The Indonesian archipelago has been a valuable region for trade since at least the seventh century, when Sumatra's Srivijaya and later Java's Majapahit kingdoms engaged in commerce with entities from mainland China and the Indian subcontinent. Over the centuries, local rulers assimilated foreign influences, leading to the flourishing of Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms. Sunni traders and Sufi scholars later brought Islam, and European powers fought one another to monopolise trade in the Spice Islands of Maluku during the Age of Discovery. Following three and a half centuries of Dutch colonialism, Indonesia secured its independence after World War II. Indonesia's history has since been turbulent, with challenges posed by natural disasters, corruption, separatism, a democratisation process, and periods of rapid economic growth.
The region that is today identified as Indonesia has carried different names, such as "East Indies" in this 1855 map
The name Indonesia derives from the Greek words Indos (Ἰνδός) and nesos (νῆσος), meaning "Indian islands".[11] The name dates back to the 19th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his preference, Malayunesians—for the inhabitants of the "Indian Archipelago or Malay Archipelago".[12][13] In the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago.[14][15] Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia. They preferred Malay Archipelago (Dutch: Maleische Archipel); the Netherlands East Indies (Nederlandsch Oost Indië), popularly Indië; the East (de Oost); and Insulinde.[16]
After 1900, Indonesia became more common in academic circles outside the Netherlands, and native nationalist groups adopted it for political expression.[16]Adolf Bastian of the University of Berlin popularized the name through his book Indonesien oder die Inseln des Malayischen Archipels, 1884–1894. The first native scholar to use the name was Ki Hajar Dewantara when in 1913, he established a press bureau in the Netherlands, Indonesisch Pers-bureau.[13]
One of the oldest known figurative paintings, a depiction of a bull, was discovered in the Lubang Jeriji Saléh cave dated as over 40,000 (perhaps as old as 52,000) years old.
Austronesian peoples, who form the majority of the modern population, migrated to Southeast Asia from what is now Taiwan. They arrived in the archipelago around 2,000 BCE and confined the native Melanesians to the far eastern regions as they spread east.[26] Ideal agricultural conditions and the mastering of wet-field rice cultivation as early as the eighth century BCE[27] allowed villages, towns, and small kingdoms to flourish by the first century CE. The archipelago's strategic sea-lane position fostered inter-island and international trade, including with Indian kingdoms and Chinese dynasties, from several centuries BCE.[28] Trade has since fundamentally shaped Indonesian history.[29][30]
A Borobudur ship carved on Borobudur temple, c.800 CE. Outrigger boats from the archipelago may have made trade voyages to the east coast of Africa and Madagascar as early as the 1st century CE
From the seventh century CE, the Srivijaya naval kingdom flourished due to trade and the influences of Hinduism and Buddhism.[32][33] Between the eighth and tenth centuries CE, the agricultural Buddhist Sailendra and Hindu Mataram dynasties thrived and declined in inland Java, leaving grand religious monuments such as Sailendra's Borobudur and Mataram's Prambanan. The Hindu Majapahit kingdom was founded in eastern Java in the late 13th century, and under Gajah Mada, its influence stretched over much of present-day Indonesia. This period is often referred to as the "Golden Age" in Indonesian history.[34]
The earliest evidence of Islamized populations in the archipelago dates to the 13th century in northern Sumatra.[35] Other parts of the archipelago gradually adopted Islam, and it was the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by the end of the 16th century. For the most part, Islam overlaid and mixed with existing cultural and religious influences, which shaped the predominant form of Islam in Indonesia, particularly in Java.[36]
For most of the colonial period, Dutch control over the archipelago was tenuous. Dutch forces were engaged continuously in quelling rebellions on and off Java. The influence of local leaders such as Prince Diponegoro in central Java, Imam Bonjol in central Sumatra, Pattimura in Maluku, and the Aceh War weakened the Dutch and tied up the colonial military forces.[39][40][41] Only in the early 20th century did Dutch dominance extend to what was to become Indonesia's current boundaries.[41][42][43][44]
Sukarno (left) and Hatta (right), Indonesia's founding fathers and the first President and Vice President respectively
As president, Sukarno moved Indonesia from democracy towards authoritarianism and maintained power by balancing the opposing forces of the military, political Islam, and the increasingly powerful Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI).[55] Tensions between the military and the PKI culminated in an attempted coup in 1965. The army, led by Major General Suharto, countered by instigating a violent anti-communist purge that killed between 500,000 and one million people and incarcerated roughly a million more in concentration camps.[56][57][58][59] The PKI was blamed for the coup and effectively destroyed.[60][61][62] Suharto capitalised on Sukarno's weakened position, and following a drawn-out power play with Sukarno, Suharto was appointed president in March 1968. His US-backed "New Order" administration[63][64][65][66] encouraged foreign direct investment,[67][68][69] which was a crucial factor in the subsequent three decades of substantial economic growth.
Political, economic and social instability, corruption, and instances of terrorism remained problems in the 2000s; however, the economy has performed strongly since 2007. Although relations among the diverse population are mostly harmonious, acute sectarian discontent and violence remain problematic in some areas.[77] A political settlement to an armed separatist conflict in Aceh was achieved in 2005.[78]
Indonesia is the southernmost country in Asia. The country lies between latitudes 11°S and 6°N and longitudes 95°E and 141°E. A transcontinental country spanning Southeast Asia and Oceania, it is the world's largest archipelagic state, extending 5,120 kilometres (3,181mi) from east to west and 1,760 kilometres (1,094mi) from north to south.[79] The country's Coordinating Ministry for Maritime and Investments Affairs says Indonesia has 17,504 islands (with 16,056 registered at the UN)[80] scattered over both sides of the equator, around 6,000 of which are inhabited.[81] The largest are Sumatra, Java, Borneo (shared with Brunei and Malaysia), Sulawesi, and New Guinea (shared with Papua New Guinea).[82] Indonesia shares land borders with Malaysia on Borneo and Sebatik, Papua New Guinea on the island of New Guinea, East Timor on the island of Timor, and maritime borders with Singapore, Malaysia, Vietnam, the Philippines, Palau, and Australia.
Indonesia's equatorial position ensures a relatively stable climate year-round,[84] characterized by two main seasons: dry (May to October) and wet seasons (November to April), with no extremes of summer and winter.[85] The climate is predominantly tropical rainforest, with cooler climates in mountainous areas over 1,300 to 1,500 metres (4,300 to 4,900 feet) above sea level. The oceanic climate (Köppen Cfb) prevails in highland areas adjacent to rainforest climates, with uniform precipitation year-round. In highland areas near the tropicalmonsoon and tropical savanna climates, the subtropical highland climate (Köppen Cwb) is more pronounced during dry season.[86] There is a variation in rainfall patterns, with regions like western Sumatra, Java, and the interiors of Kalimantan and Papua receiving more precipitation, while areas closer to Australia, such as Nusa Tenggara, are drier. The warm waters covering 81% of Indonesia's area keep land temperatures stable, with high humidity (70-90%) and moderate, predictable winds influenced by monsoon cycles. Major weather hazards include strong currents in straits, such as the Lombok and Sape Straits,[87] rather than typhoons or storms.
Several studies consider Indonesia to be at severe risk from the projected effects of climate change,[89] including a temperature rise of 1°C (2°F) by mid-century due to unreduced emissions.[90][91] This warming could intensify droughts, disrupt rainfall patterns critical to agriculture,[91] and increase occurrences of food shortages, diseases, and wildfires.[91]Rising sea levels would also threaten the country's densely populated coastal regions, and impoverished communities are expected to be disproportionately affected by climate change.[92]
Tectonically, most of Indonesia's area is highly unstable, making it a site of numerous volcanoes and frequent earthquakes.[93] It lies on the Pacific Ring of Fire, where the Indo-Australian Plate and the Pacific Plate are pushed under the Eurasian Plate, where they melt at about 100 kilometres (62 miles) deep. A string of volcanoes runs through Sumatra, Java, Bali and Nusa Tenggara, and then to the Banda Islands of Maluku to northeastern Sulawesi.[94] Of the 400 volcanoes, around 130 are active.[93] Between 1972 and 1991, there were 29 volcanic eruptions, mostly on Java.[95]Volcanic ash has made agricultural conditions unpredictable in some areas.[96] However, it has also resulted in fertile soils, a factor in historically sustaining the high population densities of Java and Bali.[97]
A massive supervolcano erupted at present-day Lake Toba around 70,000 BCE. It is believed to have caused a global volcanic winter and cooling of the climate and subsequently led to a genetic bottleneck in human evolution, though this is still in debate.[98] The 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora and the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa were among the largest in recorded history. The former caused 92,000 deaths and created an umbrella of volcanic ash that spread and blanketed parts of the archipelago and made much of the Northern Hemisphere without summer in 1816.[99] The latter produced the loudest sound in recorded history and caused 36,000 deaths due to the eruption itself and the resulting tsunamis, with significant additional effects around the world years after the event.[100] Recent catastrophic disasters due to seismic activity include the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and the 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake.
Recognized by Conservation International as one of 17 megadiverse countries, Indonesia hosts one of the world's highest levels of biodiversity due to its tropical climate, large size, and archipelagic geography. The country's flora and fauna include a mix of Asian and Australasian species,[101][102] with regions like the Sunda Shelf islands (Sumatra, Java, and Borneo) that once were linked to mainland Asia, while Sulawesi, Lesser Sunda Islands, Maluku and Papua evolved unique ecosystems due to separation from the continental landmasses.[103][104] Papua, once part of the Australian landmass, is home to over 600 bird species closely related to Australia. Indonesia is second only to Australia in total endemic species, with 6% of its 1,531 species of bird and 39% of its 515 species of mammal being endemic.[105]
The country also boasts 80,000 kilometres (50,000 miles) of coastline, featuring diverse sea and coastal ecosystems, such as dunes and mangroves,[11] as well as coral reefs in the Coral Triangle that harbor the highest diversity of coral reef fish globally, with more than 1,650 species in eastern Indonesia.[106] The Wallace Line, described by English naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace, marks the biogeographical divide between Asian and Australasian species, with the region between the Wallace and Weber Lines (called Wallacea) hosting unique biodiversity as described in Wallace's 1869 book, The Malay Archipelago.[107][108] Indonesia's extensive forests, comprising 83% of Southeast Asia's old-growth forest,[109] are deemed crucial for the region's ecological balance and carbon storage.
Indonesia faces severe environmental challenges due to extensive deforestation,[110][111] peatland destruction, and over-exploitation of resources, driven by industries such as logging, plantations and agriculture since the 1970s,[112] and in most recent years, palm oil.[113][111][114] Forest cover declined from 87% in 1950 to 48% in 2022,[115][112] highlighting the country as a leading forest-based emitter of greenhouse gases.[116] These issues are often given a lower priority due to high poverty levels and weak, under-resourced governance.[117] They also threaten indigenous and endemic species, with the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) listing many as critically endangered, such as the Bali myna,[118]Sumatran orangutan,[119] and Javan rhinoceros.[120] Environmental degradation has prompted some to label these activities as ecocide.[121][122][123]
As of 2023, Indonesia has designated 21.3% of its land as protected areas and aims to align its strategy with the 2022 Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework.[124] Additionally, 411 marine reserves account for 9% of the country's maritime area, with a target to increase this to 30% by 2045. However, a recent study highlights that the current efforts are off track and existing marine reserves are poorly managed.[125] Approximately 390 marine areas are managed by government bodies, communities, and other sectors, with potential for classification as other effective area-based conservation measures (OECMs), though there is no national mechanism for reporting them.[126]
Indonesia's conservation framework includes 55 national parks, covering around 9% of the country's surface area. Among these, nine are predominantly marine parks,[127] with six recognized as World Heritage Sites, seven as part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves[128] and five wetlands of international importance under the 1971 Ramsar Convention. Notably, Indonesia has over 100 marine protected areas spanning 15.7 million hectares as of 2012 managed by the Ministry of Forestry and local governments. Previous targets included reaching 20 million hectares by 2020 under former President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono's 2009 initiative and 10% of territorial waters, or 31 million hectares.[129]
Indonesia is a republic with a presidential system. Following the fall of the New Order in 1998, political and governmental structures have undergone sweeping reforms, with four constitutional amendments revamping the executive, legislative and judicial branches.[130] Chief among them is the delegation of power and authority to various regional entities while remaining a unitary state.[131]
The highest representative body at the national level is the People's Consultative Assembly (Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat, MPR). Its main functions are supporting and amending the constitution, inaugurating and impeaching the president,[133][134] and formalising broad outlines of state policy. The MPR comprises two houses; the People's Representative Council (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat, DPR), with 575 members, and the Regional Representative Council (Dewan Perwakilan Daerah, DPD), with 136.[135] The DPR passes legislation and monitors the executive branch. Reforms since 1998 have markedly increased its role in national governance,[130] while the DPD is a new chamber for matters of regional management.[136][134]
Most civil disputes appear before the State Court (Pengadilan Negeri); appeals are heard before the High Court (Pengadilan Tinggi). The Supreme Court of Indonesia (Mahkamah Agung) is the highest level of the judicial branch and hears final cessation appeals and conducts case reviews. Other courts include the Constitutional Court (Mahkamah Konstitusi) which listens to constitutional and political matters, and the Religious Court (Pengadilan Agama), which deals with codified Islamic Personal Law (sharia) cases.[137] Additionally, the Judicial Commission (Komisi Yudisial) monitors the performance of judges.[138]
The first general election was held in 1955 to elect members of the DPR and the Constitutional Assembly (Konstituante). The most recent elections in 2019 resulted in nine political parties in the DPR, with a parliamentary threshold of 4% of the national vote.[140] At the national level, Indonesians did not elect a president until 2004. Since then, the president is elected for a five-year term, as are the party-aligned members of the DPR and the non-partisan DPD.[135][130] Beginning with the 2015 local elections, elections for governors and mayors have occurred on the same date. In 2014, the Constitutional Court ruled that legislative and presidential elections would be held simultaneously, starting in 2019.[141]
Indonesia has several levels of subdivisions. The first level are the provinces, which have a legislature (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah, DPRD) and an elected governor. A total of 38 provinces have been established from the original eight in 1945,[142] the most recent change being the split of Southwest Papua from the province of West Papua in 2022.[143] The second level are the regencies (kabupaten) and cities (kota), led by regents (bupati) and mayors (walikota), respectively, and a legislature (DPRD Kabupaten/Kota). The third level are the districts (kecamatan, distrik in Papua, or kapanewon and kemantren in Yogyakarta), and the fourth are the villages (either desa, kelurahan, kampung, nagari in West Sumatra, or gampong in Aceh).[144]
The village is the lowest level of government administration. It is divided into several community groups (rukun warga, RW), which are further divided into neighbourhood groups (rukun tetangga, RT). In Java, the village (desa) is divided into smaller units called dusun or dukuh (hamlets), which are the same as RW. Following the implementation of regional autonomy measures in 2001, regencies and cities have become chief administrative units responsible for providing most government services. The village administration level is the most influential on a citizen's daily life and handles village or neighbourhood matters through an elected village head (lurah or kepala desa).[145]
Indonesia serves as the seat of ASEAN headquarters and the largest city Jakarta serves as the organization's diplomatic capital
Indonesia maintains 132 diplomatic missions abroad, including 95 embassies.[150] The country adheres to what it calls a "free and active" foreign policy, seeking a role in regional affairs in proportion to its size and location but avoiding involvement in conflicts among other countries.[151]
Indonesia was a significant battleground during the Cold War. Numerous attempts by the United States and the Soviet Union,[152][153] and China to some degree,[154] culminated in the 1965 coup attempt and subsequent upheaval that led to a reorientation of foreign policy.[155] Quiet alignment with the Western world while maintaining a non-aligned stance has characterised Indonesia's foreign policy since then.[156] Today, it maintains close relations with its neighbours and is a founding member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and the East Asia Summit. In common with most of the Muslim world, Indonesia does not have diplomatic relations with Israel and has actively supported Palestine. However, observers have pointed out that Indonesia has ties with Israel, albeit discreetly.[157]
Indonesia's Armed Forces (TNI) include the Army (TNI–AD), Navy (TNI–AL, which includes Marine Corps), and Air Force (TNI–AU). The army has about 400,000 active-duty personnel. Defence spending in the national budget was 0.7% of gross domestic product (GDP) in 2018,[164] with controversial involvement of military-owned commercial interests and foundations.[165] The Armed Forces were formed during the Indonesian National Revolution when it undertook guerrilla warfare along with informal militia. Since then, territorial lines have formed the basis of all TNI branches' structure, aimed at maintaining domestic stability and deterring foreign threats.[166] The military has possessed a strong political influence since its founding, which peaked during the New Order. Political reforms in 1998 included the removal of the TNI's formal representation from the legislature. Nevertheless, its political influence remains, albeit at a reduced level.[167]
Since independence, the country has struggled to maintain unity against local insurgencies and separatist movements.[168] Some, notably in Aceh and Papua, have led to an armed conflict and subsequent allegations of human rights abuses and brutality from all sides.[169][170][171] The former was resolved peacefully in 2005,[78] while the latter has continued amid a significant, albeit imperfect, implementation of regional autonomy laws.[172] Reports from Amnesty,[173]Human Rights Watch,[174] and the UNHRC have raised the issue of human rights abuses committed by Indonesian troops in Papua such as extrajudicial killings and forced disappearances.[175][176] Past engagements of the army include the conflict against the Netherlands over the Dutch New Guinea, the opposition to the British-sponsored creation of Malaysia ("Konfrontasi"), the mass killings of the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI), and the invasion of East Timor, the latter having been Indonesia's most massive military operation.[177][178]
Law enforcement in Indonesia is chiefly performed by the Indonesian National Police (POLRI), together with other law enforcement agencies under the president, a certain ministry or state-owned enterprise (BUMN) which perform policing duties for a certain public service. These law enforcement agencies are under the supervision and trained by the POLRI. The National Police essentially is the national civilian police force of the country responsible for enforcing law and order of the state.
The situation has improved since the fall of Suharto in 1998 and the subsequent reforms. East Timor gained independence from Indonesia in 2002[183] and the insurgency in Aceh were solved in 2005 under the Helsinki agreement, in which Aceh was to be granted a special autonomy.[184] The reforms ushered a more democratic political climate in the country, where it saw the abolishment of several laws deemed discriminatory, especially against Chinese Indonesians.[185]Chinese New Year has also become an official holiday since 2002.[186] The conflict in Papua, however, remains ongoing as of 2024 and has continued since 1962.[187]
Indonesia operates a mixed economy where both the private sector and the government play significant roles.[190] As the only G20 member state in Southeast Asia,[191] it has the region's largest economy and is classified as a newly industrialized country. In 2024, its nominal GDP was US$1.402trillion, ranking 16th globally, while its GDP at purchasing power parity (PPP) was US$4.658trillion, ranking 8th. Per capita GDP in PPP is US$16,542, while nominal per capita GDP is US$4,980.[6] Based on 2022 data, services dominate the economy in terms employment (48.8%), followed by agriculture (29.2%) and industry (21.8%), while in terms of share of GDP, both services and industry dominate (roughly 41% each), followed by agriculture (12.4%).[192][193]
The economic structure has shifted significantly over time,[194] transitioning from agriculture in the 1950s and 1960s[194] to gradual industrialization and urbanization, especially from the 1960s to the 1980s.[194] Falling oil prices in the 1980s prompted diversification into manufactured exports, resulting in substantial economic growth (the GDP rose at an average rate of 7.1%.) and poverty reduction from 60% to 15%.[195] However, the growth ended during the Asian economic crisis in the late 1990s, causing a severe setback where the economy experienced a 13.1% GDP contraction, a 78% inflation and a real GDP growth of only 0.8% in 1999.[196] The economy began recovering in the early 2000s, achieving consistent growth rates between 4% and 6% from 2007 to 2019 due to banking improvements and increased domestic consumption,[197][198] which helped Indonesia weather the 2008–2009 Great Recession.[199] Although the COVID-19 pandemic caused the country's first recession since 1997, the economy rebounded the following year.[200]
Indonesia boasts abundant natural resources, including nickel, coal, palm oil, and petroleum, which dominate its export portfolio.[201] It imports refined and crude petroleum, vehicle parts, and wheat, with major trade partners including China, the United States, Japan, Singapore, India, Malaysia, South Korea, and Thailand.[202] Despite these resources and decades of development, disparities in wealth, employment and economic opportunities persist between densely populated and economically advantaged regions in the western islands like Java and Sumatra, and sparsely populated, underdeveloped areas in the east like Maluku and Papua.[203][204]
Borobudur in Central Java, the world's largest Buddhist temple, is the single most visited tourist attraction in Indonesia
Tourism contributed around US$9.8billion to GDP in 2020, and in the previous year, Indonesia received 15.4million visitors.[206] Overall, Australia, China, Singapore, Malaysia, and Japan are the top five sources of visitors to Indonesia.[207] Since 2011, Wonderful Indonesia has been the country's international marketing campaign slogan to promote tourism.[208]
Nature and culture are prime attractions of Indonesian tourism. The country has a well-preserved natural ecosystem with rainforests stretching over about 57% of Indonesia's land (225million acres). Forests on Sumatra and Kalimantan are examples of popular destinations, such as the Orangutan wildlife reserve. Moreover, Indonesia has one of the world's longest coastlines, measuring 54,716 kilometres (33,999mi). The ancient Borobudur and Prambanan temples, as well as Toraja and Bali with their traditional festivities, are some of the popular destinations for cultural tourism.[209]
Government expenditure on research and development is relatively low (0.3% of GDP in 2019),[211] and Indonesia ranked 54th (from 133 countries) on the 2024 Global Innovation Index report and performance above expectation for level of development in uppermiddle-income group.[212] Historical examples of scientific and technological developments include the paddy cultivation technique terasering, which is common in Southeast Asia, and the pinisi boats by the Bugis and Makassar people.[213] In the 1980s, Indonesian engineer Tjokorda Raka Sukawati invented a road construction technique named Sosrobahu that later became widely used in several countries.[214] The country is also an active producer of passenger trains and freight wagons with its state-owned company, the Indonesian Railway Industry (INKA), and has exported trains abroad.[215]
Indonesia has a long history of developing military and small commuter aircraft. It is the only country in Southeast Asia to build and produce aircraft. The state-owned Indonesian Aerospace company (PT. Dirgantara Indonesia) has provided components for Boeing and Airbus.[216] The company also collaborated with EADS CASA of Spain to develop the CN-235, which has been used by several countries.[217] Former President B. J. Habibie was involved in the research and coordination.[218] Indonesia has also joined the South Korean programme to manufacture the 4.5-generation fighter jet KAI KF-21 Boramae.[219]
Indonesia has a space programme and space agency, the National Institute of Aeronautics and Space (Lembaga Penerbangan dan Antariksa Nasional, LAPAN). In the 1970s, Indonesia became the first developing country to operate a satellite system called Palapa,[220] a series of communication satellites owned by Indosat. The first satellite, PALAPA A1, was launched on 8 July 1976 from the Kennedy Space Center in Florida, United States.[221]As of 2024[update], Indonesia has launched 19 satellites for various purposes.[222] In May 2024, Indonesia granted licensure to satellite internet provider Starlink aimed at bringing Internet connectivity to the rural and underserved regions of Indonesia.[223]
Indonesia's transport system has been shaped over time by the economic resource base of an archipelago and the distribution of its 275million people highly concentrated on Java.[224] In 2016, the transport sector generated about 5.2% of GDP.[225] The road transport system has a total length of 542,310 kilometres (336,980 miles)as of 2018[update].[226] Jakarta has the most extended bus rapid transit system globally, boasting 251.2 kilometres (156.1 miles) in 13 corridors and ten cross-corridor routes.[227]Rickshaws such as bajaj and becak and share taxis such as Angkot and Minibus are a regular sight in the country.
Whoosh is the first high-speed rail in Southeast Asia and the Southern Hemisphere
Most railways are in Java, and partly Sumatra and Sulawesi,[228] used for freight and passenger transport, such as local commuter rail services (mainly in Greater Jakarta and Yogyakarta–Solo) complementing the inter-city rail network in several cities. In the late 2010s, Jakarta and Palembang were the first cities in Indonesia to have rapid transit systems, with more planned for other cities in the future.[229] In 2023, a high-speed rail called Whoosh connecting the cities of Jakarta and Bandung commenced operations, a first for Southeast Asia and the Southern Hemisphere.[230]
In 2019, Indonesia produced 4,999 terawatt-hours (17.059quadrillionBritish thermal units) and consumed 2,357 terawatt-hours (8.043quadrillion British thermal units) worth of energy.[232] The country has substantial energy resources, including 22billion barrels (3.5billion cubic metres) of conventional oil and gas reserves (of which about 4billion barrels are recoverable), 8billion barrels of oil-equivalent coal-based methane (CBM) resources, and 28billion tonnes of recoverable coal.[233]
In late 2020, Indonesia's total national installed power generation capacity stands at 72,750.72 MW.[234] Although reliance on domestic coal and imported oil has increased between 2010 and 2019,[232][235] Indonesia has seen progress in renewable energy, with hydropower and geothermal being the most abundant sources that account for more than 8% of the country's energy mix.[232] As of 2021, power generation from solar, wind, biomass, and ocean energy is still small.[236] The country's largest dam, Jatiluhur, has an installed capacity of 186.5 MW that feeds into the Java grid managed by the State Electricity Company (Perusahaan Listrik Negara, PLN).
Map of districts (kecamatan, one level below the city/regency) in Indonesia, coloured by its population density as measured by person per square kilometres
The 2020 census recorded Indonesia's population as 270.2million, the fourth largest in the world, with a moderately high population growth rate of 1.25%.[237]Java is the world's most populous island,[238] where 56% of the country's population lives.[5] The population density is 141 peopleper square kilometre (370 people/sqmi),[5] ranking 88th in the world, although Java has a population density of 1,067 peopleper square kilometre (2,760 people/sqmi). In 1961, the first post-colonial census recorded a total of 97million people.[239] It is expected to grow to around 295million by 2030 and 321million by 2050.[240] The country currently possesses a relatively young population, with a median age of 30.2 years (2017 estimate).[81]
The spread of the population is uneven throughout the archipelago, with a varying habitats and levels of development, ranging from the megacity of Jakarta to uncontacted tribes in Papua.[241] As of 2017, about 54.7% of the population lives in urban areas.[242] Jakarta is the country's primate city and the second-most populous urban area globally, with over 34million residents.[243] About 8million Indonesians live overseas; most settled in Malaysia, the Netherlands, Saudi Arabia, Taiwan, South Africa, Singapore, Hong Kong, the United States, and Australia.[244]
Indonesia is home to around 600 distinct native ethnic groups,[245] predominantly descended from Austronesian peoples originating in Proto-Austronesian languages, likely from modern-day Taiwan. The Melanesians, who inhabit eastern Indonesia, represent another significant ethnic grouping.[26][246][247][248] The Javanese, making up 40.06% of the population,[249] are the largest ethnic group and politically dominant,[250] primarily residing in central and eastern Java but also has sizable numbers in other provinces. Other major groups include the Sundanese, Malay, Batak, Madurese, Betawi, Minangkabau, and Bugis.[249][f] A sense of Indonesian nationhood exists alongside strong regional identities.[251]
The official language, Indonesia, is a variant of Malay based on its prestige dialect that became the archipelago's lingua franca over the course of centuries.[g] It was first promoted by nationalists in the 1920s and gained official status in 1945 following independence under the name Bahasa Indonesia,[255] and has since been widely adopted due to its use in education, media, business, and governance. While nearly all Indonesians speak Indonesian, most also speak one of over 700 local languages, often as their first language.[256] These are predominantly from the Austronesian family, with over 270 Papuan languages in eastern Indonesia.[256]Javanese is the most widely spoken local language,[81] and it holds co-official status in Yogyakarta.[257]
The Dutch and other European-descended populations like the Indos, though significant during colonial times, always represented a small fraction of the population, numbering 240,000 in 1930.[258] The Dutch language never gained substantial traction due to the Dutch colonial focus on commerce rather than cultural integration.[259][260] Dutch fluency exists today among some older generations and legal professionals,[261] as specific legal codes remain available only in Dutch.[262]
Map of districts (kecamatan, one level below the municipality) in Indonesia, coloured by the plurality/majority religious affiliation in the district and what percentage of citizens it represents
Indonesia officially recognizes six religions: Islam, Protestantism, Roman Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism[263][264]—while also acknowledging indigenous religions for administrative purposes[264][265] as well as religious freedom in the constitution.[266][134] As of 2023, 87.1% of the population (244 million Indonesians), are Muslims, making Indonesia the world's most populous Muslim-majority country,[267][2] with Sunnis constituting 99% of the Muslim population.[268][h] Christians, comprising 10% of the population, form majorities in several eastern provinces,[270] while Hindus and Buddhists are primarily Balinese and Chinese Indonesians, respectively.[271][272]
Before the arrival of major world religions, Indonesia's natives practiced animism and dynamism, worshiping ancestral spirits and believing in the supernatural (hyang) inhabiting natural elements, such as large trees, mountains and forests.[273] Such beliefs are common to the Austronesian peoples.[273] These indigenous traditions, such as Sundanese Sunda Wiwitan, Javanese Kejawèn and Dayak's Kaharingan, have profoundly influenced modern religious practices, resulting in a less orthodox and syncretic form of faith like Javanese's abangan, Balinese Hinduism and Dayak Christianity.[274]
Hinduism reached the archipelago in the 1st century CE,[275] followed by Buddhism in the 6th century.[276] Both religions shaped Indonesia's religious history through influential empires like Majapahit, Srivijaya, and Sailendra, leaving a lasting cultural impact that remains today despite both no longer being the majority.[277][278] Islam arrived as early as the 8th century[279][280] through Sunni and Sufi traders from the Indian subcontinent and the South Arabia, mixing with local cultural and religious traditions to form a distinct Islamic culture (santri).[36][281] By the 16th century, Islam had become the dominant religion on Java and Sumatra, resulting from the combination of trade, dawah such as by the Wali Sanga and Chinese explorer Zheng He, and military campaigns by several sultanates.[282][283]
Catholicism and Protestantism were later introduced through missionary efforts during European colonization, such as by JesuitFrancis Xavier,[284][285] though the spread of the former faced challenges under the policies of VOC and the Dutch colonial era. The latter's primary branches include Calvinism and Lutheranism,[286][287][288] though a multitude of other denominations exist in the country.[289] A small Jewish presence has existed in the archipelago, primarily descendants of Dutch and Iraqi Jews, though their numbers have dwindled since independence in 1945. Only a few Jews remain today, mostly in major cities like Jakarta and Manado and Surabaya.[290] One of the remaining synagogues, Sha'ar Hashamayim, is located in Tondano, North Sulawesi, which is around 31 km from Manado.[291][292]
Interfaith relations in Indonesia are significantly shaped by political leadership and civil society, guided by the first principle of Pancasila,[293][294] which emphasizes belief in a supreme deity and religious tolerance. While the principle promotes harmony,[295] instances of intolerance continue to be a recurring issue.[296][77] Religion is central to the lives of overwhelming majority of Indonesians, which reflects its integral role in the country's society, culture and identity.[297][298]
Education is compulsory for 12 years.[299] Parents can choose between state-run, non-sectarian schools or private or semi-private religious (usually Islamic) schools, supervised by the ministries of Education and Religion, respectively.[300] Private international schools that do not follow the national curriculum are also available. The enrolment rate is 93% for primary education, 79% for secondary education, and 36% for tertiary education (2018).[301] The literacy rate is 96% (2018), and the government spends about 3.6% of GDP (2015) on education.[301] In 2018, there were 4,670 higher educational institutions in Indonesia, with most (74%) located in Sumatra and Java.[302][303] According to the QS World University Rankings, Indonesia's top universities are the University of Indonesia, Gadjah Mada University, and the Bandung Institute of Technology.[304]
Government expenditure on healthcare was about 3.3% of GDP in 2016.[305] As part of an attempt to achieve universal health care, the government launched the National Health Insurance (Jaminan Kesehatan Nasional, JKN) in 2014.[306] It includes coverage for a range of services from the public and also private firms that have opted to join the scheme. Despite remarkable improvements in recent decades, such as rising life expectancy (from 62.3 years in 1990 to 71.7 years in 2019)[307] and declining child mortality (from 84 deaths per 1,000 births in 1990 to 23.9 deaths in 2019),[308] challenges remain, including maternal and child health, low air quality, malnutrition, a high rate of smoking, and infectious diseases.[309]
Indonesian arts include both age-old art forms developed through centuries and recently developed contemporary art. Indonesian arts have absorbed foreign influences—most notably from India, the Arab world, China, and Europe—due to contacts and interactions facilitated, and often motivated by trade.[313] Painting is an established and developed art in Bali, where its people are famed for their artistry. Their painting tradition started as classical Kamasan or Wayang style visual narrative, derived from visual art discovered on candi bas reliefs in eastern Java.[314]
The most dominant has traditionally been Indian; however, Chinese, Arab, and European influences have also been significant. Traditional carpentry, masonry, stone, and woodwork techniques and decorations have thrived in vernacular architecture, with numbers of traditional houses' (rumah adat) styles that have been developed. The traditional houses and settlements vary by ethnic group, and each has a specific custom and history.[315] Examples include Toraja's Tongkonan, Minangkabau's Rumah Gadang and Rangkiang, Javanese-style Pendopo pavilions with Joglo-style roofs, Dayak's longhouses, various Malay houses, Balinese houses and temples, and also different forms of rice barns (lumbung).
There have been numerous discoveries of megalithic sculptures in Indonesia.[316] Subsequently, tribal art has flourished within the culture of Nias, Batak, Asmat, Dayak, and Toraja.[317][318] Wood and stone are common materials used as the media for sculpting among these tribes. Between the 8th and 15th centuries, the Javanese civilisation developed refined stone sculpting art and architecture influenced by the Hindu-Buddhist Dharmic civilisation. The temples of Borobudur and Prambanan are among the most famous examples of the practice.[319]
Indonesian music and dance. From top, left to right: Javanese Gamelan player; Angklung; Balinese Pendet dance; Sundanese Jaipongan Mojang Priangan dance; Acehnese Saman dance; Minangkabau Candle dance
Indonesia's musical heritage predates historical records, with indigenous tribes using chants and traditional instruments like the angklung, gamelan, and sasando in rituals. Influences from other cultures have also enriched Indonesian music, such as the gambus and qasida from the Middle East,[320]keroncong from Portugal,[321] and dangdut (one of the country's most popular music genres), which incorporates Hindi, Malay, and Middle Eastern elements.[322] Today, Indonesian music enjoys regional popularity in Malaysia, Singapore, and Brunei due to cultural similarities and language intelligibility.[323][324][325]
With over 3,000 traditional dances, Indonesian dance forms have its origins in rituals and religious worship,[326] such as a dance of witch doctors and Hudoq, as well as periods of Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic influence. While modern and urban dances shaped by Western, Japanese, and South Korean cultures are growing in popularity, traditional dances like those of Java, Bali, and Dayak remain a living tradition.[327]
Indonesia's rich cultural history is also reflected in its diverse clothing styles, with national costumes like batik and kebaya being widely recognized, which have its roots in Javanese, Sundanese and Balinese cultures.[328][329] Traditional attire varies by region and by each province, such as the Batak ulos, Malay and Minangkabau songket, and Sasak ikat, and is commonly worn for ceremonies, weddings, and formal events.[329]
The Pandavas and Krishna in an act of the Wayang Wong performance
Traditional Indonesian theatre, such as wayang shadow puppetry often depicts Hindu epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata.[330] Other forms of dramas, such as Ludruk, Ketoprak, Sandiwara, Lenong[331][332] and Balinese dance dramas often incorporate humor, music, and audience interaction.[333] Unique traditions like the Minangkabau Randai combine music, dance, and martial arts (silat), telling semi-historical legends during traditional ceremonies and festivals.[334][335] Modern theatre, exemplified by Teater Koma, addresses social and political themes through satire.[336]
Advertisement for Loetoeng Kasaroeng (1926), the first fiction film produced in the Dutch East Indies
The first film produced in the archipelago was Loetoeng Kasaroeng (1926), a silent film by Dutch director L. Heuveldorp, and the film industry expanded post-independence with Usmar Ismail's pioneering work in the 1950s.[337] During the latter part of Sukarno era in the 1960s, films were used to promote nationalism and anti-Western sentiment, while the New Order imposed censorship to maintain social order.[338] Film productions peaked in the 1980s with notable titles such as Pengabdi Setan (1980) and Tjoet Nja' Dhien (1988) and Warkop comedy films, but the industry declined in the next decade.[339]
In the post-Suharto era, the industry saw a resurgence,[340] and independent filmmakers tackled previously censored themes like race, religion and love,[338] producing notable films such as Petualangan Sherina (2000) and Ada Apa dengan Cinta? (2002) and Laskar Pelangi (2008). The 2022 film KKN di Desa Penari set box office records, becoming the most-watched Indonesian film with 9.2 million tickets sold.[341] The Indonesian Film Festival (Festival Film Indonesia), awarding the Citra Award, has celebrated cinematic achievements since 1955.
Media freedom increased considerably after the fall of the New Order, during which the Ministry of Information monitored and controlled domestic media and restricted foreign media.[342] The television market includes several national commercial networks and provincial networks that compete with public TVRI, which held a monopoly on TV broadcasting from 1962 to 1989. By the early 21st century, the communications system had brought television signals to every village, and people can choose from up to 11 channels.[343] Private radio stations carry news bulletins while foreign broadcasters supply programmes. The number of printed publications has increased significantly since 1998.[343]
Like other developing countries, Indonesia began developing Internet in the early 1990s. Its first commercial Internet service provider, PT. Indo Internet, began operation in Jakarta in 1994.[344] The country had 171million Internet users in 2018, with a penetration rate that keeps increasing annually.[345] Most are between the ages of 15 and 19 and depend primarily on mobile phones for access, outnumbering laptops and computers.[346]
Early modern Indonesian literature originates in the Sumatran tradition.[350][351]Balai Pustaka, the government bureau for literature, was instituted in 1917 to promote the development of indigenous literature. Many scholars consider the 1950s and 1960s to be the Golden Age of Indonesian Literature.[352] The style and characteristics of modern Indonesian literature vary according to the dynamics of the country's political and social landscape,[352] most notably the war of independence in the second half of the 1940s and the anti-communist mass killings in the mid-1960s.[353] Notable literary figures of the modern era include Hamka, Chairil Anwar, Mohammad Yamin, Merari Siregar, Marah Roesli, Pramoedya Ananta Toer, and Ayu Utami.
Indonesian cuisine has many regional cuisines, often based upon indigenous culture and foreign influences such as Chinese, African, European, Middle Eastern, and Indian precedents.[354] Rice is the leading staple food and is served with side dishes of meat and vegetables. Spices (notably chili), coconut milk, fish, and chicken are fundamental ingredients.[355]
Some popular dishes such as nasi goreng, gado-gado, sate, and soto are ubiquitous and considered national dishes. The Ministry of Tourism, however, chose tumpeng as the official national dish in 2014, describing it as binding the diversity of various culinary traditions.[356] Other popular dishes include rendang, one of the many Minangkabau cuisines along with dendeng and gulai. Another fermented food is oncom, similar in some ways to tempeh but uses a variety of bases (not only soy), created by different fungi, and is prevalent in West Java.[357]
A demonstration of pencak silat, a form of martial arts
Badminton and football are the most popular sports in Indonesia. Indonesia is among the few countries that have won the Thomas and Uber Cup, the world team championship of men's and women's badminton. Along with weightlifting, it is the sport that contributes the most to Indonesia's Olympic medal tally. Liga 1 is the country's premier football club league. On the international stage, Indonesia was the first Asian team to participate in the FIFA World Cup in 1938 as the Dutch East Indies.[358] On a regional level, Indonesia won a bronze medal at the 1958 Asian Games as well as three gold medals at the 1987, 1991, and 2023 Southeast Asian Games (SEA Games). Indonesia's first appearance at the AFC Asian Cup was in 1996.[359]
Other popular sports include boxing and basketball, which were part of the first National Games (Pekan Olahraga Nasional, PON) in 1948.[360]Sepak takraw and karapan sapi (bull racing) in Madura are some examples of Indonesia's traditional sports. In areas with a history of tribal warfare, mock fighting contests are held, such as caci in Flores and pasola in Sumba. Pencak silat is an Indonesian martial art that, in 2018, became one of the sporting events in the Asian Games, with Indonesia appearing as one of the leading competitors. In Southeast Asia, Indonesia topped the SEA Games medal table ten times since 1977,[361] most recently in 2011.[362]
↑ Small but significant populations of ethnic Chinese, Indians, Europeans and Arabs are concentrated mostly in urban areas.
↑ Due to significant contact with other languages, it is rich in local and foreign influences, which include Javanese, Sundanese, Minangkabau, Makassarese, Sanskrit, Chinese, Arabic, Dutch, Portuguese and English.[252][253][254]
↑ The rest comprises the Shias and Ahmadis, who form 1% (1–3 million) and 0.2% (200,000–400,000) of the Muslim population.[264][269]
Related Research Articles
The history of Indonesia has been shaped by its geographic position, natural resources, a series of human migrations and contacts, wars and conquests, as well as by trade, economics and politics. Indonesia is an archipelagic country of 17,000 to 18,000 islands stretching along the equator in Southeast Asia and Oceania. The country's strategic sea-lane position fostered inter-island and international trade; trade has since fundamentally shaped Indonesian history. The area of Indonesia is populated by peoples of various migrations, creating a diversity of cultures, ethnicities, and languages. The archipelago's landforms and climate significantly influenced agriculture and trade, and the formation of states. The boundaries of the state of Indonesia match the 20th-century borders of the Dutch East Indies.
Jakarta, officially the Special Capital Region of Jakarta and formerly known as Batavia until 1949, is the capital city of Indonesia and an autonomous region at the provincial level. Lying on the northwest coast of Java, the world's most populous island, Jakarta is the largest metropole in Southeast Asia and serves as the diplomatic capital of ASEAN. The Special Region has a status equivalent to that of a province and is bordered by two other provinces: West Java to the south and east; and Banten to the west. Its coastline faces the Java Sea to the north, and it shares a maritime border with Lampung to the west. Jakarta's metropolitan area is ASEAN's second largest economy after Singapore. In 2023, the city's GDP PPP was estimated at US$724.010 billion.
Sumatra is one of the Sunda Islands of western Indonesia. It is the largest island that is fully within Indonesian territory, as well as the sixth-largest island in the world at 482,286.55 km2 (182,812 mi.2), including adjacent islands such as the Simeulue, Nias, Mentawai, Enggano, Riau Islands, Bangka Belitung and Krakatoa archipelago.
Aceh, officially the Province of Aceh, is the westernmost province of Indonesia. It is located on the northern end of Sumatra island, with Banda Aceh being its capital and largest city. It is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the west, Strait of Malacca to the northeast, as well bordering the province of North Sumatra to the east, its sole land border, and shares maritime borders with Malaysia and Thailand to the east, and Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India to the north. Granted a special autonomous status, Aceh is a religiously conservative territory and the only Indonesian province practicing Sharia law officially. There are ten indigenous ethnic groups in this region, the largest being the Acehnese people, accounting for approximately 70% of the region's population of about 5.5 million people in mid-2023. Its area is comparable to Croatia or Togo.
Provinces are the first-level administrative divisions of Indonesia. It is formerly called the first-level provincial region before the Reform era. Provinces have a local government, consisting of a governor and a regional legislative body. The governor and members of local representative bodies are elected by popular vote for five-year terms, but governors can only serve for two terms. Provincial governments have the authority to regulate and manage their own government affairs, subject to the limits of the central government. The average land area of all 38 provinces in Indonesia is about 49,800 km2 (19,200 sq mi), and they had an average population in mid 2023 of 7,334,111 people.
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Islam is the largest religion in Indonesia, with 87.06% of the Indonesian population identifying themselves as Muslims, based on civil registry data in 2023. In terms of denomination, the overwhelming majority are Sunni Muslims; the Pew Research Center estimates them as comprising ~99% of the country's Muslim population in 2011, with the remaining 1% being Shia who are concentrated around Jakarta and about 400,000 Ahmadi as well.
The Republic of Indonesia, a country located in Southeast Asia has three time zones. Western Indonesia Time is seven hours ahead (UTC+07:00) of the Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), used in the islands of Sumatra, Java, and the western half of Kalimantan. Central Indonesia Time is eight hours ahead (UTC+08:00), used in the eastern half of Kalimantan, as well as all of Bali, the Lesser Sunda Islands, and Sulawesi. Eastern Indonesia Time is nine hours ahead (UTC+09:00), used in the Maluku Islands and Western New Guinea.
Indonesians are citizens or people who are identified with the country of Indonesia, regardless of their ethnic or religious background. making it a multicultural archipelagic country with a diversity of languages, culture and religious beliefs. The population of Indonesia according to the 2020 national census was 270.2 million. 56% live on the island of Java, the world's most populous island. Around 95% of Indonesians are Native Indonesians, primarily of Austronesian and Melanesian descent, with 40% Javanese and 15% Sundanese forming the majority, while the other 5% are Indonesians with ancestry from foreign origin, such as Arab Indonesians, Chinese Indonesians, Indian Indonesians, and Indos.
Several different religions are practised in Indonesia. Indonesia is officially a presidential republic and a unitary state without an established state religion. The first principle of Indonesia's philosophical foundation, Pancasila, requires its citizens to state the belief in "the one and almighty God". Although, as explained by the Constitutional Court, this first sila of Pancasila is an explicit recognition of divine substances and meant as a principle on how to live together in a religiously diverse society. Blasphemy is a punishable offence and the Indonesian government has a discriminatory attitude towards its numerous tribal religions, atheist and agnostic citizens. In addition, the Aceh province officially applies Sharia law and is notorious for its discriminatory practices towards religious and sexual minorities.
There are more than 600 ethnic groups in the multicultural Indonesian archipelago, making it one of the most diverse countries in the world. The vast majority of these belong to the Austronesian peoples, concentrated in western and central Indonesia (Asia), with a sizable minority are Melanesian peoples concentrated in eastern Indonesia (Oceania). However, genetic studies show that ethnic groups in Java and Bali have significant traces of Austroasiatic ancestry, even though Austroasiatic languages are no longer spoken.
Indonesia is home to over 700 living languages spoken across its extensive archipelago. This significant linguistic variety constitutes approximately 10% of the world’s total languages, positioning Indonesia as the second most linguistically diverse nation globally, following Papua New Guinea. The majority of these languages belong to the Austronesian language family, prevalent in the western and central regions of Indonesia, including languages such as Acehnese, Sundanese, and Buginese. In contrast, the eastern regions, particularly Papua and the Maluku Islands, are home to over 270 Papuan languages, which are distinct from the Austronesian family and represent a unique linguistic heritage. The language most widely spoken as a native language is Javanese, primarily by the Javanese people in the central and eastern parts of Java Island, as well as across many other islands due to migration.
The history of the arrival of Islam in Indonesia is somewhat unclear. One theory states that Islam arrived directly from Arabia as early as the 9th century, during the time of the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates. Another theory credits Sufi travelers for bringing Islam in the 12th or 13th century, either from Gujarat in India or from Persia. Before the archipelago's conversion to Islam, the predominant religions in Indonesia were Hinduism and Buddhism.
Terrorism in Indonesia refer to acts of terrorism that take place within Indonesia or attacks on Indonesian people or interests abroad. These acts of terrorism often target the government of Indonesia or foreigners in Indonesia, most notably Western visitors, especially those from the United States and Australia.
Merle Calvin Ricklefs was an American-born Australian scholar of the history and current affairs of Indonesia.
The Dutch East Indies, also known as the Netherlands East Indies, was a Dutch colony with territory mostly comprising the modern state of Indonesia, which declared independence on 17 August 1945. Following the Indonesian War of Independence, Indonesia and the Netherlands made peace in 1949. In the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824, the Dutch ceded the governorate of Dutch Malacca to Britain, leading to its eventual incorporation into Malacca (state) of modern Malaysia.
Arab Indonesians, or colloquially known as Jama'ah, are Indonesian citizens of mixed Arab, mainly Hadhrami, and Indonesian descent. The ethnic group generally also includes those of Arab descent from other Middle Eastern Arabic speaking nations. Restricted under Dutch East Indies law until 1919, the community elites later gained economic power through real estate investment and trading. Currently found mainly in Java, especially West Java and East Java, they are almost all Muslims.
The military history of Indonesia includes the military history of the modern nation of Republic of Indonesia, as well as the military history of the states which preceded and formed it. It encompassed a kaleidoscope of conflicts spanning over a millennia. The ancient and medieval part of it began as tribal warfare began among indigenous populations, and escalated as kingdoms emerged. The modern part is defined by foreign colonial occupations, battles for independence through guerrilla warfare during Indonesian National Revolution, regional conquests and disputes with neighbouring countries, as well as battles between the Republic and separatist factions. Since the formation of the Republic, the military has played significant role in state affairs. However, in Post-Suharto era, the Indonesian military has retreated from politics, yet it still possesses some influences.
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1 2 This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain:Frederick, William H.; Worden, Robert L., eds. (2011). Indonesia: A country study (6thed.). Library of Congress, Federal Research Division. ISBN978-0-8444-0790-6. Archived from the original on 9 December 2022. Retrieved 15 March 2015.
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282,477,584 [4] (4th)
$4.658 trillion [6] (8th)
37.9 [7] 
