation or gender identity. A narrative review published in 2016 stated that while various hypotheses have been proposed for an association between autism and gender dysphoria, they lack strong evidence.
The theory of the double empathy problem is a psychological and sociological theory first coined in 2012 by Damian Milton, an autistic autism researcher. This theory proposes that many of the difficulties autistic individuals face when socializing with non-autistic individuals are due, in part, to a lack of mutual understanding between the two groups, meaning that most autistic people struggle to understand and empathize with non-autistic people, whereas most non-autistic people also struggle to understand and empathize with autistic people. This lack of understanding may stem from bidirectional differences in communication style, social-cognitive characteristics, and experiences between autistic and non-autistic individuals, but not necessarily an inherent deficiency. Recent studies have shown that most autistic individuals are able to socialize, communicate effectively, empathize well, and display social reciprocity with most other autistic individuals. This theory and subsequent findings challenge the commonly held belief that the social skills of autistic individuals are inherently impaired, as well as the theory of "mind-blindness" proposed by prominent autism researcher Simon Baron-Cohen in the mid-1980s, which suggested that empathy and theory of mind are universally impaired in autistic individuals.
Autistic burnout is a prolonged state of intense fatigue, decreased executive functioning or life skills, and increased sensory processing sensitivity experienced by autistic people. Autistic burnout is thought to be caused by stress arising from masking or living in a neurotypical environment that is not autism-friendly. While not formally recognized as a medical condition in the DSM-5, autistic burnout has become increasingly recognized within the autistic community and gained attention among researchers, clinicians, and autistic people themselves as a significant aspect of the autistic experience.
Neurodivergent people present distinct issues in labor rights. They may individually or as a demographic have occupational preferences or requests for accommodation which differ from neurotypical workers. While some neurodivergent people may need workplace support in a medical model of disability, other people may only want cultural understanding in a social model of disability.
Kassiane A. Asasumasu is an American autism rights activist who is credited for coining several terms related to the Neurodiversity Movement, including caregiver benevolence (2014), neurodivergent, and neurodivergence (2000). As stated in the text Neurodiversity for Dummies, "Asasumasu's work set the stage for a broader understanding and acceptance of neurological differences", which "continue[s] to be shared, shaped and formed by all sorts of people who recogniz[e] that our world should be accepting, inclusive, and accommodating of people regardless of their neurotype".
For me, the key significance of the 'autism spectrum' lies in its call for and anticipation of a politics of neurological diversity, or neurodiversity.
A project called CyberSpace 2000 is devoted to getting as many people as possible in the autistic spectrum hooked up by the year 2000, the reason being that "the Internet is an essential means for autistic people to improve their lives because it is often the only way they can communicate effectively."
Yet, in trying to come to terms with [a neurotypical-dominated] world, autistics are neither willing nor able to give up their own customs. Instead, they are proposing a new social compact, one emphasizing neurological pluralism. [...] The consensus emerging from the Internet forums and Web sites where autistics congregate [...] is that NT is only one of many neurological configurations – the dominant one certainly, but not necessarily the best.
Applied Behavioural Analysis (ABA). Advances in Autism
We recommend, therefore, that the term neurodiverse include the conditions ASD, ADHD, OCD, language disorders, developmental coordination disorder, dyslexia and Tourette's syndrome.