Caribbean

This article is about the group of islands. For the body of water surrounding them, see Caribbean Sea. For the indigenous inhabitants of the Caribbean or people of Caribbean descent, see Caribbean people. For other uses, see Caribbean (disambiguation).

Coordinates: 14°31′32″N75°49′06″W / 14.52556°N 75.81833°W / 14.52556; -75.81833

Caribbean

Area	239,681 km2 (92,541 sq mi)
Population	44,182,048 [1] [2]
Population density	151.5/km2 (392/sq mi)
Ethnic groups	Afro-Caribbean, Latino or Hispanic (Spanish, Portuguese, Criollo, Mestizo, Mulatto, Pardo, and Zambo), Indian, European, Chinese, Jewish, Arab, Amerindian, Javanese, [3] Hmong, Multiracial
Religions	Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, Afro-American religions, Traditional African religions, Rastafari, Native American religions, Judaism, Buddhism, Chinese folk religions (incl. Confucianism and Taoism), Bahá'í, Kebatinan, Sikhism, Irreligion, others
Demonym	Caribbean, West Indian
Countries	13-16
Dependencies	12
Languages	English Spanish French Dutch French Creoles Haitian Creole English Creoles Dutch Creoles Spanish Creoles Papiamento Caribbean Hindustani Chinese among others
Time zones	UTC−05:00 to UTC−04:00
Internet TLD	Multiple
Calling code	Multiple
Largest cities	List of metropolitan areas in the West Indies Santo Domingo Port-au-Prince San Juan Havana Kingston Santiago de los Caballeros Santiago de Cuba Willemstad Oranjestad Punta Cana Cap-Haïtien Nassau Paramaribo Chetumal Spanish Town Porlamar Cayenne Georgetown Bridgetown Port of Spain Belize City
UN M49 code	029 – Caribbean 419 – Latin America and the Caribbean 019 – Americas 001 – World

The Caribbean ( /ˌkærɪˈbiːən,kəˈrɪbiən/ KARR-ib-EE-ən, kə-RIB-ee-ən, locally /ˈkærɪbiæn/ KARR-ib-ee-an; ^[4] Spanish : el Caribe; French : les Caraïbes; Haitian Creole : Karayib; Dutch : de Caraïben) is a subregion of the Americas that consists of the Caribbean Sea and its islands (some surrounded by the Caribbean Sea ^[5] and some bordering both the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean); ^[6] the nearby coastal areas on the mainland may also be included. The region is southeast of the Gulf of Mexico and the North American mainland, east of Central America, and north of South America.

Situated largely on the Caribbean Plate, the region has more than 700 islands, islets, reefs, and cays (see the list of Caribbean islands). Island arcs delineate the northern and eastern edges of the Caribbean Sea: ^[7] the Greater Antilles in the north and the Lesser Antilles (which includes the Leeward Antilles) in the east and south. The nearby Lucayan Archipelago (comprising The Bahamas and the Turks and Caicos Islands) is considered to be a part of the Caribbean despite not bordering the Caribbean Sea. All the islands in the Antilles plus the Lucayan Archipelago form the West Indies, which is often interchangeable with the term Caribbean. On the mainland, Belize, Guyana, and Suriname are often included as parts of the Caribbean due to their political and cultural ties with the region. ^[8]

Geopolitically, the islands of the Caribbean are often regarded as a subregion of North America, though sometimes they are included in Middle America or left as a subregion of their own ^{[9] [10]} and are organized into 33 political entities, including 13 sovereign states, 12 dependencies, 1 disputed territory, and 7 other overseas territories. From December 15, 1954, to October 10, 2010, there was a territory known as the Netherlands Antilles composed of five islands, all of which were Dutch dependencies. ^[11] From January 3, 1958, to May 31, 1962, there was also a short-lived political union called the West Indies Federation composed of ten English-speaking Caribbean territories, all of which were then British dependencies. The West Indies cricket team continues to represent many of those nations.

Etymology and pronunciation

The region takes its name from that of the Caribs, an ethnic group present in the Lesser Antilles and parts of adjacent South America at the time of the Spanish conquest of the Americas. ^[12]

The two most prevalent pronunciations of "Caribbean" outside the Caribbean are /ˌkærɪˈbiːən/ (KARR-ə-BEE-ən), with the primary stress on the third syllable, and /kəˈrɪbiən/ (kə-RIB-ee-ən), with the stress on the second. Most authorities of the last century preferred the stress on the third syllable. ^[13] This is the older of the two pronunciations, but the stressed-second-syllable variant has been established for over 75 years. ^[14] It has been suggested that speakers of British English prefer /ˌkærɪˈbiːən/ (KARR-ə-BEE-ən) while North American speakers more typically use /kəˈrɪbiən/ (kə-RIB-ee-ən), ^[15] but major American dictionaries and other sources list the stress on the third syllable as more common in American English too. ^{[16] [17] [18] [19]} According to the American version of Oxford Online Dictionaries, the stress on the second syllable is becoming more common in UK English and is increasingly considered "by some" to be more up to date and more "correct". ^[20]

The Oxford Online Dictionaries claim that the stress on the second syllable is the most common pronunciation in the Caribbean itself, but according to the Dictionary of Caribbean English Usage, the most common pronunciation in Caribbean English stresses the first syllable instead, /ˈkærɪbiæn/ (KARR-ih-bee-an). ^{[4] [20]}

Definition

Map of the Caribbean

The word "Caribbean" has multiple uses. Its principal ones are geographical and political. The Caribbean can also be expanded to include territories with strong cultural and historical connections to Africa, slavery, European colonisation and the plantation system.

• The United Nations geoscheme for the Americas presents the Caribbean as a distinct region within the Americas.
• Physiographically, the Caribbean region is mainly a chain of islands surrounding the Caribbean Sea. To the north, the region is bordered by the Gulf of Mexico, the Straits of Florida and the Northern Atlantic Ocean, which lies to the east and northeast. To the south lies the coastline of the continent of South America.

Countries and territories list

Main article: List of Caribbean islands

See also: Caribbean South America and West Indies

Flag	Country or territory [21] [22] [23]	Sovereignty	Status	Area (km2) [24]	Population (2021 est.) [1] [2]	Density (people per km2)	Capital
	Anguilla	United Kingdom	British overseas territory	91	15,753	164.8	The Valley
	Antigua and Barbuda	Independent	Constitutional monarchy	442	93,219	199.1	St. John's
	Aruba	Kingdom of the Netherlands	Constituent kingdom	180	106,537	594.4	Oranjestad
	The Bahamas [25]	Independent	Constitutional monarchy	13,943	407,906	24.5	Nassau
	Barbados	Independent	Republic	430	287,025	595.3	Bridgetown
	Bonaire	Netherlands	Special Municipality	294	20,104 [26]	41.1	Kralendijk
	British Virgin Islands	United Kingdom	British overseas territory	151	31,122	152.3	Road Town
	Cayman Islands	United Kingdom	British overseas territory	264	68,136	212.1	George Town
	Cuba	Independent	Republic	109,886	11,256,372	102.0	Havana
	Curaçao	Kingdom of the Netherlands	Constituent kingdom	444	190,338	317.1	Willemstad
	Dominica	Independent	Republic	751	72,412	89.2	Roseau
	Dominican Republic	Independent	Republic	48,671	11,117,873	207.3	Santo Domingo
	Federal Dependencies of Venezuela	Venezuela	Territories	342	2,155	6.3	Gran Roque
	Grenada	Independent	Constitutional monarchy	344	124,610	302.3	St. George's
	Guadeloupe	France	Overseas department and region of France	1,628	396,051	246.7	Basse-Terre
	Haiti	Independent	Republic	27,750	11,447,569	361.5	Port-au-Prince
	Jamaica	Independent	Constitutional monarchy	10,991	2,827,695	247.4	Kingston
	Martinique	France	Overseas department	1,128	368,796	352.6	Fort-de-France
	Montserrat	United Kingdom	British overseas territory	102	4,417	58.8	Plymouth (Brades) [27]
	Navassa Island	United States/Haiti	Territory (uninhabited)	5	0	0.0	n/a
	Nueva Esparta	Venezuela	State	1,151	491,610		La Asunción
	Puerto Rico	United States	Commonwealth	8,870	3,256,028	448.9	San Juan
	Saba	Netherlands	Special municipality	13	1,537 [26]	118.2	The Bottom
	San Andrés and Providencia	Colombia	Department	52.5	75,167	1431	San Andrés
	Saint Barthélemy	France	Overseas collectivity	21	7,448	354.7	Gustavia
	Saint Kitts and Nevis	Independent	Constitutional monarchy	261	47,606	199.2	Basseterre
	Saint Lucia	Independent	Constitutional monarchy	539	179,651	319.1	Castries
	Saint Martin	France	Overseas collectivity	54	29,820	552.2	Marigot
	Saint Vincent and the Grenadines	Independent	Constitutional monarchy	389	104,332	280.2	Kingstown
	Sint Eustatius	Netherlands	Special municipality	21	2,739 [26]	130.4	Oranjestad
	Sint Maarten	Kingdom of the Netherlands	Constituent kingdom	34	44,042	1176.7	Philipsburg
	Trinidad and Tobago	Independent	Republic	5,130	1,525,663	261.0	Port of Spain
	Turks and Caicos Islands [28]	United Kingdom	British overseas territory	948	45,114	34.8	Cockburn Town
	United States Virgin Islands	United States	Territory	347	100,091	317.0	Charlotte Amalie
Total				235,667	44,636,789	189.4

History

Main article: History of the Caribbean

Pre-Columbian languages of the Antilles.Ciboney Taíno, Classic Taíno, and Iñeri were Arawakan, Karina and Yao were Cariban. Macorix, Ciguayo and Guanahatabey are unclassified.

The oldest evidence of humans in the Caribbean is in southern Trinidad at Banwari Trace, where remains have been found from seven thousand years ago. These pre-ceramic sites, which belong to the Archaic (pre-ceramic) age, have been termed Ortoiroid. The earliest archaeological evidence of human settlement in Hispaniola dates to about 3600 BC, but the reliability of these finds is questioned. Consistent dates of 3100 BC appear in Cuba. The earliest dates in the Lesser Antilles are from 2000 BC in Antigua. A lack of pre-ceramic sites in the Windward Islands and differences in technology suggest that these Archaic settlers may have Central American origins. Whether an Ortoiroid colonization of the islands took place is uncertain, but there is little evidence of one.

DNA studies changed some of the traditional beliefs about pre-Columbian indigenous history. According to National Geographic, "studies confirm that a wave of pottery-making farmers—known as Ceramic Age people—set out in canoes from the northeastern coast of South America starting some 2,500 years ago and island-hopped across the Caribbean. They were not, however, the first colonizers. On many islands they encountered a foraging people who arrived some 6,000 or 7,000 years ago...The ceramicists, who are related to today's Arawak-speaking peoples, supplanted the earlier foraging inhabitants—presumably through disease or violence—as they settled new islands." ^[29]

Between 400 BC and 200 BC the first ceramic-using agriculturalists, the Saladoid culture, entered Trinidad from South America. They expanded up the Orinoco River to Trinidad, and then spread rapidly up the islands of the Caribbean. Some time after 250 AD another group, the Barancoid, entered Trinidad. The Barancoid society collapsed along the Orinoco around 650 AD and another group, the Arauquinoid, expanded into these areas and up the Caribbean chain. Around 1300 AD a new group, the Mayoid, entered Trinidad and remained the dominant culture until Spanish settlement.

At the time of the European discovery of most of the islands of the Caribbean, three major Amerindian indigenous peoples lived on the islands: the Taíno in the Greater Antilles, the Bahamas and the Leeward Islands, the Island Caribs and Galibi in the Windward Islands, and the Ciboney in western Cuba. The Taínos are subdivided into Classic Taínos, who occupied Hispaniola and Puerto Rico, Western Taínos, who occupied Cuba, Jamaica, and the Bahamian archipelago, and the Eastern Taínos, who occupied the Leeward Islands. Trinidad was inhabited by both Carib speaking and Arawak-speaking groups.

European Contact

See also: Slavery in the British and French Caribbean and Encomienda § Deaths, disease, and accusations of ethnocide or genocide

Soon after Christopher Columbus came to the Caribbean, both Portuguese and Spanish explorers began claiming territories in Central and South America. These early colonies brought gold to Europe; most specifically England, the Netherlands, and France. These nations hoped to establish profitable colonies in the Caribbean. Colonial rivalries made the Caribbean a cockpit for European wars for centuries.

Columbus, and the early colonists of Hispaniola, treated the indigenous peoples brutally, even enslaving children. ^[30] In 1512, after pressure from Dominican friars, the Laws of Burgos were introduced by the Spanish Crown to better protect the rights of the New World natives. The Spanish used a form of slavery called the Encomienda , where slaves would be awarded to the conquistadors, who were charged with protecting and converting their slaves. This had a devastating impact on the population, ^[31] so starting in 1503, slaves from Africa were imported to the colony.

While early slave traders were Portuguese and Spanish, known as the First Atlantic System, by the 17th century the trade became dominated by British, French, and Dutch merchants. This was known as the Second Atlantic System. 5 million African slaves would be taken to the Caribbean, and around half would be traded to the British Caribbean islands. Slavery was abolished first in the Dutch Empire in 1814. Spain abolished slavery in its empire in 1811, with the exceptions of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Santo Domingo. Slavery was not abolished in Cuba until 1886. ^[32] Britain abolished the slave trade in 1807, and slavery proper in 1833. France abolished slavery in its colonies in 1848.

The Battle of the Saintes between British and French fleets in 1782, by Nicholas Pocock

The Caribbean was known for pirates, especially between 1640 and 1680. The term "buccaneer" is often used to describe a pirate operating in this region. The Caribbean region was war-torn throughout much of its colonial history, but the wars were often based in Europe, with only minor battles fought in the Caribbean. Some wars, however, were born of political turmoil in the Caribbean itself.

In 1791, a slave rebellion in the French colony of Saint-Domingue led to the establishment in 1804 of Haiti, the first republic in the Caribbean. Cuba became independent in 1898 following American intervention in the War of Independence during the Spanish-American war. Following the war, Spain's last colony in the Americas, Puerto Rico, became an unincorporated territory of the United States.

Decolonisation and Modern period

Between the 1960s and 80s, most of the British holdings in the Caribbean achieved political independence, starting with Jamaica in 1962, then Trinidad and Tobago (1962), British Guiana (1966), Barbados (1966), Bahamas (1973), Grenada (1974), Dominica (1978), St. Lucia (1979), St. Vincent (1979), Antigua and Barbuda (1981), St. Kitts and Nevis (1983). Presently, the United States, Britain, France and the Netherlands still have some Caribbean possessions.

The decline of the export industries meant a need to diversify the economies of the Caribbean territories. The tourism industry started developing in the early 20th century, rapidly developing in the 1960s when regular international flights made vacations affordable and is now a $50 billion industry. Another industry that developed in the early 20th century was offshore banking and financial services, particularly in The Bahamas and the Cayman Islands, as the proximity of the Caribbean islands to North America made them an attractive location for branches of foreign banks seeking to avail themselves of more complicated regulations and higher tax rates.

US interventions

See also: Foreign interventions by the United States and American imperialism

The United States has conducted military operations in the Caribbean for at least 100 years. ^[33]

Since the Monroe Doctrine, the United States gained a major influence on most Caribbean nations. In the early part of the 20th century this influence was extended by participation in the Banana Wars. Victory in the Spanish–American War and the signing of the Platt Amendment in 1901 ensured that the United States would have the right to interfere in Cuban political and economic affairs, militarily if necessary. After the Cuban Revolution of 1959, relations deteriorated rapidly leading to the Bay of Pigs Invasion, the Cuban Missile Crisis, and successive US attempts to destabilize the island, based upon Cold War fears of the Soviet threat. The US invaded and occupied Hispaniola for 19 years (1915–34), subsequently dominating the Haitian economy through aid and loan repayments. The US invaded Haiti again in 1994 and in 2004 were accused by CARICOM of arranging a coup d'état to remove elected Haitian leader Jean-Bertrand Aristide. In 1965, 23,000 US troops were sent to the Dominican Republic to quash a local uprising against military rule (see Dominican Civil War). President Lyndon Johnson had ordered the invasion to stem what he deemed to be a "Communist threat." However, the mission appeared ambiguous and was roundly condemned throughout the hemisphere as a return to gunboat diplomacy. In 1983, the US invaded Grenada to remove populist left-wing leader Maurice Bishop. The US maintains a naval military base in Cuba at Guantanamo Bay. The base is one of five unified commands whose "area of responsibility" is Latin America and the Caribbean. The command is headquartered in Miami, Florida.

• 
  Counter-attack by Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces supported by T-34 tanks near Playa Giron during the Bay of Pigs Invasion, 19 April 1961.
• 
  A Marine heavy machine gunner monitors a position along the international neutral corridor in Santo Domingo, 1965.
• 
  A Soviet-made BTR-60 armored personnel carrier seized by US forces during Operation Urgent Fury (1983)
• 
  US Army Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk, Bell AH-1 Cobra and Bell OH-58 Kiowa helicopters on deck of the US Navy aircraft carrier USS Dwight D. Eisenhower (CVN-69) off Haiti, 1994.

Geography and geology

  The Caribbean Plate

The geography and climate in the Caribbean region varies: Some islands in the region have relatively flat terrain of non-volcanic origin. These islands include Aruba (possessing only minor volcanic features), Curaçao, Barbados, Bonaire, the Cayman Islands, Saint Croix, the Bahamas, and Antigua. Others possess rugged towering mountain-ranges like the islands of Saint Martin, Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, Dominica, Montserrat, Saba, Sint Eustatius, Saint Kitts, Saint Lucia, Saint Thomas, Saint John, Tortola, Grenada, Saint Vincent, Guadeloupe, Martinique and Trinidad and Tobago.

Definitions of the terms Greater Antilles and Lesser Antilles often vary. The Virgin Islands as part of the Puerto Rican bank are sometimes included with the Greater Antilles. The term Lesser Antilles is often used to define an island arc that includes Grenada but excludes Trinidad and Tobago and the Leeward Antilles.

The waters of the Caribbean Sea host large, migratory schools of fish, turtles, and coral reef formations. The Puerto Rico Trench, located on the fringe of the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea just to the north of the island of Puerto Rico, is the deepest point in all of the Atlantic Ocean. ^[34]

The region sits in the line of several major shipping routes with the Panama Canal connecting the western Caribbean Sea with the Pacific Ocean.

Climate

Tropical monsoon climate in San Andrés island, Caribbean, Colombia.

Köppen climate map of the islands of the Caribbean.

The climate of the area is tropical, varying from tropical rainforest in some areas to tropical monsoon and tropical savanna in others. There are also some locations that are arid climates with considerable drought in some years, and the peaks of mountains tend to have cooler temperate climates.

Rainfall varies with elevation, size and water currents, such as the cool upwellings that keep the ABC islands arid. Warm, moist trade winds blow consistently from the east, creating both rain forest and semi arid climates across the region. The tropical rainforest climates include lowland areas near the Caribbean Sea from Costa Rica north to Belize, as well as the Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico, while the more seasonal dry tropical savanna climates are found in Cuba, northern Colombia and Venezuela, and southern Yucatán, Mexico. Arid climates are found along the extreme northern coast of Venezuela out to the islands including Aruba and Curacao, as well as the northwestern tip of Yucatán.

While the region generally is sunny much of the year, the wet season from May through November sees more frequent cloud cover (both broken and overcast), while the dry season from December through April is more often clear to mostly sunny. Seasonal rainfall is divided into 'dry' and 'wet' seasons, with the latter six months of the year being wetter than the first half. The air temperature is hot much of the year, varying from 25 to 33 C (77 F to 90 F) between the wet and dry seasons. Seasonally, monthly mean temperatures vary from only about 5 C (7 F) in the northern most regions, to less than 3 C in the southernmost areas of the Caribbean.

Hurricane season is from June to November, but they occur more frequently in August and September and more common in the northern islands of the Caribbean. Hurricanes that sometimes batter the region usually strike northwards of Grenada and to the west of Barbados. The principal hurricane belt arcs to northwest of the island of Barbados in the Eastern Caribbean. A great example being recent events of Hurricane Irma devastating the island of Saint Martin during the 2017 hurricane season.

Sea surface temperatures change little annually, normally running from 30 °C (87 °F) in the warmest months to 26 °C (76 °F) in the coolest months. The air temperature is warm year round, in the 70s, 80s and 90s, and only varies from winter to summer about 2–5 degrees on the southern islands and about a 10–20 degrees difference on the northern islands of the Caribbean. The northern islands, like the Bahamas, Cuba, Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic, may be influenced by continental masses during winter months, such as cold fronts.

Aruba: Latitude 12°N

Climate data for Oranjestad, Aruba (1981–2010, extremes 1951–2010)
Month	Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec	Year
Record high °C (°F)	32.5 (90.5)	33.0 (91.4)	33.9 (93.0)	34.4 (93.9)	34.9 (94.8)	35.2 (95.4)	35.3 (95.5)	36.1 (97.0)	36.5 (97.7)	35.4 (95.7)	35.0 (95.0)	34.8 (94.6)	36.5 (97.7)
Average high °C (°F)	30.0 (86.0)	30.4 (86.7)	30.9 (87.6)	31.5 (88.7)	32.0 (89.6)	32.2 (90.0)	32.0 (89.6)	32.6 (90.7)	32.7 (90.9)	32.1 (89.8)	31.3 (88.3)	30.4 (86.7)	31.5 (88.7)
Daily mean °C (°F)	26.7 (80.1)	26.8 (80.2)	27.2 (81.0)	27.9 (82.2)	28.5 (83.3)	28.7 (83.7)	28.6 (83.5)	29.1 (84.4)	29.2 (84.6)	28.7 (83.7)	28.1 (82.6)	27.2 (81.0)	28.1 (82.6)
Average low °C (°F)	24.5 (76.1)	24.7 (76.5)	25.0 (77.0)	25.8 (78.4)	26.5 (79.7)	26.7 (80.1)	26.4 (79.5)	26.8 (80.2)	26.9 (80.4)	26.4 (79.5)	25.8 (78.4)	25.0 (77.0)	25.9 (78.6)
Record low °C (°F)	21.3 (70.3)	20.6 (69.1)	21.4 (70.5)	21.5 (70.7)	21.8 (71.2)	22.7 (72.9)	21.2 (70.2)	21.3 (70.3)	22.1 (71.8)	21.9 (71.4)	22.0 (71.6)	20.5 (68.9)	20.5 (68.9)
Average precipitation mm (inches)	39.3 (1.55)	20.6 (0.81)	8.7 (0.34)	11.6 (0.46)	16.3 (0.64)	18.7 (0.74)	31.7 (1.25)	25.8 (1.02)	45.5 (1.79)	77.8 (3.06)	94.0 (3.70)	81.8 (3.22)	471.8 (18.58)
Source: DEPARTAMENTO METEOROLOGICO ARUBA, [35] (extremes) [36]

Puerto Rico: Latitude 18°N

Climate data for San Juan, Puerto Rico
Month	Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec	Year
Record high °C (°F)	33 (92)	36 (96)	36 (96)	36 (97)	36 (96)	36 (97)	35 (95)	35 (95)	36 (97)	36 (97)	37 (98)	36 (96)	34 (94)
Average high °C (°F)	28 (83)	29 (84)	29 (85)	30 (86)	31 (87)	32 (89)	31 (88)	31 (88)	32 (89)	31 (88)	30 (86)	29 (84)	30 (86)
Average low °C (°F)	22 (72)	22 (72)	23 (73)	23 (74)	24 (76)	26 (78)	26 (78)	26 (78)	26 (78)	25 (77)	24 (75)	23 (73)	24 (75)
Record low °C (°F)	16 (61)	17 (62)	16 (60)	18 (64)	18 (64)	19 (66)	21 (69)	20 (68)	21 (69)	19 (67)	18 (65)	17 (62)	16 (61)
Average precipitation mm (inches)	95 (3.7)	60 (2.4)	49 (1.9)	118 (4.6)	150 (5.9)	112 (4.4)	128 (5.0)	138 (5.4)	146 (5.7)	142 (5.6)	161 (6.3)	126 (5.0)	1,431 (56.3)
Source: The National Weather Service [37]

Cuba: at Latitude 22°N

Climate data for Havana
Month	Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec	Year
Record high °C (°F)	32.5 (90.5)	33.0 (91.4)	35.9 (96.6)	36.4 (97.5)	36.9 (98.4)	37.2 (99.0)	38.0 (100.4)	36.1 (97.0)	37.5 (99.5)	35.4 (95.7)	35.0 (95.0)	34.8 (94.6)	38.0 (100.4)
Average high °C (°F)	25.8 (78.4)	26.1 (79.0)	27.6 (81.7)	28.6 (83.5)	29.8 (85.6)	30.5 (86.9)	31.3 (88.3)	31.6 (88.9)	31.0 (87.8)	29.2 (84.6)	27.7 (81.9)	26.5 (79.7)	28.8 (83.8)
Daily mean °C (°F)	22.2 (72.0)	22.4 (72.3)	23.7 (74.7)	24.8 (76.6)	26.1 (79.0)	27.0 (80.6)	27.6 (81.7)	27.9 (82.2)	27.4 (81.3)	26.1 (79.0)	24.5 (76.1)	23.0 (73.4)	25.2 (77.4)
Average low °C (°F)	18.6 (65.5)	18.6 (65.5)	19.7 (67.5)	20.9 (69.6)	22.4 (72.3)	23.4 (74.1)	23.8 (74.8)	24.1 (75.4)	23.8 (74.8)	23.0 (73.4)	21.3 (70.3)	19.5 (67.1)	21.6 (70.9)
Record low °C (°F)	5.1 (41.2)	5.6 (42.1)	5.4 (41.7)	11.5 (52.7)	16.8 (62.2)	19.7 (67.5)	18.2 (64.8)	19.3 (66.7)	19.1 (66.4)	11.9 (53.4)	10.0 (50.0)	7.5 (45.5)	5.1 (41.2)
Average rainfall mm (inches)	64.4 (2.54)	68.6 (2.70)	46.2 (1.82)	53.7 (2.11)	98.0 (3.86)	182.3 (7.18)	105.6 (4.16)	99.6 (3.92)	144.4 (5.69)	180.5 (7.11)	88.3 (3.48)	57.6 (2.27)	1,189.2 (46.84)
Source: World Meteorological Organisation (UN), [38] Climate-Charts.com [39]

A field in Pinar del Rio planted with Cuban tobacco

Puerto Rico's south shore, from the mountains of Jayuya

Grand Anse beach, St. George's, Grenada

A church cemetery perched in the mountains of Guadeloupe

A view of Nevis island from the southeastern peninsula of Saint Kitts

Island groups

Lucayan Archipelago ^{[lower-alpha 1]}

•   The Bahamas
•   Turks and Caicos Islands (United Kingdom)

Greater Antilles

•   Cayman Islands (United Kingdom)
•   Cuba
• Hispaniola
  •   Haiti
  •   Dominican Republic
•   Jamaica
•   Puerto Rico (U.S. Commonwealth)
  • Spanish Virgin Islands
• Navassa Island

Lesser Antilles

• Leeward Islands
  •   United States Virgin Islands (U.S.)
    • Saint Croix
    • Saint Thomas
    • Saint John
    • Water Island
  •   British Virgin Islands (United Kingdom)
    • Tortola
    • Virgin Gorda
    • Anegada
    • Jost Van Dyke
  •   Anguilla (United Kingdom)
  •   Antigua and Barbuda
    • Antigua
    • Barbuda
    • Redonda
  • Saint Martin, politically divided between
    •   Saint Martin (France)
    •   Sint Maarten (Kingdom of the Netherlands)
  •   Saba (Caribbean Netherlands, Netherlands)
  •   Sint Eustatius (Caribbean Netherlands, Netherlands)
  •   Saint Barthélemy (French Antilles, France)
  •   Saint Kitts and Nevis
    • Saint Kitts
    • Nevis
  •   Montserrat (United Kingdom)
  •   Guadeloupe (French Antilles, France) including
    • Les Saintes
    • Marie-Galante
    • La Désirade
• Windward Islands
  •   Dominica
  •   Martinique (French Antilles, France)
  •   Saint Lucia
  •   Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
    • Saint Vincent
    • The Grenadines
  •   Grenada
    • Grenada
    • Carriacou and Petite Martinique
  •   Barbados
  •   Trinidad and Tobago
    • Tobago
    • Trinidad
• Leeward Antilles
  •   Aruba (Kingdom of the Netherlands)
  •   Curaçao (Kingdom of the Netherlands)
  •   Bonaire (Caribbean Netherlands, Netherlands)

Historical groupings

Main article: History of the Caribbean

Spanish Caribbean Islands in the American Viceroyalties 1600

Political evolution of Central America and the Caribbean from 1700 to present

The mostly Spanish-controlled Caribbean in the 18th century

The mostly Spanish-controlled Caribbean in the 16th century

All islands at some point were, and a few still are, colonies of European nations; a few are overseas or dependent territories:

• British West Indies/Anglophone Caribbean – Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Bay Islands, Guyana, Belize, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Dominica, Grenada, Jamaica, Montserrat, Saint Croix (briefly), Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago (from 1797) and the Turks and Caicos Islands
• Danish West Indies – Possession of Denmark-Norway before 1814, then Denmark, present-day United States Virgin Islands
• Dutch West Indies – Aruba, Bonaire, Curaçao, Saba, Sint Eustatius, Sint Maarten, Bay Islands (briefly), Saint Croix (briefly), Tobago, Surinam and Virgin Islands
• French West Indies – Anguilla (briefly), Antigua and Barbuda (briefly), Dominica, Dominican Republic (briefly), Grenada, Haiti (formerly Saint-Domingue), Montserrat (briefly), Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Sint Eustatius (briefly), Sint Maarten, St. Kitts (briefly), Tobago (briefly), Saint Croix, the current French overseas départements of French Guiana, Martinique and Guadeloupe (including Marie-Galante, La Désirade and Les Saintes), the current French overseas collectivities of Saint Barthélemy and Saint Martin
• Portuguese West Indies – present-day Barbados, known as Os Barbados in the 16th century when the Portuguese claimed the island en route to Brazil. The Portuguese left Barbados abandoned years before the British arrived.
• Spanish West Indies – Cuba, Hispaniola (present-day Dominican Republic), Haiti (until 1659, lost to France), Puerto Rico, Jamaica (until 1655, lost to Great Britain), the Cayman Islands (until 1670 to Great Britain) Trinidad (until 1797, lost to Great Britain) and Bay Islands (until 1643, lost to Great Britain), coastal islands of Central America (except Belize), and some Caribbean coastal islands of Panama, Colombia, Mexico, and Venezuela.
• Swedish West Indies – present-day French Saint-Barthélemy, Guadeloupe (briefly) and Tobago (briefly).
• Courlander West Indies – Tobago (until 1691)

The British West Indies were united by the United Kingdom into a West Indies Federation between 1958 and 1962. The independent countries formerly part of the B.W.I. still have a joint cricket team that competes in Test matches, One Day Internationals and Twenty20 Internationals. The West Indian cricket team includes the South American nation of Guyana, the only former British colony on the mainland of that continent.

In addition, these countries share the University of the West Indies as a regional entity. The university consists of three main campuses in Jamaica, Barbados and Trinidad and Tobago, a smaller campus in the Bahamas and Resident Tutors in other contributing territories such as Trinidad.

Continental countries with Caribbean coastlines and islands

Belize Ambergris Caye Caye Caulker Glover's Reef Hick's Cayes Lighthouse Reef St. George's Caye Tobacco Caye Turneffe Atoll   Colombia Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina Bajo Nuevo Bank Crab Cay Quita Sueño Bank Roncador Bank Roncador Cay San Andrés (island) Santa Catalina Island (Colombia) Serrana Bank Serranilla Bank Rosario Islands   Costa Rica Brava Island, Costa Rica Isla Calero Uvita Island   French Guiana   Guatemala   Guyana   Honduras Islas de la Bahía Cayos Cochinos Guanaja Roatán Swan Islands Útila Cayos Cochinos Cayo Gorda Bobel Cay

Nicaragua Corn Islands Miskito Cays Pearl Cays Calala Island Rama Cay   Panama Archipelago off Guna Yala coast (including the San Blas Islands) Bocas del Toro Archipelago (approximately 300 islands) Galeta Island (Panama) Isla Grande Soledad Miria Cayos Limones   Mexico Quintana Roo Banco Chinchorro Cozumel Isla Blanca Isla Contoy Isla Holbox Isla Mujeres   Suriname   Venezuela Blanquilla Island Coche Island Cubagua Island Isla Aves Islas Los Frailes Isla Margarita La Orchila La Sola Island La Tortuga Island Las Aves archipelago Los Hermanos Archipelago Los Monjes Archipelago Los Roques archipelago Los Testigos Islands Patos Island

Cayo de Agua, Los Roques Archipelago, Venezuela

Palancar Beach in Cozumel Island, Mexico

Guanaja Island, Bay Islands, Honduras

Biodiversity

The Caribbean islands have one of the most diverse eco systems in the world. The animals, fungi and plants, and have been classified as one of Conservation International's biodiversity hotspots because of their exceptionally diverse terrestrial and marine ecosystems, ranging from montane cloud forests, to tropical rainforest, to cactus scrublands. The region also contains about 8% (by surface area) of the world's coral reefs ^[40] along with extensive seagrass meadows, ^[41] both of which are frequently found in the shallow marine waters bordering the island and continental coasts of the region.

For the fungi, there is a modern checklist based on nearly 90,000 records derived from specimens in reference collections, published accounts and field observations. ^[42] That checklist includes more than 11,250 species of fungi recorded from the region. As its authors note, the work is far from exhaustive, and it is likely that the true total number of fungal species already known from the Caribbean is higher. The true total number of fungal species occurring in the Caribbean, including species not yet recorded, is likely far higher given the generally accepted estimate that only about 7% of all fungi worldwide have been discovered. ^[43] Though the amount of available information is still small, a first effort has been made to estimate the number of fungal species endemic to some Caribbean islands. For Cuba, 2200 species of fungi have been tentatively identified as possible endemics of the island; ^[44] for Puerto Rico, the number is 789 species; ^[45] for the Dominican Republic, the number is 699 species; ^[46] for Trinidad and Tobago, the number is 407 species. ^[47]

Many of the ecosystems of the Caribbean islands have been devastated by deforestation, pollution, and human encroachment. The arrival of the first humans is correlated with extinction of giant owls and dwarf ground sloths. ^[48] The hotspot contains dozens of highly threatened animals (ranging from birds, to mammals and reptiles), fungi and plants. Examples of threatened animals include the Puerto Rican amazon, two species of solenodon (giant shrews) in Cuba and the Hispaniola island, and the Cuban crocodile.

Saona Island, Dominican Republic

The region's coral reefs, which contain about 70 species of hard corals and from 500 to 700 species of reef-associated fishes ^[49] have undergone rapid decline in ecosystem integrity in recent years, and are considered particularly vulnerable to global warming and ocean acidification. ^[50] According to a UNEP report, the Caribbean coral reefs might get extinct in next 20 years due to population explosion along the coast lines, overfishing, the pollution of coastal areas and global warming. ^[51]

Some Caribbean islands have terrain that Europeans found suitable for cultivation for agriculture. Tobacco was an important early crop during the colonial era, but was eventually overtaken by sugarcane production as the region's staple crop. Sugar was produced from sugarcane for export to Europe. Cuba and Barbados were historically the largest producers of sugar. The tropical plantation system thus came to dominate Caribbean settlement. Other islands were found to have terrain unsuited for agriculture, for example Dominica, which remains heavily forested. The islands in the southern Lesser Antilles, Aruba, Bonaire and Curaçao, are extremely arid, making them unsuitable for agriculture. However, they have salt pans that were exploited by the Dutch. Sea water was pumped into shallow ponds, producing coarse salt when the water evaporated. ^[52]

The natural environmental diversity of the Caribbean islands has led to recent growth in eco-tourism. This type of tourism is growing on islands lacking sandy beaches and dense human populations. ^[53]

Plants and animals

See also: List of invasive marine fish in the Caribbean

• 
  Epiphytes (bromeliads, climbing palms) in the rainforest of Dominica
• 
  A green and black poison frog, Dendrobates auratus
• 
  Caesalpinia pulcherrima, Guadeloupe
• 
  Costus speciosus , a marsh plant, Guadeloupe
• 
  An Atlantic ghost crab (Ocypode quadrata) in Martinique
• 
  Crescentia cujete , or calabash fruit, Martinique
• 
  Thalassoma bifasciatum (bluehead wrasse fish), over Bispira brunnea (social feather duster worms)
• 
  Two Stenopus hispidus (banded cleaner shrimp) on a Xestospongia muta (giant barrel sponge)
• 
  A pair of Cyphoma signatum (fingerprint cowry), off coastal Haiti
• 
  The Martinique amazon, Amazona martinicana, is an extinct species of parrot in the family Psittacidae.
• 
  Anastrepha suspensa, a Caribbean fruit fly
• 
  Hemidactylus mabouia, a tropical gecko, in Dominica. Edited by: Taniya Brooks

Demographics

Indigenous groups

Main article: Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean

• Arawak peoples
  • Igneri
  • Taíno
• Caquetio people
• Ciboney
• Ciguayo
• Garifuna
• Kalina
• Kalinago
• Lucayan
• Macorix
• Raizal

A linen market in Dominica in the 1770s

Agostino Brunias. Free Women of Color with Their Children and Servants in a Landscape Brooklyn Museum

Asian Indians in the late nineteenth century singing and dancing in Trinidad and Tobago

Street scene, Matanzas, Cuba

At the time of European contact, the dominant ethnic groups in the Caribbean included the Taíno of the Greater Antilles and northern Lesser Antilles, the Island Caribs of the southern Lesser Antilles, and smaller distinct groups such as the Guanajatabey of western Cuba and the Ciguayo of eastern Hispaniola. The population of the Caribbean is estimated to have been around 750,000 immediately before European contact, although lower and higher figures are given. After contact, social disruption and epidemic diseases such as smallpox and measles (to which they had no natural immunity) ^[54] led to a decline in the Amerindian population. ^{[55] [56]} such as the Kongo, Igbo, Akan, Fon and Yoruba as well as military prisoners from Ireland, who were deported during the Cromwellian reign in England.^{[ citation needed ]} Immigrants from Britain, Italy, France, Spain, the Netherlands, Portugal and Denmark also arrived, although the mortality rate was high for both groups. ^[57]

The population is estimated to have reached 2.2 million by 1800. ^[58] Immigrants from India, China, Indonesia, and other countries arrived in the mid-19th century as indentured servants. ^[59] After the ending of the Atlantic slave trade, the population increased naturally. ^[60] The total regional population was estimated at 37.5 million by 2000. ^[61]

In Haiti and most of the French, Anglophone and Dutch Caribbean, the population is predominantly of African origin; on many islands there are also significant populations of mixed racial origin (including Mulatto-Creole, Dougla, Mestizo, Quadroon, Cholo, Castizo, Criollo, Zambo, Pardo, Asian Latin Americans, Chindian, Cocoa panyols, and Eurasian), as well as populations of European ancestry: Dutch, English, French, Italian, Portuguese and Spanish ancestry. Asians, especially those of Chinese, Indian descent, and Javanese Indonesians, form a significant minority in parts of the region. Indians form a plurality of the population in Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, and Suriname. Most of their ancestors arrived in the 19th century as indentured laborers.

The Spanish-speaking Caribbean populations are primarily of European, African, or racially mixed origins. Puerto Rico has a European majority with a mixture of European-African-Native American (tri-racial), and a large Mulatto (European-West African) and West African minority. Cuba also has a European majority, along with a significant population of African ancestry. The Dominican Republic has the largest mixed-race population, primarily descended from Europeans, West Africans, and Amerindians.

Carnival in Trinidad and Tobago

Jamaica has a large African majority, in addition to a significant population of mixed racial background, and has minorities of Chinese, Europeans, Indians, Latinos, Jews, and Arabs. This is a result of years of importation of slaves and indentured laborers, and migration. Most multi-racial Jamaicans refer to themselves as either mixed race or brown. Similar populations can be found in the Caricom states of Belize, Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago. Trinidad and Tobago has a multi-racial cosmopolitan society due to the arrivals of Africans, Indians, Chinese, Arabs, Jews, Latinos, and Europeans along with the native indigenous Amerindians population. This multi-racial mix of the Caribbean has created sub-ethnicities that often straddle the boundaries of major ethnicities and include Mulatto-Creole, Mestizo, Pardo, Zambo, Dougla, Chindian, Afro-Asians, Eurasian, Cocoa panyols, and Asian Latinos.

Language

Main article: Languages of the Caribbean

Spanish (64%), French (25%), English (14%), Dutch, Haitian Creole, and Papiamento are the predominant official languages of various countries in the region, although a handful of unique creole languages or dialects can also be found in virtually every Caribbean country. Other languages such as Caribbean Hindustani, Chinese, Javanese, Arabic, Hmong, Amerindian languages, other African languages, other European languages, and other Indian languages can also be found.

Religion

See also: Religion in the Caribbean

Havana Cathedral (Catholic) in Cuba completed in 1777

Holy Trinity Cathedral, an Anglican Christian cathedral in Trinidad and Tobago

Temple in the Sea, a Hindu mandir in Trinidad and Tobago

Muhammad Ali Jinnah Memorial Masjid, a Muslim masjid in Trinidad and Tobago

A Jewish synagogue in Suriname

A Haitian Vodou altar

Christianity is the predominant religion in the Caribbean (84.7%). ^[62] Other religions in the region are Hinduism, Islam, Judaism, Rastafari, Buddhism, Chinese folk religion (incl. Taoism and Confucianism), Bahá'í, Jainism, Sikhism, Kebatinan, Traditional African religions, Yoruba (incl. Trinidad Orisha), Afro-American religions, (incl. Santería, Palo, Umbanda, Brujería, Hoodoo, Candomblé, Quimbanda, Orisha, Xangô de Recife, Xangô do Nordeste, Comfa, Espiritismo, Santo Daime, Obeah, Candomblé, Abakuá, Kumina, Winti, Sanse, Cuban Vodú, Dominican Vudú, Louisiana Voodoo, Haitian Vodou, and Vodun).

Politics

Regionalism

Flag of the Caribbean Common Market and Community (CARICOM)

Caribbean societies are very different from other Western societies in terms of size, culture, and degree of mobility of their citizens. ^[63] The current economic and political problems the states face individually are common to all Caribbean states. Regional development has contributed to attempts to subdue current problems and avoid projected problems. From a political and economic perspective, regionalism serves to make Caribbean states active participants in current international affairs through collective coalitions. In 1973, the first political regionalism in the Caribbean Basin was created by advances of the English-speaking Caribbean nations through the institution known as the Caribbean Common Market and Community (CARICOM) ^[64] which is located in Guyana.

Certain scholars have argued both for and against generalizing the political structures of the Caribbean. On the one hand the Caribbean states are politically diverse, ranging from communist systems such as Cuba toward more capitalist Westminster-style parliamentary systems as in the Commonwealth Caribbean. Other scholars argue that these differences are superficial, and that they tend to undermine commonalities in the various Caribbean states. Contemporary Caribbean systems seem to reflect a "blending of traditional and modern patterns, yielding hybrid systems that exhibit significant structural variations and divergent constitutional traditions yet ultimately appear to function in similar ways." ^[65] The political systems of the Caribbean states share similar practices.

The influence of regionalism in the Caribbean is often marginalized. Some scholars believe that regionalism cannot exist in the Caribbean because each small state is unique. On the other hand, scholars also suggest that there are commonalities amongst the Caribbean nations that suggest regionalism exists. "Proximity as well as historical ties among the Caribbean nations has led to cooperation as well as a desire for collective action." ^[66] These attempts at regionalization reflect the nations' desires to compete in the international economic system. ^[66]

Furthermore, a lack of interest from other major states promoted regionalism in the region. In recent years the Caribbean has suffered from a lack of U.S. interest. "With the end of the Cold War, U.S. security and economic interests have been focused on other areas. As a result there has been a significant reduction in U.S. aid and investment to the Caribbean." ^[67] The lack of international support for these small, relatively poor states, helped regionalism prosper.

Following the Cold War another issue of importance in the Caribbean has been the reduced economic growth of some Caribbean States due to the United States and European Union's allegations of special treatment toward the region by each other. ^{[ clarification needed ]}

United States–EU trade dispute

The United States under President Bill Clinton launched a challenge in the World Trade Organization against the EU over Europe's preferential program, known as the Lomé Convention, which allowed banana exports from the former colonies of the Group of African, Caribbean and Pacific states (ACP) to enter Europe cheaply. ^[68] The World Trade Organization sided in the United States' favour and the beneficial elements of the convention to African, Caribbean and Pacific states has been partially dismantled and replaced by the Cotonou Agreement. ^[69]

During the US/EU dispute, the United States imposed large tariffs on European Union goods (up to 100%) to pressure Europe to change the agreement with the Caribbean nations in favour of the Cotonou Agreement. ^[70]

Farmers in the Caribbean have complained of falling profits and rising costs as the Lomé Convention weakens. Some farmers have faced increased pressure to turn towards the cultivation of illegal drugs, which has a higher profit margin and fills the sizable demand for these illegal drugs in North America and Europe. ^{[71] [72]}

Caribbean Financial Action Task Force and Association of Caribbean States

Caribbean nations have also started to more closely cooperate in the Caribbean Financial Action Task Force and other instruments to add oversight of the offshore industry. One of the most important associations that deal with regionalism amongst the nations of the Caribbean Basin has been the Association of Caribbean States (ACS). Proposed by CARICOM in 1992, the ACS soon won the support of the other countries of the region. It was founded in July 1994. The ACS maintains regionalism within the Caribbean on issues unique to the Caribbean Basin. Through coalition building, like the ACS and CARICOM, regionalism has become an undeniable part of the politics and economics of the Caribbean. The successes of region-building initiatives are still debated by scholars, yet regionalism remains prevalent throughout the Caribbean.

Bolivarian Alliance

The President of Venezuela, Hugo Chavez launched an economic group called the Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas (ALBA), which several eastern Caribbean islands joined. In 2012, the nation of Haiti, with 9 million people, became the largest CARICOM nation that sought to join the union. ^{[73] [ unreliable source? ]}

Regional institutions

Here are some of the bodies that several islands share in collaboration:

• African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States
• Association of Caribbean States (ACS), Trinidad and Tobago
• Caribbean Association of Industry and Commerce (CAIC), Trinidad and Tobago
• Caribbean Association of National Telecommunication Organizations (CANTO), Trinidad and Tobago ^[74]
• Caribbean Community (CARICOM), Guyana
• Caribbean Development Bank (CDB), Barbados
• Caribbean Disaster Emergency Management Agency (CDERA), Barbados
• Caribbean Educators Network ^[75]
• Caribbean Electric Utility Services Corporation (CARILEC), Saint Lucia ^[76]
• Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC), Barbados and Jamaica
• Caribbean Financial Action Task Force (CFATF), Trinidad and Tobago
• Caribbean Food Crops Society, Puerto Rico
• Caribbean Football Union (CFU), Jamaica
• Caribbean Hotel & Tourism Association (CHTA), Florida and Puerto Rico ^[77]
• Caribbean Initiative (Initiative of the IUCN)
• Caribbean Programme for Economic Competitiveness (CPEC), Saint Lucia
• Caribbean Regional Environmental Programme (CREP), Barbados ^[78]
• Caribbean Regional Fisheries Mechanism (CRFM), Belize ^[79]
• Caribbean Regional Negotiating Machinery (CRNM), Barbados and Dominican Republic ^[80]
• Caribbean Telecommunications Union (CTU), Trinidad and Tobago
• Caribbean Tourism Organization (CTO), Barbados
• Community of Latin American and Caribbean States (CELAC)
• Foundation for the Development of Caribbean Children, Barbados
• Latin America and Caribbean Network Information Centre (LACNIC), Brazil and Uruguay
• Latin American and the Caribbean Economic System, Venezuela
• Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS), Saint Lucia
• United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), Chile and Trinidad and Tobago
• University of the West Indies, Jamaica, Barbados, Trinidad and Tobago. ^[81] In addition, the fourth campus, the Open Campus was formed in June 2008 as a result of an amalgamation of the Board for Non-Campus Countries and Distance Education, Schools of Continuing Studies, the UWI Distance Education Centres and Tertiary Level Units. The Open Campus has 42 physical sites in 16 Anglophone caribbean countries.
• West Indies Cricket Board, Antigua and Barbuda ^[82]

Cuisine

Main article: Caribbean cuisine

Favourite or national dishes

Doubles, one of the national dishes of Trinidad and Tobago

Arroz con gandules, one of the national dishes of Puerto Rico

• Anguilla – rice, peas and fish
• Antigua and Barbuda – fungee and pepperpot
• Bahamas – Guava duff, Conch Salad, Peas n' Rice, and Conch Fritters
• Barbados – cou-cou and flying fish
• Belize – rice and beans, stew chicken with potato salad; white rice, stew beans and fry fish with cole slaw
• British Virgin Islands – fish and fungee
• Cayman Islands – turtle stew, turtle steak, grouper
• Colombian Caribbean – rice with coconut milk, arroz con pollo, sancocho, Arab cuisine (due to the large Arab population)
• Cuba – platillo Moros y Cristianos, ropa vieja, lechon, maduros, ajiaco
• Dominica – mountain chicken, rice and peas, dumplings, saltfish, dashin, bakes (fried dumplings), coconut confiture, curry goat, cassava farine, oxtail
• Dominican Republic – arroz con pollo with stewed red kidney beans, pan fried or braised beef, salad/ ensalada de coditos, empanadas, mangú, sancocho
• Grenada – oil down, Roti and rice & chicken
• Guyana – roti and curry, pepperpot, cookup rice, methem, pholourie
• Haiti – griot (fried pork) served with du riz a pois or diri ak pwa (rice and beans)
• Jamaica – ackee and saltfish, callaloo, jerk chicken, curry chicken
• Montserrat – Goat water
• Puerto Rico – yellow rice with green pigeon peas, saltfish stew, roasted pork shoulder, chicken fricassée, mofongo, tripe soup, alcapurria, coconut custard, rice pudding, guava turnovers, Mallorca bread
• Saint Kitts and Nevis – goat water, coconut dumplings, spicy plantain, saltfish, breadfruit
• Saint Lucia – callaloo, dal roti, dried and salted cod, green bananas, rice and beans
• Saint Vincent and the Grenadines – roasted breadfruit and fried jackfish
• Suriname – brown beans and rice, roti and curry, peanut soup, battered fried plantain with peanut sauce, nasi goreng, moksie alesi, bara, pom
• Trinidad and Tobago – doubles, curry with roti or dal bhat, aloo pie, phulourie, callaloo, bake and shark, curry crab and dumpling
• United States Virgin Islands – stewed goat, oxtail or beef, seafood, callaloo, fungee
• Venezuela Caribbean – fried fish with salad and rise, tostones, sancocho, patacon, pabellon

See also

• Caribbean portal
• Geography portal
• Islands portal
• North America portal

• African diaspora
• Anchor coinage
• British African-Caribbean people
• British Indo-Caribbean people
• Caribbean people
• Climate change in the Caribbean
• CONCACAF
• Council on Hemispheric Affairs
• Culture of the Caribbean
• Economy of the Caribbean
• Indian diaspora
• Indo-Caribbean
• Indo-Caribbean American
• List of Caribbean music genres
• List of sovereign states and dependent territories in the Caribbean
• NECOBELAC Project
• Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin
• Piracy in the Caribbean
• Politics of the Caribbean
• Tourism in the Caribbean

Geography:

• Americas (terminology)
• List of archipelagos by number of islands
• List of Caribbean islands
• List of indigenous names of Eastern Caribbean islands
• List of mountain peaks of the Caribbean
• List of Ultras of the Caribbean
• Middle America (Americas)
• Latin America and the Caribbean (region)

Notes

1. The Lucayan Archipelago is excluded from some definitions of "Caribbean" and instead classified as Atlantic; this is primarily a geological rather than cultural or environmental distinction.

References

1. "World Population Prospects 2022". population.un.org. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Retrieved July 17, 2022.
2. "World Population Prospects 2022: Demographic indicators by region, subregion and country, annually for 1950-2100" (XSLX). population.un.org ("Total Population, as of 1 July (thousands)"). United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Retrieved July 17, 2022.
3. McWhorter, John H. (2005). Defining Creole. Oxford University Press US. p. 379. ISBN   978-0-19-516670-5.
4. Allsopp, Richard; Allsopp, Jeannette (2003). Dictionary of Caribbean English Usage. University of the West Indies Press. p. 136–. ISBN   978-976-640-145-0.
5. Engerman, Stanley L. (2000). "A Population History of the Caribbean". In Haines, Michael R.; Steckel, Richard Hall (eds.). A Population History of North America. Cambridge University Press. pp. 483–528. ISBN   978-0-521-49666-7. OCLC   41118518.
6. Hillman, Richard S.; D'Agostino, Thomas J., eds. (2003). Understanding the contemporary Caribbean. London, UK: Lynne Rienner. ISBN   978-1588266637. OCLC   300280211.
7. Asann, Ridvan (2007). A Brief History of the Caribbean (Revised ed.). New York: Facts on File, Inc. p.  3. ISBN   978-0-8160-3811-4.
8. Higman, B. W. (2011). A Concise History of the Caribbean. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. xi. ISBN   978-0521043489.
9. "North America" Archived 2015-05-03 at the Wayback Machine . Britannica Concise Encyclopedia; "... associated with the continent is Greenland, the largest island in the world, and such offshore groups as the Arctic Archipelago, the Bahamas, the Greater and Lesser Antilles, the Queen Charlotte Islands, and the Aleutian Islands," but also "North America is bounded ... on the south by the Caribbean Sea," and "according to some authorities, North America begins not at the Isthmus of Panama but at the narrows of Tehuantepec."
10. The World: Geographic Overview, The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency; "North America is commonly understood to include the island of Greenland, the isles of the Caribbean, and to extend south all the way to the Isthmus of Panama."
11. The Netherlands Antilles: The joy of six, The Economist Magazine, April 29, 2010
12. "Carib". Encyclopædia Britannica . Archived from the original on 2008-04-30. Retrieved 2008-02-20. inhabited the Lesser Antilles and parts of the neighbouring South American coast at the time of the Spanish conquest.
13. Elster, Charles Harrington. "Caribbean", from The Big Book of Beastly Mispronunciations. p.78. (2d ed. 2005)
14. In the early 20th century, only the pronunciation with the primary stress on the third syllable was considered correct, according to Frank Horace Vizetelly, A Desk-Book of Twenty-five Thousand Words Frequently Mispronounced (Funk and Wagnalls, 1917), p. 233.
15. Ladefoged, Peter; Johnson, Keith (2011). A Course in Phonetics. Cengage Learning. pp. 86–. ISBN   978-1-4282-3126-9.
16. Random House Dictionary
17. American Heritage Dictionary
18. Merriam Webster
19. See, e.g., Elster, supra.
20. Oxford Online Dictionaries
21. "SPP Background". CommerceConnect.gov. Security and Prosperity Partnership of North America. Archived from the original on 18 June 2008. Retrieved 14 November 2010.
22. "Ecoregions of North America". United States Environmental Protection Agency . Retrieved 30 May 2011.
23. "What's the difference between North, Latin, Central, Middle, South, Spanish and Anglo America?". About.com. Archived from the original on 2016-04-10. Retrieved 2023-02-21.
24. Unless otherwise noted, land area figures are taken from "Table 3: Population by sex, rate of population increase, surface area and density" (PDF). Demographic Yearbook. United Nations Statistics Division. 2008. Retrieved 14 October 2010.
25. Since the Lucayan Archipelago is located in the Atlantic Ocean rather than Caribbean Sea, the Bahamas are part of the West Indies but are not technically part of the Caribbean, although the United Nations groups them with the Caribbean.
26. Population estimates are taken from the Central Bureau of Statistics Netherlands Antilles. "Statistical information: Population". Government of the Netherlands Antilles. Archived from the original on 1 May 2010. Retrieved 14 October 2010.
27. Because of ongoing activity of the Soufriere Hills volcano beginning in July 1995, much of Plymouth was destroyed and government offices were relocated to Brades. Plymouth remains the de jure capital.
28. Since the Lucayan Archipelago is located in the Atlantic Ocean rather than Caribbean Sea, the Turks and Caicos Islands are part of the West Indies but are not technically part of the Caribbean, although the United Nations groups them with the Caribbean.
29. Lawler, Andrew (December 23, 2020). "Invaders nearly wiped out Caribbean's first people long before Spanish came, DNA reveals". National Geographic.
30. Beazley, C. Raymond; Olson, Julius E.; Bourne, Edward Gaylord (April 1907). "The Northmen, Columbus and Cabot, 985-1503". The American Historical Review. 12 (3): 654. doi:10.2307/1832434. hdl: 2027/loc.ark:/13960/t7mp5d39r . ISSN   0002-8762. JSTOR   1832434.
31. Livi-Bacci, Massimo (June 2006). "The Depopulation of Hispanic America after the Conquest". Population and Development Review. 32 (2): 199–232. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4457.2006.00116.x. ISSN   0098-7921.
32. "End of Slavery in Cuba". www.historyofcuba.com. Retrieved 2022-12-19.
33. Dosal, Paul. "THE CARIBBEAN WAR. The United States in the Caribbean, 1898–1998" (PDF). University of South Florida.
34. ten Brink, Uri. "Puerto Rico Trench 2003: Cruise Summary Results". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2008-02-21.
35. "Summary Climatological Normals 1981–2010" (PDF). Departamento Meteorologico Aruba. Retrieved 15 October 2012.
36. "Climate Data Aruba". Departamento Meteorologico Aruba. Retrieved 15 October 2012.
37. "Average Weather for Mayaguez, PR – Temperature and Precipitation". Weather.com. Retrieved 2012-06-07.
38. "World Weather Information Service – Havana". Cuban Institute of Meteorology. June 2011. Retrieved 2010-06-26.
39. "Casa Blanca, Habana, Cuba: Climate, Global Warming, and Daylight Charts and Data". Archived from the original on 2011-06-23. Retrieved 2010-06-26.
40. Mark Spalding; Corinna Ravilious; Edmund Peter Green (10 September 2001). World Atlas of Coral Reefs. University of California Press. ISBN   978-0-520-23255-6 . Retrieved 25 June 2012.
41. Littler, D. and Littler, M. (2000) Caribbean Reef Plants. OffShore Graphics, Inc., ISBN   0967890101.
42. Minter, D.W., Rodríguez Hernández, M. and Mena Portales, J. (2001) Fungi of the Caribbean. An annotated checklist. PDMS Publishing, ISBN   0-9540169-0-4.
43. Kirk, P. M.; Ainsworth, Geoffrey Clough (2008). Ainsworth & Bisby's Dictionary of the Fungi. CABI. ISBN   978-0-85199-826-8.
44. "Fungi of Cuba – potential endemics". cybertruffle.org.uk. Retrieved 2011-07-09.
45. "Fungi of Puerto Rico – potential endemics". cybertruffle.org.uk. Retrieved 2011-07-09.
46. "Fungi of the Dominican Republic – potential endemics". cybertruffle.org.uk. Retrieved 2011-07-09.
47. "Fungi of Trinidad & Tobago – potential endemics". cybertruffle.org.uk. Retrieved 2011-07-09.
48. "North American Extinctions v. World". Thegreatstory.org. Retrieved 2010-08-23.
49. "Caribbean Coral Reefs". coral-reef-info.com. 9 November 2020.
50. Hoegh-Guldberg, O.; Mumby, P. J.; Hooten, A. J.; Steneck, R. S.; Greenfield, P.; Gomez, E.; Harvell, C. D.; Sale, P. F.; et al. (2007). "Coral Reefs Under Rapid Climate Change and Ocean Acidification". Science. 318 (5857): 1737–42. Bibcode:2007Sci...318.1737H. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.702.1733 . doi:10.1126/science.1152509. PMID   18079392. S2CID   12607336.
51. "Caribbean coral reefs may disappear within 20 years: Report". IANS. news.biharprabha.com. Retrieved 3 July 2014.
52. Rogoziński, Jan (2000). A Brief History of the Caribbean. Penguin. p. 65. ISBN   978-0-452-28193-6.
53. Rogoziński, Jan (2000). A Brief History of the Caribbean. Penguin. p. 356. ISBN   978-0-452-28193-6.
54. Byrne, Joseph Patrick (2008). Encyclopedia of Pestilence, Pandemics, and Plagues: A-M. ABC-CLIO. p. 413. ISBN   978-0-313-34102-1.^{[ permanent dead link ]}
55. Engerman, p. 486
56. The Sugar Revolutions and Slavery Archived 2011-06-22 at the Wayback Machine , U.S. Library of Congress
57. Engerman, pp. 488–492
58. Engerman, Figure 11.1
59. Engerman, pp. 501–502
60. Engerman, pp. 504, 511
61. Table A.2, Database documentation, Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) Population Database, version 3, International Center for Tropical Agriculture, 2005. Accessed on line February 20, 2008.
62. Christianity in its Global Context Archived 2013-08-15 at the Wayback Machine
63. Gowricharn, Ruben. Caribbean Transnationalism: Migration, Pluralization, and Social Cohesion, Lanham: Lexington Books, 2006. p. 5 ISBN   0-7391-1167-1
64. Hillman, p. 150
65. Hillman, p. 165
66. Serbin, Andres (1994). "Towards an Association of Caribbean States: Raising Some Awkward Questions". Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs. 36 (4): 61–90. doi:10.2307/166319. JSTOR   166319. S2CID   158660832.
67. Hillman, p. 123
68. "The U.S.-EU Banana Agreement". Archived from the original on 2009-05-06. Retrieved 2008-11-23. See also: "Dominica: Poverty and Potential". BBC. 2008-05-16. Retrieved 2008-12-06.
69. "WTO rules against EU banana import practices". Archived from the original on 2009-04-16. Retrieved 2008-11-23.. eubusiness.com (2007-11-29)
70. "No truce in banana war". BBC News. 1999-03-08. Retrieved 2010-08-23.
71. "World: Americas St Vincent hit by banana war". BBC News. 1999-03-13. Retrieved 2010-08-23.
72. "Concern for Caribbean farmers". Bbc.co.uk. 2005-01-07. Retrieved 2010-08-23.
73. Edmonds, Kevin (2012-03-06). "ALBA Expands its Allies in the Caribbean". Venezuela Analysis. Retrieved March 9, 2012.
74. "CANTO Caribbean portal". Canto.org. Retrieved 2008-12-06.
75. "Caribbean Educators Network". CEN. Retrieved 2008-12-06.
76. "Carilec". Carilec.com. Retrieved 2008-12-06.
77. "About Us". Caribbean Hotel & Tourism Association. Archived from the original on 2 April 2014. Retrieved 17 June 2014.
78. "Caribbean Regional Environmental Programme". Crepnet.net. Archived from the original on 2008-06-11. Retrieved 2008-12-06.
79. "Caribbean Regional Fisheries Mechanism". Caricom-fisheries.com. Retrieved 2008-12-06.
80. "Official website of the RNM". Crnm.org. Retrieved 2008-12-06.
81. "University of the West Indies". Uwi.edu. Retrieved 2008-12-06.
82. "West Indies Cricket Board WICB Official Website". Windiescricket.com. Retrieved 2008-12-06.

Bibliography

• Engerman, Stanley L. "A Population History of the Caribbean", pp. 483–528 in A Population History of North America Michael R. Haines and Richard Hall Steckel (Eds.), Cambridge University Press, 2000, ISBN   0-521-49666-7.
• Hillman, Richard S., and Thomas J. D'agostino, eds. Understanding the Contemporary Caribbean, London: Lynne Rienner, 2003 ISBN   1-58826-663-X.

Further reading

• Develtere, Patrick R. 1994. "Co-operation and development: With special reference to the experience of the Commonwealth Caribbean" ACCO, ISBN   90-334-3181-5
• Gowricharn, Ruben. Caribbean Transnationalism: Migration, Pluralization, and Social Cohesion. Lanham: Lexington Books, 2006.
• Henke, Holger, and Fred Reno, eds. Modern Political Culture in the Caribbean. Kingston: University of West Indies Press, 2003.
• Heuman, Gad. The Caribbean: Brief Histories. London: A Hodder Arnold Publication, 2006.
• de Kadt, Emanuel, (editor). Patterns of foreign influence in the Caribbean, Oxford University Press, 1972.
• Knight, Franklin W. The Modern Caribbean (University of North Carolina Press, 1989).
• Kurlansky, Mark. 1992. A Continent of Islands: Searching for the Caribbean Destiny. Addison-Wesley Publishing. ISBN   0-201-52396-5
• Langley, Lester D. The United States and the Caribbean in the Twentieth Century. London: University of Georgia Press, 1989.
• Maingot, Anthony P. The United States and the Caribbean: Challenges of an Asymmetrical Relationship. Westview Press, 1994.
• Palmie, Stephan, and Francisco A. Scarano, eds. The Caribbean: A History of the Region and Its Peoples (University of Chicago Press; 2011); 660 pp.; writings on the region since the pre-Columbia era.
• Ramnarine, Tina K. Beautiful Cosmos: Performance and Belonging in the Caribbean Diaspora. London, Pluto Press, 2007.
• Rowntree, Lester/Martin Lewis/Marie Price/William Wyckoff. Diversity Amid Globalization: World Regions, Environment, Development, 4th edition, 2008.

External links

• Caribbean at Curlie
• Digital Library of the Caribbean
• Latin American, Caribbean, U.S. Latinx, and Iberian Online Free E-Resources (LACLI).
• Manioc, open access digital Library, books, images, conferences, articles about the Caribbean
• Federal Research Division of the U.S. Library of Congress: Caribbean Islands (1987)
• LANIC Caribbean country pages
• Media related to Caribbean at Wikimedia Commons