Exclusive economic zone

Last updated

The world's exclusive economic zones by boundary types and EEZ types Exclusive Economic Zones by boundary type.png
The world's exclusive economic zones by boundary types and EEZ types

An exclusive economic zone (EEZ), as prescribed by the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, is an area of the sea in which a sovereign state has exclusive rights regarding the exploration and use of marine resources, including energy production from water and wind. [1]

Contents

It stretches from the outer limit of the territorial sea (22.224 kilometres or 12 nmi from the baseline) out 370.4 kilometres (or 200 nautical miles) from the coast of the state in question. It is also referred to as a maritime continental margin and, in colloquial usage, may include the continental shelf. The term does not include either the territorial sea or the continental shelf beyond the 200 nautical mile limit. The difference between the territorial sea and the exclusive economic zone is that the first confers full sovereignty over the waters, whereas the second is merely a "sovereign right" which refers to the coastal state's rights below the surface of the sea. The surface waters are international waters. [2]

Definition

Sea areas in international rights (top down view) Zonmar-en.svg
Sea areas in international rights (top down view)

Generally, a state's exclusive economic zone is an area beyond and adjacent to the territorial sea, extending seaward to a distance of no more than 200 nmi (370 km) out from its coastal baseline. [3] The exception to this rule occurs when exclusive economic zones would overlap; that is, state coastal baselines are less than 400 nmi (741 km) apart. When an overlap occurs, it is up to the states to delineate the actual maritime boundary. [4] Generally, any point within an overlapping area defaults to the nearest state. [5]

The exclusive economic zone stretches much further into sea than the territorial waters, which end at 12 nmi (22 km) from the coastal baseline (if following the rules set out in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea). [5] Thus, the exclusive economic zones includes the contiguous zone.

States also have rights to the seabed of what is called the extended continental shelf up to 350 nmi (648 km) from the coastal baseline, beyond the exclusive economic zones, but such areas are not part of their exclusive economic zones.

The legal definition of the continental shelf does not correspond exactly to the geological meaning of the term, as it also includes the continental rise and slope, and the entire seabed within the exclusive economic zone.

Origin and history

The idea of allotting nations' EEZs to give them more control of maritime affairs outside territorial limits gained acceptance in the late 20th century.

Initially, a country's sovereign territorial waters extended 3 nmi (6 km) (range of cannon shot) beyond the shore.[ citation needed ] In modern times, a country's sovereign territorial waters extend to 12 nmi (22 km) beyond the shore.[ citation needed ] One of the first assertions of exclusive jurisdiction beyond the traditional territorial seas was made by the United States in the Truman Proclamation of 28 September 1945. However, it was Chile and Peru respectively that first claimed maritime zones of 200 nautical miles with the Presidential Declaration Concerning Continental Shelf signed by Chilean President Gabriel Gonzalez Videla on 23 June 1947 [6] and by Peruvian President Jose Luis Bustamante y Rivero through Presidential Decree No. 781 of 1 August 1947 [7] [8]

It was not until 1982 with the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea that the 200 nautical mile exclusive economic zone was formally adopted.

Disputes

The exact extent of exclusive economic zones is a common source of conflicts between states over marine waters.

Unresolved

Arctic Ocean

  • A wedge-shaped section of the Beaufort Sea, an area that reportedly contains substantial oil reserves, is disputed between Canada and the United States.

Caribbean Sea

Indian Ocean

Mediterranean Sea

Pacific Ocean

De facto territories in the Spratly Islands in the South China Sea Spratly Is since NalGeoMaps.png
De facto territories in the Spratly Islands in the South China Sea
  • The South China Sea is the setting for several ongoing disputes between regional powers including China, Taiwan, Vietnam, the Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia and Brunei.
  • Japan claims an EEZ around Okinotorishima, but this is disputed by China, Taiwan, and South Korea, who claim it is an islet which is incapable of generating an EEZ.
  • China and South Korea debates over the boundaries of EEZs in the East China Sea and Yellow Sea, including Socotra Rock, a source for territorial dispute.

Potential

Regions where a permanent ice shelf extends beyond the coastline are also a source of potential dispute. [17]

Resolved

Transboundary stocks

Fisheries management, usually adhering to guidelines set by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), provides significant practical mechanisms for the control of EEZs. Transboundary fish stocks are an important concept in this control. [25] Transboundary stocks are fish stocks that range in the EEZs of at least two countries. Straddling stocks, on the other hand, range both within an EEZ as well as in the high seas, outside any EEZ. A stock can be both transboundary and straddling. [26]

By region or country

Region

Caribbean Sea

EEZs in the Caribbean Sea Map of the Territorial Waters in the Caribbean.png
EEZs in the Caribbean Sea

Atlantic and Indian Oceans

EEZs in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans Map of the Territorial Waters of the Atlantic and Indian Ocean.png
EEZs in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans

Pacific Ocean

EEZs in the Pacific Ocean Map of the Territorial Waters of the Pacific Ocean.png
EEZs in the Pacific Ocean

Country

Algeria

Algeria on 17 April 2018 established an exclusive economic zone (EEZ) off its coasts by Presidential Decree No. 18-96 of 2 Rajab 1439 corresponding to 20 March 2018. [27] [28] The permanent mission of Spain to the United Nations on 27 July 2018 declared its disagreement with the EEZ announced by Algeria and that the government of Spain indicated its willingness to enter into negotiations with the government of Algeria with a view to reaching a mutually acceptable agreement on the outer limits of their respective exclusive economic zones, [29] The same was done by the Italian mission on 28 November 2018. [30] The two countries indicated that the Algerian measure had been taken unilaterally and without consulting them.

On 25 November 2018, the Algerian Ministry of Foreign Affairs sent an oral note in response to the Spanish protest, explaining that the Algerian government does not recognize the largely exorbitant coordinates contained in Royal Decree 236/2013, which overlap with the coordinates of Presidential Decree n° 18–96 establishing an exclusive economic zone off the coast of Algeria. The Algerian government wished to emphasize that the unilateral delimitation carried out by Spain is not in conformity with the letter of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and has not taken into consideration the configuration, the specific characteristics, and the special circumstances of the Mediterranean Sea, in particular for the case of the two countries whose coasts are located face to face, as well as the objective rules and relevant principles of international law to govern the equitable delimitation of the maritime areas between Algeria and Spain, in accordance with article 74 of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. Algeria expressed its willingness to negotiate for a just solution. [31]

On 20 June 2019, a communication from Algeria was sent. It was addressed to the Italian embassy [32] and the Spanish embassy in Algiers [33] to show their eligibility in Algeria's exclusive economic zone.

Argentina

Argentina's exclusive economic zones, including its territorial claims (the Falklands and South Georgia, etc. plus its Antarctic claim) Territorial waters - Argentina.svg
Argentina's exclusive economic zones, including its territorial claims (the Falklands and South Georgia, etc. plus its Antarctic claim)

Considering the maritime areas claimed, the total area of Argentina reaches 3,849,756 km2. The recognized Argentine EEZ area is 1,159,063 km2.

Australia

Australia's exclusive economic zones, including its Antarctic claim Territorial waters - Australia.svg
Australia's exclusive economic zones, including its Antarctic claim

Australia's exclusive economic zone was declared on 1 August 1994, and extends from 12 to 200 nautical miles from the coastline of Australia and its external territories, except where a maritime delimitation agreement exists with another state. [34] [35] To the 12 nautical miles boundary is Australia's territorial waters. Australia has the third largest exclusive economic zone, behind France and the United States, but ahead of Russia, with a total area of 8,148,250 square kilometres, which actually exceeds its land territory.

The United Nations Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS) confirmed, in April 2008, Australia's rights over an additional 2.5 million square kilometres of seabed beyond the limits of Australia's EEZ. [36] [37] Australia also claimed, in its submission to the UN Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf, additional Continental Shelf past its EEZ from the Australian Antarctic Territory , [38] but these claims were deferred on Australia's request. However, Australia's EEZ from its Antarctic Territory is approximately 2 million square kilometres. [37]

RegionEEZ Area (km2) [37]
Mainland Australia (5 States and 3 Territories of the Australian Federation), Tasmania, and other minor islands6,048,681
Macquarie Island 471,837
Flag of Christmas Island.svg  Christmas Island 463,371
Flag of Norfolk Island.svg  Norfolk Island 428,618
Heard Island and McDonald Islands 410,722
Flag of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands.svg  Cocos Islands 325,021
Australian Antarctic Territory 2,000,000 [note 1]
Total8,148,250

Brazil

Brazil's exclusive economic zones Territorial waters - Brazil.svg
Brazil's exclusive economic zones

Brazil's EEZ includes areas around the Fernando de Noronha Islands, Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago, and the Trindade and Martim Vaz Islands.

RegionEEZ Area (km2) [39]
Flag of Brazil.svg Mainland Brazil (9 States of the Brazilian Federation)2,570,917
Bandeira do Espirito Santo.svg Trindade and Martim Vaz Islands 468,599
Bandeira de Pernambuco.svg Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago 413,636
Bandeira de Fernando de Noronha.png Fernando de Noronha Islands 363,362
Total3,830,955

Canada

Canada's exclusive economic zone and territorial waters Canada Exclusive Economic Zone.PNG
Canada's exclusive economic zone and territorial waters

Canada is unusual in that its exclusive economic zone, covering 5,599,077 km2 (2,161,816 sq mi), is slightly smaller than its territorial waters. [40] The latter generally extend only 12 nautical miles from the shore but also include inland marine waters such as Hudson Bay (about 300 nmi (560 km) across), the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and the internal waters of the Arctic Archipelago.

Chile

Chile's exclusive economic zones, including its Antarctic claim Territorial waters - Chile.svg
Chile's exclusive economic zones, including its Antarctic claim

Chile's EEZ includes areas around the Desventuradas Islands, Easter Island, and the Juan Fernández Islands.

RegionEEZ Area (km2) [41] Land Area (km2)Total
Mainland Chile 1,987,371755,7572,743,128
Easter Island 720,412164720,576
Juan Fernández Islands 502,524100502,624
Desventuradas Islands 449,8365449,841
Total3,660,143756,102.44,416,245.4

In 2020 and 2022, Chile submitted its partial claims to the United Nations Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS) to extend its maritime continental margin.

China

Exclusive economic zone claimed by the People's Republic of China:
.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}
China's undisputed EEZ -
960,556 km
EEZ claimed by China, disputed by Taiwan - 1,148,485 km
EEZ claimed by China, disputed by other countries - 210,926 km
Total: 2,236,430 km China Exclusive Economic Zones.png
Exclusive economic zone claimed by the People's Republic of China:
  China's undisputed EEZ –
960,556 km
  EEZ claimed by China, disputed by Taiwan – 1,148,485 km
  EEZ claimed by China, disputed by other countries – 210,926 km
Total: 2,236,430 km

The first figure excludes all disputed waters, while the last figure indicates China's claimed boundaries, and does not take into account adjacent powers' claims.[ clarification needed ]

Croatia

Croatia's exclusive economic zone (dark blue) and Ecological and Fisheries Protection Zone ZERP.jpg
Croatia's exclusive economic zone (dark blue) and Ecological and Fisheries Protection Zone

Croatia proclaimed Ecological and Fisheries Protection Zone in 2003, but it was not enforced toward other European Union states especially Italy and Slovenia. The zone was upgraded to EEZ in 2021 together with Italy and Slovenia. [45] [46] Territorial waters has 18,981 km2, while internal waters located within the baseline cover an additional 12,498 km2, and EEZ covers 24,482 km2 for a total of 55,961 km2.

Cyprus

Cyprus EEZ covers 98,707 square km (38,100 square miles). Cyprus' EEZ borders those of Greece, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel and Egypt.

Denmark

The exclusive economic zones and territorial waters of the Kingdom of Denmark Territorial waters - Denmark.svg
The exclusive economic zones and territorial waters of the Kingdom of Denmark

The Kingdom of Denmark includes the constituent country (selvstyre) of Greenland and the constituent country (hjemmestyre) of the Faroe Islands.

RegionEEZ & TW Area (km2) [47] Land areaTotal
Flag of Denmark.svg  Denmark 105 98942 506149 083
Flag of the Faroe Islands.svg  Faroe Islands 260 9951 399262 394
Flag of Greenland.svg  Greenland 2,184,2542,166,0864,350,340
Total2,551,2382,210,5794,761,817

Ecuador

Ecuador's exclusive economic zone Maritime Claims of Ecuador.svg
Ecuador's exclusive economic zone

Area: 1,077,231 km2

France

Exclusive economic zones of France, including its Antarctic territorial claim Territorial waters - France.svg
Exclusive economic zones of France, including its Antarctic territorial claim

Due to its numerous overseas departments and territories scattered on all oceans of the planet, France possesses the largest EEZ in the world, covering 11,691,000 km2 (4,514,000 sq mi). [48] The EEZ of France covers approximately 7% of the total surface of all the EEZs of the world, whereas the land area of the French Republic is only 0.45% of the total land area of Earth.

Germany

Germany declared the establishment of its exclusive economic zone in the North and Baltic Seas on 1 January 1995. [49] The relevant German legal provisions that are applicable within the EEZ include the Maritime Task Act (Seeaufgabengesetz) from 1965, the Maritime Facilities Act (Seeanlagengesetz) from 2017, and prior to that the Sea Facilities Ordinance (Seeanlagenverordnung) from 1997, the Federal Mining Act (Bundesberggesetz) and the Regional Planning Act (Raumordnungsgesetz).

The German EEZ has an area of 32,982 km2. About 70% of the EEZ covers Germany's entire North Sea area, while some 29% encompasses the Baltic Sea area. [50]

Greece

Exclusive Economic Zone of Greece Greek Exclusive Economic Zone.jpg
Exclusive Economic Zone of Greece

Greece forms the southernmost part of the Balkan peninsula in the Mediterranean Sea. It includes many small islands which vary between 1,200 and 6,000 in the Aegean Sea and the Ionian Sea. [51] The largest islands are Crete, Euboea, Lesbos, Rhodes and Chios.

Greece's EEZ is bordered to the west by Albania and Italy, to the south by Libya and Egypt, and to the east by Cyprus and Turkey.

EEZ Area of Greece [52]
Territorykm2sq miNotes
Total505,572195,202

India

India's exclusive economic zones Territorial waters - India.svg
India's exclusive economic zones
EEZArea (km2)
Mainland India (9 states and 2 union territories) and Lakshadweep union territory1,641,514 km2
Andaman and Nicobar Islands union territory663,629 km2
Total2,305,143 km2

India is currently seeking to extend its EEZ to 350 miles. [53]

Indonesia

Indonesia's exclusive economic zone Indonesia-Exclusive-Economic-Zone.png
Indonesia's exclusive economic zone

Indonesia has the 6th largest exclusive economic zone in the world. The total size is 6,159,032 km2 (2,378,016 sq mi). It claims an EEZ of 200 nautical miles from its shores. This is due to the 13,466 islands of the Indonesian Archipelago. [54] It has the 2nd largest coastline of 54,720 km (34,000 mi). The five main islands are: Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Sulawesi, and Western New Guinea. There are two major island groups (Nusa Tenggara and the Maluku Islands) and sixty smaller island groups.

Ireland

Ireland's exclusive economic zone was reported to be the location of a Russian military exercise in January 2022. [55] Russia's exercise was then moved outside the economic zone. [56]

Israel

In 2010, an agreement was signed with Cyprus concerning the limit of territorial waters between Israel and Cyprus at the maritime halfway point, a clarification essential for safeguarding Israel's rights to oil and underwater gas reservoirs. The agreement was signed in Nicosia by Israeli Infrastructure Minister Uzi Landau and the Cypriot Foreign Minister Markos Kyprianou. The two countries agreed to cooperate in the development of any cross-border resources discovered and to negotiate an agreement on dividing joint resources.

Italy

Italy's EEZ in the Mediterranean Sea Italy-Exclusive-Economic-Zone-Map (cropped).png
Italy's EEZ in the Mediterranean Sea

Italy has an EEZ of 541,915 km2 (209,235 sq mi). [52] The country claims an EEZ of 200 nautical miles from its shores, and its three coastlines are the Tyrrhenian Sea to the west, the Ionian Sea to the south and the Adriatic Sea to the east. Italy's EEZ is limited by maritime boundaries with neighboring countries to the northwest, east and southeast.

Italy's western sea territory stretches from the west coast of Italy on the Tyrrhenian Sea, including the island of Sardinia. The island of Sicily is in the southernmost area. Lampedusa, a tiny island in the Mediterranean Sea, is the country's southernmost point. Italy shares treaty-defined maritime boundaries with France, Spain, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Malta, Greece, Albania, Montenegro, Croatia and Slovenia.

Japan

Japan's exclusive economic zones:
Japan's EEZ
Joint regime
with the Republic of Korea
EEZ claimed by Japan, disputed by others Japan Exclusive Economic Zones.png
Japan's exclusive economic zones:
  Japan's EEZ
  Joint regime with the Republic of Korea
  EEZ claimed by Japan, disputed by others

Japan has the world's eighth-largest exclusive economic zone, covering 4,479,674 km2 (1,729,612 sq mi). [57] It claims an EEZ of 200 nautical miles from its shores.

EEZ Areas of Japan
RegionEEZ Area (km2)EEZ Area (sq mi)
Ryukyu Islands 1,394,676538,487
Pacific Ocean (Japan)1,162,334448,780
Nanpō Islands 862,782333,122
Sea of Japan 630,721243,523
Minami-Tori-shima 428,875165,590
Sea of Okhotsk 23591
Daitō Islands 4417
Senkaku Islands 72.7
Total [note 2] 4,479,6741,729,612

Japan has disputes over its EEZ boundaries with all its Asian neighbors (China, Russia, South Korea, and Taiwan). The above, and relevant maps at the Sea Around Us Project [58] [59] [60] both indicate Japan's claimed boundaries, and do not take into account the claims of adjacent jurisdictions.

Japan also refers to various categories of "shipping area" – Smooth Water Area, Coasting Area, Major or Greater Coasting Area, Ocean Going Area – but it is unclear whether these are intended to have any territorial or economic implications.

Malaysia

Mexico

Exclusive economic zone of Mexico Mexico EEZ.png
Exclusive economic zone of Mexico

Mexico's exclusive economic zones cover a total surface area of 3,269,386 km2, [52] and places Mexico among the countries with the largest areas in the world.

New Zealand

Exclusive economic zones of the Realm of New Zealand, including the Ross Dependency (shaded) Territorial waters - New Zealand.svg
Exclusive economic zones of the Realm of New Zealand, including the Ross Dependency (shaded)

New Zealand's EEZ covers 4,083,744 km2 (1,576,742 sq mi), [61] [62] which is approximately fifteen times the land area of the country. Sources vary significantly on the size of New Zealand's EEZ; for example, a recent government publication gave the area as roughly 4,300,000 km2. [63] These figures are for the EEZ of New Zealand proper, and do not include the EEZs of other territories in the Realm of New Zealand (the Cook Islands, Niue, Tokelau, and the Ross Dependency ).

North Korea

The exclusive economic zone of North Korea Exclusive economic zone of North Korea.png
The exclusive economic zone of North Korea

The exclusive economic zone of North Korea stretches 200 nautical miles from its basepoints in both the West Sea (Yellow Sea) and the Sea of Japan. [64] The EEZ was declared in 1977 after North Korea had contested the validity of the Northern Limit Lines (NLL) set up after the Korean War as maritime borders. [65] The EEZ has not been codified in law and North Korea has never specified its coordinates, making it difficult to determine its specific scope. [66]

In the West Sea, the EEZ remains unspecified in the Korea Bay because China has not determined its own EEZ in the area. [67] The border between the North Korean and South Korean EEZs in the West Sea cannot be determined because of potential overlap and disputes over certain islands. [68]

In the Sea of Japan, the North Korean EEZ can be approximated to be trapezoidal-shaped. [69] The border between North Korea and Russia's respective EEZs is the only such border that has been determined in East Asia. [70] Here, the EEZ does not cause many problems, even with regards to South Korea, because the sea is not thought to be rich in resources. [69]

Norway

Norway's exclusive economic zones, including the dependency of Bouvet Island Territorial waters - Norway.svg
Norway's exclusive economic zones, including the dependency of Bouvet Island

Norway has a large exclusive economic zone of 819,620 km2 around its coast. The country has a fishing zone of 1,878,953 km2, including fishing zones around Svalbard and Jan Mayen. [71]

In April 2009, the United Nations Commission for the Limits of the Continental Shelf approved Norway's claim to an additional 235,000 square kilometres of continental shelf. The commission found that Norway and Russia both had valid claims over a portion of the shelf in the Barents Sea. [72]

RegionEEZ and Territorial
Waters Area (km2)
Land Area (km2)Total (km2)
Mainland Norway 1,273,482323,8021,597,284
Svalbard 402,57461,002463,576
Jan Mayen 273,118373273,491
Bouvet Island 436,00449436,053
Total2,385,178385,2262,770,404

Pakistan

Area:290,000 square kilometres (110,000 sq mi)

The coast of Pakistan is 1,046 kilometres (650 mi) long, extending from Sir Creek in the east to Gwatar Bay in the west and the EEZ extends up to 290,000 square kilometres (110,000 sq mi) which is equivalent to more than 30% of its land area and ranks sixty-sixth in the world by area.

Pakistan had an EEZ of 240,000 square kilometres (93,000 sq mi) before their case was accepted by UNCLCS. Pakistan Navy with the help of the National Oceanographic Organization (NIO) initiated the continental shelf case at ministerial level in 1995.

On 26 Aug 2013, a seven-member sub-commission with members from Japan, China, Mozambique, Kenya, Denmark, Georgia and Argentina was formulated at UNCLCS to evaluate the technical details of Pakistan's case and after a year accepted Pakistan's claim.

On 13 March 2015, UN Commission on the Limits of Continental Shelf (UNCLCS) accepted recommendations for extension of the outer limits of the continental shelf on Pakistan's case so far 80 countries had submitted claims to UNCLCS out of which recommendations of 22 countries including Pakistan had been finalised.

It was a historic event in the country's history when Pakistan became the first country in the region to have its continental shelf extended to 350 nm.

Some of the claimed territories overlapped the Omani claim. It is believed that the verdict in favour of Pakistan was announced after successful negotiation with Oman.

Peru

Peru's exclusive economic zone Maritime Claims of Peru.svg
Peru's exclusive economic zone

Area: 857,000 km2 [73]

Philippines

The exclusive economic zone of the Philippines shown in blue lines, Eleven Dash-line shown in red lines, and treaty line of the Treaty of Paris (1898) shown in green line Ph EEZ Map.png
The exclusive economic zone of the Philippines shown in blue lines, Eleven Dash-line shown in red lines, and treaty line of the Treaty of Paris (1898) shown in green line

The Philippines' EEZ covers 2,263,816 km2 (874,064 sq mi). [75]

Poland

The Polish EEZ covers the area of 30,533 km2 (11,789 sq mi) within the Baltic Sea. [76]

Portugal

Portugal's Exclusive Economic Zones plus submitted Extended Continental Shelf to the UN Portugal EEZ.PNG
Portugal's Exclusive Economic Zones plus submitted Extended Continental Shelf to the UN

Portugal has the 20th largest EEZ in the world. Presently, it is divided in three non-contiguous sub-zones:

Portugal submitted a claim to extend its jurisdiction over an additional 2.15 million square kilometres of the adjacent continental shelf in May 2009, [78] resulting in an area with a total of more than 3,877,408 km2. The submission, as well as a detailed map, can be found in the Task Group for the extension of the Continental Shelf website.

Spain previously objected to the EEZ's southern border, maintaining that it should be drawn halfway between Madeira and the Canary Islands. But Portugal exercises sovereignty over the Savage Islands, a small archipelago north of the Canaries, claiming an EEZ border further south. Spain has no longer disputed the Portuguese claim since 2015. [79] [80]

Romania

Area: 23,627 km2

Russia

Russia's exclusive economic zone Territorial waters - Russia.svg
Russia's exclusive economic zone

Russia's exclusive economic zone, the world's fourth largest, is composed of:

  • Kaliningrad (Baltic Sea) – 11,634 km2
  • Saint Petersburg (Baltic Sea) – 12,759 km2
  • Barents Sea – 1,308,140 km2
  • Black Sea (without the Crimean EEZ) – 66,854 km2
  • Pacific – 3,419,202 km2
  • Siberia – 3,277,292 km2
  • Total – 8,095,881 km2 [81]

Senegal

Senegal's exclusive economic zone ZEE Senegal (zone economique exclusive).jpg
Senegal's exclusive economic zone

Area: 158,861 km2

Somalia

Somalia's exclusive economic zone Territorial Waters of Somalia.svg
Somalia's exclusive economic zone

Area: 825,052 km2

South Africa

South Africa's exclusive economic zone Maritime zones of South Africa.svg
South Africa's exclusive economic zone

South Africa's EEZ includes both that next to the African mainland and that around the Prince Edward Islands, totalling 1,535,538 km2. [52]

  • Mainland – 1,068,659 km2
  • Prince Edward islands – 466,879 km2

South Korea

South Korean exclusive economic zone:
Korean EEZ
EEZ claimed by Republic of Korea and Japan
Joint regime
with Japan Koreez.PNG
South Korean exclusive economic zone:
  Korean EEZ
  EEZ claimed by Republic of Korea and Japan
  Joint regime with Japan

Area: 300,851 (225,214) km2

Spain

Spain's exclusive economic zone (Labels in Spanish) Zee spain.png
Spain's exclusive economic zone (Labels in Spanish)

Area: 1,039,233 km2

Sri Lanka

Thailand

Thailand's exclusive economic zone Thailand-Exclusive-Economic-Zone.png
Thailand's exclusive economic zone

Area: 299,397 km2

Turkey

Turkey's EEZ is bordered by Georgia, Russia, Ukraine, Romania and Bulgaria in the Black Sea to the north, Greece in the Aegean Sea to the west, and Cyprus and Syria in the Mediterranean Sea to the south. Turkey is one of the few countries to not have signed UNCLOS and disputes Greece's and Cyprus' EEZ.

United Kingdom

The exclusive economic zones of the United Kingdom in blue, including the British Overseas Territories and the Crown Dependencies. The British claim in Antarctica is shown in shaded blue. Territorial waters - United Kingdom.svg
The exclusive economic zones of the United Kingdom in blue, including the British Overseas Territories and the Crown Dependencies. The British claim in Antarctica is shown in shaded blue.
UK, Ireland, Iceland & Faroes exclusive economic zones Rockall EEZ topographic map-en.svg
UK, Ireland, Iceland & Faroes exclusive economic zones

The United Kingdom has the world's fifth-largest exclusive economic zone of 6,805,586 km2 (2,627,651 sq mi) square km. It comprises the EEZs surrounding the United Kingdom, [83] the Crown Dependencies, and the British Overseas Territories. The figure does not include the EEZ of the British Antarctic Territory.

The EEZ associated with the Falkland Islands and South Georgia are disputed by Argentina. The EEZ of the Chagos Archipelago, also known as the British Indian Ocean Territory, is also disputed with Mauritius which considers the archipelago as a part of its territory.

The EEZ areas of the United Kingdom, Crown Dependencies and British Overseas Territories (in decreasing size) [52]
TerritoryEEZ Area (km2)EEZ Area (sq mi)Notes
Flag of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands.svg  South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands 1,449,532559,667 Disputed with Flag of Argentina.svg  Argentina.
Flag of the Pitcairn Islands.svg  Pitcairn, Henderson, Ducie and Oeno Islands 836,108322,823
Flag of the United Kingdom.svg  United Kingdom 773,676298,718Including the Flag of the Isle of Man.svg  Isle of Man.
Flag of Tristan da Cunha.svg  Tristan da Cunha 754,720291,400Including Flag of Tristan da Cunha.svg Gough Island.
Flag of the Commissioner of the British Indian Ocean Territory.svg  British Indian Ocean Territory 638,568246,552 Disputed with Flag of Mauritius.svg  Mauritius.
Flag of the Falkland Islands.svg  Falkland Islands 550,872212,693 Disputed with Flag of Argentina.svg  Argentina.
Flag of Bermuda.svg  Bermuda 450,370173,890
Flag of Saint Helena.svg  Saint Helena 444,916171,783
Flag of Ascension Island.svg  Ascension Island 441,658170,525
Flag of the Turks and Caicos Islands.svg  Turks and Caicos Islands 154,06859,486
Flag of the Cayman Islands.svg  Cayman Islands 119,13745,999
Flag of Anguilla.svg  Anguilla 92,17835,590
Flag of the British Virgin Islands.svg  British Virgin Islands 80,11730,933
Flag of the United Kingdom.svg Channel Islands 11,6584,501Including Flag of Guernsey.svg  Guernsey and Flag of Jersey.svg  Jersey.
Flag of Montserrat.svg  Montserrat 7,5822,927
Flag of Gibraltar.svg  Gibraltar 426164 Disputed with Flag of Spain.svg  Spain.
Flag of the United Kingdom.svg  Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia 00No EEZ area. The relevant EEZ areas around Cyprus Island are claimed by the Flag of Cyprus.svg  Republic of Cyprus [84] and Flag of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus.svg  Northern Cyprus. [85]
Total6,805,5862,627,651

A part of the overseas territory of Flag of the United Kingdom.svg  Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha, which together has an EEZ of 1,641,294 square km.

United States

The USA's Exclusive Economic Zones NOAA Map of the US EEZ.svg
The USA's Exclusive Economic Zones

The United States' exclusive economic zone is the second-largest in the world, covering 11,351,000 km2. Areas of its EEZ are located in three oceans as well as the Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean Sea. Only France, with its widespread administrative departments and overseas territories in the North Atlantic, the Caribbean, the Indian Ocean, and in extensive island chains of the Pacific, has a larger EEZ than the United States.

The EEZ (including territorial sea) areas of the territories of the U.S. (in decreasing size) [86]
TerritoryEEZ Area (km2)EEZ Area (sq mi)Notes
Flag of Alaska.svg  Alaska 3,770,0211,455,613A non-contiguous state in the northwest extremity of the North American continent.
Flag of Hawaii.svg  HawaiiNorthwestern Islands 1,579,538609,863Including Midway Atoll, these islands form the Leeward Islands of the Hawaiian island chain.
Flag of the United States.svg U.S. East Coast 915,763353,578The mainland coastal states of the Eastern United States. As a region, this term most often refers to the coastal states of Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and the Atlantic Coast of Florida.
Flag of Hawaii.svg  HawaiiSoutheastern Islands 895,346345,695These islands form the Windward Islands of the Hawaiian island chain.
Flag of the United States.svg U.S. West Coast 825,549318,746The mainland coastal states of the Western United States. As a region, this term most often refers to the coastal states of California, Oregon, Washington.
Flag of the Northern Mariana Islands.svg  Northern Mariana Islands 749,268289,294An organized, unincorporated, Commonwealth of the United States.
Flag of the United States.svg U.S. Gulf Coast 707,832273,295The mainland coastal states of the Southern United States. As a region, this term most often refers to the coastal states of Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and the Gulf Coast of Florida
Johnston Atoll 442,635170,902A National Wildlife Refuge in the U.S. Minor Outlying Islands.
Flag of the United States.svg Howland and Baker Islands 434,921167,924Both territories are National Wildlife Refuges in the U.S. Minor Outlying Islands.
Flag of Wake Island.svg  Wake Island 407,241157,237A National Wildlife Refuge in the U.S. Minor Outlying Islands.
Flag of American Samoa.svg  American Samoa 404,391156,136The only inhabited, unorganized, unincorporated, territory of the United States.
Palmyra Atoll and Kingman Reef 352,300136,000Both territories are National Wildlife Refuges in the U.S. Minor Outlying Islands.
Jarvis Island 316,665122,265A National Wildlife Refuge in the U.S. Minor Outlying Islands.
Flag of Guam.svg  Guam 221,50485,523An organized, unincorporated, territory of the United States.
Flag of Puerto Rico.svg  Puerto Rico 177,68568,605An organized, unincorporated, Commonwealth of the United States.
Flag of the United States Virgin Islands.svg  U.S. Virgin Islands 33,74413,029An organized, unincorporated, territory of the United States.
Navassa Island N/A [note 3] N/A [note 3] A National Wildlife Refuge in the U.S. Minor Outlying Islands. [note 4]
Total11,351,0004,383,000

Note, the totals in the table actually add up to 12,234,403 square km and 4,723,705 square miles.

Vietnam

Vietnam claims an exclusive economic zone (EEZ) of 1,395,096 km2 (538,650 sq mi) with 200 nautical miles from its shores. [90] [91] These figures do not include the claimed EEZ areas of the Paracel Islands and the Spratly Islands. Vietnam has disputes mainly with the People's Republic of China due to the nine-dash line.

Countries with the most distant EEZs

Countries with the most distant EEZs WorldEEZ.png
Countries with the most distant EEZs

Rankings by area (top 20)

RankCountryEEZ by area (km2) [92]
1France11,691,000
2United States11,351,000
3Australia8,505,348
4Russia7,566,673
5United Kingdom6,805,586
6Indonesia6,159,032
7Canada5,599,077
8Japan4,479,388
9New Zealand4,083,744
10Chile3,681,989
11Brazil3,660,955
12Kiribati3,441,810
13Mexico3,269,386
14Micronesia2,996,419
15Denmark2,551,238
16Papua New Guinea2,402,288
17Norway2,385,178
18India2,305,143
19Marshall Islands1,990,530
20Portugal1,727,408

See also

Notes

  1. The reference gives an approximate figure of 2 million square kilometres for the EEZ claimed by Australia as part of its Antarctic Territory. This is in addition to the 8 million square kilometres total given in the reference. This EEZ is also distinct from the 2.56 million square kilometres of additional continental shelf mentioned in the reference.
  2. Including areas recommended by the United Nations Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf.
  3. 1 2 The source does not provide any data for Navassa Island [87] [88] even though the U.S. federal government did claim an EEZ area for this disputed territory. [89]
  4. A joint Cuba–Haiti Maritime Boundary Agreement signed at Havana in 1977 bilaterally divides the waters between both local nations and Cuba's maritime boundary places the island within Haitian waters and doesn't recognize any local U.S. claim in the area.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea</span> International maritime law

The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), also called the Law of the Sea Convention or the Law of the Sea Treaty, is an international treaty that establishes a legal framework for all marine and maritime activities. As of October 2024, 169 sovereign states and the European Union are parties.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Territorial waters</span> Coastal waters that are part of a sovereign states sovereign territory

Territorial waters are informally an area of water where a sovereign state has jurisdiction, including internal waters, the territorial sea, the contiguous zone, the exclusive economic zone, and potentially the extended continental shelf. In a narrower sense, the term is often used as a synonym for the territorial sea.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Argentine Sea</span> Sea within the continental shelf off the Argentine mainland

The Argentine Sea is a marginal sea of the Atlantic Ocean adjacent to the southern tip of South America. It ranges from the mouth of the estuary of the Río de la Plata in the north to the Isla de los Estados in the south, and from the Argentine coast to the 200 meters isobath. Its width varies between 210 km in front of Mar del Plata and 850 km at the latitude of the Falkland Islands. The coastline extends for 4,725 km. To the east of the Argentine Sea extends much deeper and more extensive Argentine Basin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Territorial claims in the Arctic</span>

The Arctic consists of land, internal waters, territorial seas, exclusive economic zones (EEZs) and international waters above the Arctic Circle. All land, internal waters, territorial seas and EEZs in the Arctic are under the jurisdiction of one of the eight Arctic coastal states: Canada, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden and the United States. International law regulates this area as with other portions of Earth.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Exclusive economic zone of Portugal</span> EEZ of Portugal

Portugal has the 5th largest exclusive economic zone (EEZ) within Europe, 3rd largest of the EU and the 20th largest EEZ in the world, at 1,727,408 km2.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Australia–Indonesia border</span> International maritime border between Australia and Indonesia

The Australia–Indonesia border is a maritime boundary running west from the two countries' tripoint maritime boundary with Papua New Guinea in the western entrance to the Torres Straits, through the Arafura Sea and Timor Sea, and terminating in the Indian Ocean. The boundary is, however, broken by the Timor Gap, where Australian and East Timorese territorial waters meet and where the two countries have overlapping claims to the seabed.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cyprus–Turkey maritime zones dispute</span> Ongoing political dispute in the Mediterranean

The Republic of Cyprus (Cyprus) and Turkey have been engaged in a dispute over the extent of their exclusive economic zones (EEZ), ostensibly sparked by oil and gas exploration in the area. Turkey objects to Cypriot drilling in waters that Cyprus has asserted a claim on. The present maritime zones dispute touches on the perennial Cyprus and Aegean disputes; Turkey is the only member state of the United Nations that does not recognise Cyprus, and is one of the countries which are not signatory to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, which Cyprus has signed and ratified.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">East China Sea EEZ disputes</span>

There are disputes between China, Japan, Taiwan and South Korea over the extent of their respective exclusive economic zones (EEZs) in the East China Sea.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rockall Bank dispute</span> Conflicting maritime claims

Several states have claimed interests over the sea bed adjoining Rockall, an uninhabitable granite islet which is located within the exclusive economic zone (EEZ) of the United Kingdom. Ireland, Denmark, Iceland, and the United Kingdom have all made submissions to the commission set up under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Exclusive economic zone of Japan</span> Economic zone exclusive to Japan

Japan has the eighth-largest exclusive economic zone (EEZ) in the world. The total area of Japan is about 380 thousand km2. Japan's EEZ area is vast and the territorial waters and EEZ together is about 4.47 million km2.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Exclusive economic zone of Australia</span> Maritime boundary

Australia's exclusive economic zone (EEZ) was declared on 1 August 1994 and extends from 12 to 200 nautical miles from the coastline of Australia and its external territories, except where a maritime delimitation agreement exists with another state. To the 12 nautical-mile boundary is Australia's territorial waters. Australia has the third-largest exclusive economic zone, behind France and the United States but ahead of Russia, with the total area of 8,148,250 square kilometres (3,146,060 sq mi), which exceeds its land territory.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Exclusive economic zone of North Korea</span> North Korean maritime boundary

The exclusive economic zone of North Korea stretches 200 nautical miles from its basepoints in both the Yellow Sea and the Sea of Japan. The exclusive economic zone (EEZ) was declared in 1977 after North Korea had contested the validity of the Northern Limit Lines (NLL) set up after the Korean War as maritime borders. The EEZ has not been codified in law and North Korea has never specified its coordinates, making it difficult to determine its specific scope.

Vietnam claims an exclusive economic zone (EEZ) of 1,395,096 km2 (538,650 sq mi) with 200 nautical miles from its shores.

Malaysia claims an exclusive economic zone (EEZ) of 334,671 km2 (129,217 sq mi) with 200 nautical miles from its shores. The EEZ includes much of the southern area of the South China Sea. Malaysia has the 29th longest coastline of 4,675 km (2,905 mi). The coastline comprises two distinct parts of Malaysia. The Peninsular Malaysia's coastline to the west is 2,068 km (1,285 mi) and East Malaysia's coastline is 2,607 km (1,620 mi). They are separated by the South China Sea. The total land area, including inland bodies of water, of Malaysia is 330,803 km2 (127,724 sq mi). Peninsular Malaysia borders Thailand in the north, while East Malaysia borders Brunei and Indonesia on the island of Borneo.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Exclusive economic zone of the United Kingdom</span> Maritime boundary

The United Kingdom's exclusive economic zone is the fifth largest in the world at 6,805,586 km2 (2,627,651 sq mi). It comprises the exclusive economic zones surrounding the United Kingdom, the Crown Dependencies, and the British Overseas Territories. The figure does not include the EEZ of the British Antarctic Territory.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Exclusive economic zone of India</span> Economic zone exclusive to India

India has the 18th-largest exclusive economic zone (EEZ) with a total size of 2,305,143 km2 (890,021 sq mi). It includes the Lakshadweep island group in the Laccadive Sea off the southwestern coast of India and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea. India's EEZ is bordered to the west by Pakistan, to the south by the Maldives and Sri Lanka and to the east by Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia. Based on new scientific data, India has petitioned United Nations to extend its EEZ from 200 Nautical miles to 350 nautical miles.

The United States has the world's second-largest exclusive economic zone (EEZ). The total size is 11,351,000 km2 (4,383,000 sq mi)2. Areas of its EEZ are located in three oceans, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean Sea. Most notable areas are Alaska, Hawaii, the East Coast, West Coast and Gulf Coast of the United States.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Exclusive economic zone of Canada</span>

The exclusive economic zone of Canada is the area of the sea in which Canada has special rights regarding the exploration and use of marine resources, as prescribed by the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea.

Spain's exclusive economic zone (EEZ) is the 30th largest in the world with 1,039,233 km2 (401,250 sq mi). It is mostly in the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. This is approximately double the entire Spanish land area. Together the land and sea surface would account for approximately 0.3% of the world's land surface.

Greece has claimed an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) with a total size of 505,572 km2 (195,202 sq mi), which is the 53rd largest in the world.

References

    1. "Part V – Exclusive Economic Zone, Article 56". Law of the Sea. United Nations. Retrieved 28 August 2011.
    2. "Part V – Exclusive Economic Zone, Articles 55, 56". Law of the Sea. United Nations.
    3. Urbina, Ian (17 February 2016). "Palau v. The Poachers". The New York Times. Retrieved 21 February 2016.
    4. William R. Slomanson, 2006. Fundamental Perspectives on International Law, 5th ed. Belmont, CA: Thomson-Wadsworth, 294.
    5. 1 2 "Part II: Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone". 1982 UN Convention on the Law of The Sea.
    6. El Mercurio, Santiago de Chile, 29 June 1947
    7. El Peruano: Diario Oficial. Vol. 107, No. 1983, 11 August 1947)
    8. The Exclusive Economic Zone: A Historical Perspective. Fao.org. Retrieved 23 July 2013.
    9. Danaher, Kevin (28 February 2019). "The Situation at Mouchoir Bank". Sovereign Limits. Retrieved 14 September 2024.
    10. "Sea Around Us | Fisheries, Ecosystems and Biodiversity". www.seaaroundus.org. Retrieved 4 October 2024.
    11. "Marine Regions". www.marineregions.org. Retrieved 20 October 2024.
    12. "Limits in the Seas No. 130 Dominican Republic: Archipelagic and other Maritime Claims and Boundaries" (PDF). United States Department of State Bureau of Oceans and International Environmental and Scientific Affairs. Retrieved 14 January 2014.
    13. "ANALYSIS ON THE LEGITIMACY OF THE DECLARATION OF THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC AS AN ARCHIPELAGIC STATE AND ITS LEGALITY UNDER THE UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION ON THE LAW OF THE SEA (UNCLOS) AND THE INTERNATIONAL LAW" (PDF). DIVISION FOR OCEAN AFFAIRS AND THE LAW OF THE SEA, OFFICE OF LEGAL AFFAIRS, THE UNITED NATIONS, NEW YORK, 2018. 15 December 2018. Retrieved 11 July 2024.
    14. "Turkey sends non-paper to EU, warning to stay away from Cyprus EEZ". KeepTalkingGreece. 23 June 2019. Retrieved 11 July 2019.
    15. "Greece's maritime claims 'maximalist,' violate international boundaries law". Daily Sabah. 13 June 2019. Retrieved 11 July 2019.
    16. "Turkey threatens Greece over disputed Mediterranean territorial claims". DW.com. 5 September 2020.
    17. "The Legal Status of Ice in the Antarctic Region". Archived from the original on 27 February 2006.
    18. "AWARD OF THE ARBITRAL TRIBUNAL IN THE SECOND STAGE OF THE PROCEEDINGS (MARITIME DELIMITATION)". Permanent Court of Arbitration. Archived from the original on 12 April 2015. Retrieved 12 April 2015.
    19. Kwiatkowska, Barbara (January 2001). "The Eritrea-Yemen Arbitration: Landmark Progress in the Acquisition of Territorial Sovereignty and Equitable Maritime Boundary Delimitation". Ocean Development and International Law. 32 (1): 1–25. doi:10.1080/00908320150502177. S2CID   154096546.
    20. United Nations International Court of Justice Archived 16 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine Decision year: 2009
    21. Russia and Norway Reach Accord on Barents Sea, The New York Times, 28 April 2010. Retrieved 28 April 2010
    22. Russia and Norway resolve Arctic border dispute, The Guardian, 15 September 2010. Retrieved 21 September 2010
    23. Elizabeth Schumacher (24 October 2014). "Germany and the Netherlands end centuries-old border dispute". DW.com.
    24. "Germany and the Netherlands end Ems River border dispute". Boundary News. Durham University. 6 November 2014. Archived from the original on 9 October 2015.
    25. FAO: The State of the World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2006 Part3: highlights of Special studies Archived 29 December 2010 at the Wayback Machine Rome. ISBN   978-92-5-105568-7
    26. Report of the FAO workshop on vulnerable ecosystems and destructive fishing in deep sea fisheries: Rome, 26-29 June 2007. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the Unite Nations. 2008. ISBN   978-92-5-105994-4. Fisheries Report No. 829.
    27. "Deposit by Algeria of a list of geographical coordinates of points, pursuant to article 75, paragraph 2, of the Convention" (PDF).
    28. "Presidential Decree No. 18-96 of 2 Rajab 1439 corresponding to March 20, 2018 establishing an exclusive economic zone off the Algerian coast" (PDF).
    29. "Letter from Spain to the Secretary-General of 27 July 2018" (PDF).
    30. "Letter from Italy to the Secretary-General of November 28, 2018" (PDF).
    31. "oral note of the Algerian Ministry of Foreign Affairs response to the Spanish protest" (PDF).
    32. "Communication from Algeria addressed to Italy dated 20 June 2019" (PDF).
    33. "Communication from Algeria addressed to Spain dated 20 June 2019" (PDF).
    34. "The Australian Fishing Zone". Department of Agriculture.
    35. "Maritime Boundary Definitions". Geoscience Australia. Australian Government. Archived from the original on 5 April 2005.
    36. UN confirms Australia's rights over extra 2.5 million square kilometres of seabed. Archived 25 October 2009 at the Wayback Machine Minister for Resources and Energy, The Hon Martin Ferguson AM MP, Media Release, 21 April 2008. "Minister for Resources and Energy, Minister for Tourism". Archived from the original on 27 August 2008. Retrieved 13 November 2008.
    37. 1 2 3 "Oceans and Seas". Geoscience Australia. Australian Government. 15 May 2014. Retrieved 22 May 2020.
    38. Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea. Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf, Submission by Australia
    39. See Around Us Project (n.d.). "Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ)" . Retrieved 3 June 2015. EEZ waters of: Mainland Brazil 2,570,917 km2, Fernando de Noronha Islands 363,362 km2, Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago 413,636 km2, and the Trindade and Martim Vaz Islands 468,599 km2
    40. "Canada's Marine Waters: Integrating the Boundaries of Politics and Nature". Wildlife Habitat Canada. Archived from the original on 21 December 2005.
    41. See Around Us Project (n.d.). "Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ)" . Retrieved 3 June 2015. EEZ waters of: Mainland Chile 1,975,760 km2, the Desventuradas Islands 449,836 km2, Easter Island 720,412 km2, the Juan Fernández, Felix and Ambrosio Islands 502,524 km2
    42. "China · MRGID 8486". Marineregions.org. Retrieved 12 October 2023.
    43. EEZ and shelf areas of Taiwan – Sea Around Us Project – Fisheries, Ecosystems & Biodiversity – Data and Visualization.
    44. EEZ and shelf areas of China – Sea Around Us Project – Fisheries, Ecosystems & Biodiversity – Data and Visualization.
    45. "Hrvatska proglasila svoj Isključivi gospodarski pojas u Jadranskom moru: Zastupnici jednoglasno podržali odluku" [Croatia declared its Exclusive Economic Zone in the Adriatic Sea: MPs unanimously supported the decision]. Novi List (in Croatian). 5 February 2021. Retrieved 8 January 2023.
    46. "Hrvatska i Italija potpisale Ugovor o razgraničenju isključivih gospodarskih pojaseva. U odnosu na ZERP donosi dva nova prava" [Croatia and Italy signed the Agreement on Demarcation of Exclusive Economic Zones. In relation to ZERP, it brings two new rights.]. tportal.hr (in Croatian). 25 May 2022. Retrieved 8 January 2023.
    47. "Danish foreign ministry". Archived from the original on 23 November 2008.
    48. "Espaces maritimes français | Limites maritimes". limitesmaritimes.gouv.fr. 26 January 2023.
    49. "Bundesgesetzblatt BGBL. Online-Archiv 1949 - 2022 | Bundesanzeiger Verlag" (PDF).
    50. "Nationale Meeresschutzgebiete | BFN".
    51. Marker, Sherry; Kerasiotis, Peter (2010). "Greece in depth". In Nadeau, Mark (ed.). Frommer's Greece . Hoboken: Wiley. p.  12.
    52. 1 2 3 4 5 "Sea Around Us – Fisheries, Ecosystems and Biodiversity" . Retrieved 1 April 2017.
    53. Sunderarajan, P. (12 June 2011). "India hopes to double its EEZ". The Hindu. Retrieved 1 April 2017.
    54. "Hanya ada 13.466 Pulau di Indonesia". National Geographic Indonesia (in Indonesian). 8 February 2012.
    55. Murphy, Ray (25 January 2022). "Why are Russian naval and air forces setting up off the Irish coast?". RTÉ News . Retrieved 30 January 2022.
    56. "Russia to move military drills outside Ireland's EEZ". RTÉ News. 30 January 2022. Retrieved 30 January 2022.
    57. "海洋白書 2004". Nippon Foundation. Retrieved 11 February 2008.
    58. EEZ and shelf areas of Japan (main islands) – Sea Around Us Project – Fisheries, Ecosystems & Biodiversity – Data and Visualization.
    59. EEZ and shelf areas of Japan (Daitō Islands) – Sea Around Us Project – Fisheries, Ecosystems & Biodiversity – Data and Visualization.
    60. EEZ and shelf areas of Japan (Ogasawara Islands) – Sea Around Us Project – Fisheries, Ecosystems & Biodiversity – Data and Visualization.
    61. EEZ and shelf areas of New Zealand (mainland) – Sea Around Us Project – Fisheries, Ecosystems & Biodiversity – Data and Visualization.
    62. EEZ and shelf areas of New Zealand (Kermadec Islands) – Sea Around Us Project – Fisheries, Ecosystems & Biodiversity – Data and Visualization.
    63. New Zealand Ministry for the Environment (August 2007). "Introduction". Improving Regulation of Environmental Effects in New Zealand's Exclusive Economic Zone: Discussion Paper. ISBN   978-0-478-30160-1. ME824. Archived from the original on 7 February 2012. Retrieved 7 January 2006.
    64. Prescott & Schofield 2001, p. 25.
    65. Kim 2017, p. 20.
    66. Kim 2017, pp. 20, 71–72.
    67. Kim 2017, p. 77.
    68. Kotch & Abbey 2003, p. 179.
    69. 1 2 Van Dyke 2009, p. 42.
    70. Kim 2017, p. 51.
    71. Statistisk årbok 2007 Accessed January 2008
    72. UN backs Norway claim to Arctic seabed extension Archived 11 December 2009 at the Wayback Machine , Canwest News Service, 15 April 2009. Retrieved 13 May 2009.
    73. Brittany, Derrick; Khalfallah, Myriam; Relano, Veronica; Zeller, Dirk; Pauly, Daniel (31 March 2021). "Updating to 2018 the 1950- 2010 marine catch reconstructions of the Sea Around Us. Part II: The Americas and Asia-Pacific". Fisheries Centre Research Reports. 28 (6): 270. ISSN   1198-6727 . Retrieved 27 December 2023 via The University of British Columbia.
    74. https://www.fao.org/fishery/en/openasfa/a9b133df-8b25-409e-9066-906893bc39e7 Figure 1. The UNCLOS mandated exclusive economic zone (EEZ) of the Philippines
    75. EEZ and shelf areas of the Philippines – Sea Around Us Project – Fisheries, Ecosystems & Biodiversity – Data and Visualization.
    76. "Exploration and Extraction of Sand and Gravel Resources in the Polish Exclusive Economical Zone of the Baltic Sea" (PDF). Advanced Solutions International Inc. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 March 2004. Retrieved 1 April 2017.
    77. "Task Group for the Extension of the Portuguese Continental Shelf". Archived from the original on 18 December 2009.
    78. Portugal applies to UN to Extend Its Continental Shelf Zone. Retrieved 3 July 2011
    79. "Continental Shelf - submission to the Commission by Portugal". www.un.org.
    80. "Communications received with regard to the submission made by Portugal to the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf" (PDF).
    81. "Sea Around Us Project – Data and Visualization". Archived from the original on 27 April 2006. Retrieved 1 April 2017.
    82. "Countries within a country". 10 Downing Street . Archived from the original on 16 April 2010. Retrieved 16 January 2010.
    83. "The Exclusive Economic Zone Order 2013" at Legislation.gov.uk. Retrieved 20 July 2014.
    84. EEZ and shelf areas of the Republic of Cyprus – Sea Around Us Project – Fisheries, Ecosystems & Biodiversity – Data and Visualization.
    85. EEZ and shelf areas of Northern Cyprus – Sea Around Us Project – Fisheries, Ecosystems & Biodiversity – Data and Visualization.
    86. "Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ)". Sea Around Us | Fisheries, Ecosystems and Biodiversity. Retrieved 12 October 2023.
    87. "Catches by Taxon in the waters of Haiti". Sea Around Us | Fisheries, Ecosystems and Biodiversity.
    88. "Catches by Taxon in the waters of Jamaica". Sea Around Us | Fisheries, Ecosystems and Biodiversity.
    89. "Field Listing :: Maritime claims — The World Factbook". Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on 9 January 2019.
    90. EEZ and shelf areas of Vietnam – Sea Around Us Project – Fisheries, Ecosystems & Biodiversity – Data and Visualization.
    91. "Vietnam · MRGID 8484". Marineregions.org.
    92. Migiro, Geoffrey (29 June 2018). "Countries with the Largest Exclusive Economic Zones". WorldAtlas. Retrieved 15 January 2025.

    Works cited: