Han chauvinism | |||||||||
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Traditional Chinese | 大漢族主義 | ||||||||
Simplified Chinese | 大汉族主义 | ||||||||
Literal meaning | Great Han-ism | ||||||||
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Alternative Chinese name | |||||||||
Traditional Chinese | 大漢民族主義 | ||||||||
Simplified Chinese | 大汉民族主义 | ||||||||
Literal meaning | Great Han nationalism | ||||||||
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Discrimination |
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Han chauvinism is a political ideology that speaks out for the ethnic Han Chinese people and its uniqueness throughout human history. Han chauvinists believe that the current influence from the West has downgraded the development of China's own cultural customs, and in response, it has become instrumental in leading the increasingly traditionalist movement, which was launched in 2001. Participants come together both online and in person in cities across China to revitalize their vision of the authentic “Great Han” and corresponding “real China” through traditional ethnic dress and Confucian ritual. [1] [2]
The constitution of the People's Republic of China officially opposes "Han chauvinism" and "local ethnic chauvinism". The latter refers to nationalism based on the anti-Han sentiment or separatist nationalism of ethnic minorities in China.
Han Chinese nationalism has a historic root of being focused on the Han Chinese people, the dominant ethnic group in China. Han Chinese nationalism had been often used as a rallying force stemming the historical pride of Han Chinese people and the way it developed to become one of the world's earliest civilizations. [3] [4]
Since the Han dynasty, ideas of Han Chinese nationalism have appeared when China started to adopt ethnic minorities, Han were called "Huaxia" at the time. [5] [6] [7] The Han people called themselves "Han" since the Southern and Northern dynasties to commemorate the Han dynasty and then distinguish it from the Northern nomadic peoples.[ citation needed ]
Mao Zedong first criticized Han chauvinism in 1938 and these criticisms continued throughout his rule. [8] For example, Mao's 1956 speech On the Ten Major Relationships emphasizes the need to oppose Han chauvinism. [9]
The Chinese Communist Party (CCP)'s notions of China as a multicultural state have been subjected to criticism by the western media. [10] Many policies have been made to give privileges to minority ethnicities, leading to legal inequality. [11] [12]
CCP former leader Deng Xiaoping also criticized Han chauvinism. [8]
The current CCP general secretary Xi Jinping has officially criticized Han chauvinism. [13] However, the Chinese Dream, a core concept of Xi is believed by some to have nationalistic dimensions, [14] [15] [16] and under Xi, the CCP portrays itself as the custodian of a conservative, Han-centric vision of "China's outstanding traditional culture". [17]
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Although the current Chinese government has largely attempted to promote the idea of a multiethnic nationalism instead of a singular ethnic nationalism, individuals have pointed about the lack of an agreed-upon definition of Chinese nationalism may have impacted on China's political decision with regard to other non-Han people and non-Chinese nations. [18] [19] [1] [20]
Since the annexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China, controversy has existed due to the view that Tibet was historically a feudal region which practiced serfdom/slavery and that this only changed due to communist influence in the region in order to liberate the Tibetans. [21] [22] [23] [24] Some academics have described relations with Tibetans as a form of Han settler colonialism. [25] [26] [27]
Since 1758, the region of Xinjiang have had issues with government policy, which further extended to ethnic relations. [28] Han and Hui people often live closer to Uyghurs and stereotypes were developed. [29]
Mongols have been perceived to be better integrated into the society than that of Uyghurs and Tibetans. [30] However, there were ethnic tensions and stereotypes. [31] [32]
Han nationalism and Chinese nationalism (as well as Han Chinese chauvinism or Chinese chauvinism) are different in terms of ideology, with the latter frequently focusing on a more multi-ethnic form of nationalism. [33] There were a significant and large group of proponents of a multi-ethnic form of Chinese nationalism along with other scholars as well. [34] [35]
The multifaceted image of Han Chinese nationalism further developed during the buildup to modern Chinese statehood. [36] [37] [38] [39] Han Chinese nationalism also played a part in World War II, when the Second Sino-Japanese War occurred, where the Han Chinese people frequently suffered, and fought, against the Japanese. [40] [41]
The Uyghurs, alternatively spelled Uighurs, Uygurs or Uigurs, are a Turkic ethnic group originating from and culturally affiliated with the general region of Central and East Asia. The Uyghurs are recognized as the titular nationality of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in Northwest China. They are one of China's 55 officially recognized ethnic minorities. The Uyghurs are recognized by the Chinese government as a regional minority and the titular people of Xinjiang.
The Hui people are an East Asian ethnoreligious group predominantly composed of Chinese-speaking adherents of Islam. They are distributed throughout China, mainly in the northwestern provinces and in the Zhongyuan region. According to the 2010 census, China is home to approximately 10.5 million Hui people. Outside China, the 170,000 Dungan people of Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, Panthays in Myanmar, Hui Chin Haws in Thailand are also considered part of the Hui ethnicity.
Ethnic minorities in China are the non-Han population in the People's Republic of China (PRC).
Chinese nationalism is a form of nationalism in which asserts that the Chinese people are a nation and promotes the cultural and national unity of all Chinese people. According to Sun Yat-sen's philosophy in the Three Principles of the People, Chinese nationalism is evaluated as multi-ethnic nationalism, which should be distinguished from Han nationalism or local ethnic nationalism.
Hui pan-nationalism refers to the common identity among diverse communities of Chinese-speaking Muslims. Hui pan-nationalism should be distinguished from nationalist sentiments by minority groups who are also Muslim such as those of the Uyghurs. These sentiments are grounded upon the Hui "zealously preserving and protecting their identity as enclaves ensconced in the dominant Han society." In exchange for support during the Cultural Revolution, the Hui were granted high political participation. Hui pan-nationalism was one of the first sources of modern Chinese nationalism, influenced by Western, Japanese and Soviet influences.
Han nationalism is a form of ethnic nationalism asserting ethnically Han people as the exclusive constituents of the Chinese nation. It is often in dialogue with other conceptions of Chinese nationalism, often mutually-exclusive or otherwise contradictory ones. Han people are the dominant ethnic group in both states claiming to represent the Chinese nation: the Republic of China and the People's Republic of China.
Human rights in China are periodically reviewed by international bodies, such as human rights treaty bodies and the United Nations Human Rights Council's Universal Periodic Review. The Chinese Communist Party (CCP), the government of the People's Republic of China (PRC), their supporters, and other proponents claim that existing policies and enforcement measures are sufficient to guard against human rights abuses. However, other countries, international non-governmental organizations (NGOs) including Human Rights in China and Amnesty International, and citizens, lawyers, and dissidents inside the country, state that the authorities in mainland China regularly sanction or organize such abuses.
The East Turkestan independence movement is a political movement that seeks the independence of East Turkestan, a large and sparsely-populated region in northwest China, as a nation state for the Uyghur people. The region is currently administered as a province-level subdivision of the People's Republic of China (PRC), under the official name Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region (XUAR). Within the movement, there is widespread support for the region to be renamed, since "Xinjiang" is seen by independence activists as a colonial name. "East Turkestan" is the best-known proposed name as it is the historical geographic name of the region and the name of the two independent states that briefly existed in the region in the first half of the 20th century.
The Three Evils is a political slogan of the People's Republic of China defined as terrorism, separatism and religious extremism. The phrase refers to declared counter-terrorism operations undertaken by China, Central Asian republics, and Russia, primarily as related to Xinjiang. The Chinese government views each of the Three Evils as interrelated phenomena driving persistent instability in the westernmost province of Xinjiang, and the slogan has been deployed extensively in support of Xinjiang internment camps since 2017.
Terrorism in China refers to the use or threatened use of violence to effect political or ideological change in the People's Republic of China. The definition of terrorism differs among scholars, between international and national bodies and across time and there is no legally binding definition internationally. In the cultural setting of China, the term is relatively new and ambiguous.
Racism in China arises from Chinese history, nationalism, sinicization, and other factors. Racism in the People's Republic of China has been documented in numerous situations. Ethnic tensions have led to numerous incidents in the country such as the Xinjiang conflict, the ongoing internment and state persecution of Uyghurs and other ethnic minorities, the 2010 Tibetan language protest, the 2020 Inner Mongolia protests, discrimination against Africans in particular and discrimination against Black people in general.
After the fall of the Qing dynasty following the Xinhai Revolution (1911-1912), Sun Yat-sen, who led the new Republic of China (1912–1949), immediately proclaimed that the country belonged equally to the Han, Hui (Muslim), Meng (Mongol), and Tsang (Tibetan) peoples. When the People's Republic of China was established in 1949, Chinese Muslims suffered political repression along with all other religious groups in China, especially during the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976).
A conquest dynasty in the history of China refers to a Chinese dynasty established by non-Han ethnicities which ruled parts or all of China proper, the traditional heartland of the Han people, and whose rulers may or may not have fully assimilated into the dominant Han culture.
Zhonghua minzu is a political term in modern Chinese nationalism related to the concepts of nation-building, ethnicity, and race in the Chinese nationality.
Xinjiang, officially the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, is an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China (PRC), located in the northwest of the country at the crossroads of Central Asia and East Asia. Being the largest province-level division of China by area and the 8th-largest country subdivision in the world, Xinjiang spans over 1.6 million square kilometres (620,000 sq mi) and has about 25 million inhabitants. Xinjiang borders the countries of Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Pakistan, Russia, Tajikistan, and India. The rugged Karakoram, Kunlun and Tian Shan mountain ranges occupy much of Xinjiang's borders, as well as its western and southern regions. The Aksai Chin and Trans-Karakoram Tract regions are administered by China but also claimed by India. Xinjiang also borders the Tibet Autonomous Region and the provinces of Gansu and Qinghai. The most well-known route of the historic Silk Road ran through the territory from the east to its northwestern border.
Chen Quanguo is a Chinese retired politician who was the Chinese Communist Party Committee Secretary of Tibet Autonomous Region from 2011 to 2016 and of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region from 2016 to 2021, making him the only person to serve as the Party Secretary for both autonomous regions. Between 2017 and 2022, he was a member of the 19th Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party and was also Political Commissar of the Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps concurrently with his position as Xinjiang Party Secretary.
The Chinese Dream, also called the China Dream, is a term closely associated with Xi Jinping, the General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and China's paramount leader. Xi began promoting the phrase as a slogan during a high-profile tour of an exhibit at the National Museum of China in November 2012, shortly after he became leader of the CCP. The exhibit at that time was called the "Road to National Rejuvenation". Xi said that the Chinese Dream is the "great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation".
Secession in China refers to several secessionist movements in the People's Republic of China. Many current separatist movements in China arise from the country's ethnic issues. Some of the factors that have created these ethnic issues include history, nationalism, economic and political disparity, religion, and other factors. China has historically had tensions between the majority Han and other minority ethnic groups, particularly in rural and border regions. Historically, other ruling ethnicities, such as the Manchu of the early-Qing dynasty, experienced ethnic issues as well.
Uyghur nationalism is a nationalist movement which asserts that the Uyghur people, an ethnic minority in China, are a distinct nation. Uyghur nationalism promotes the cultural unity of the Uyghur people, either as an independent group or as a regional group within a larger Chinese nation.
Local ethnic nationalism or local ethnic chauvinism refers to a form of nationalism that divides China (PRC) by refusing to unite with the Han Chinese by focusing only on the 'national/ethnic interests' (民族利益) of ethnic minorities in China.
Under Xi Jinping, the CCP portrays itself as the custodian of a conservative, Han-centric vision of 'China's outstanding traditional culture' (Vickers 2021a).
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