The Indonesian archipelago has carried different names in the past, such as "East Indies" in this 1855 map.
The name Indonesia derives from the Greek words Indos (Ἰνδός) and nesos (νῆσος), meaning "Indian islands".[12] The name dates back to the 19th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his preference, Malayunesians—for the inhabitants of the "Indian Archipelago or Malay Archipelago".[13][14] In the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago.[15][16] Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia. They preferred Malay Archipelago (Dutch: Maleische Archipel); the Netherlands East Indies (Nederlandsch Oost Indië), popularly Indië; the East (de Oost); and Insulinde.[17]
After 1900, Indonesia became more common in academic circles outside the Netherlands, and native nationalist groups adopted it for political expression.[17]Adolf Bastian of the University of Berlin popularised the name through his book Indonesien oder die Inseln des Malayischen Archipels, 1884–1894. The first native scholar to use the name was Ki Hajar Dewantara, who established a press bureau in the Netherlands, Indonesisch Pers-bureau, in 1918.[14]
The Indonesian archipelago has been inhabited since the time of Homo erectus or "Java Man", with fossils dating back 2 million to 500,000 BCE.[18][19][20] Fossils of Homo floresiensis, found on Flores, date around 700,000 to 60,000 BCE, while Homo sapiens arrived around 50,000 BCE.[21][22] Sulawesi and Borneo are home to the world's oldest known cave paintings, dating back 40,000 to 60,000 years,[23][24] and megalithic sites such as western Java's Gunung Padang, Sulawesi's Lore Lindu, as well as Sumatra's Nias and Sumba reflect early human settlements and ceremonial practices.[25]
Around 2,000 BCE, Austronesian peoples began arriving in Southeast Asia from the island of Taiwan,[26] gradually displacing native Melanesians to the far eastern part of the archipelago as they spread east.[27][d] Favourable agricultural conditions and advancements like wet-field rice cultivation by the 8th century BCE[29] enabled the growth of villages and kingdoms by the first century CE. The archipelago's strategic location fostered inter-island and international exchange with civilisations from the Indian subcontinent and mainland China, profoundly influencing Indonesian history and culture through trade.[30][31][32]
By the 7th century CE, the Srivijaya naval kingdom thrived on trade, adopting Hindu and Buddhist influences.[33][34] The 8th to 10th centuries saw the rise and decline of the Buddhist Sailendra and Hindu Mataram dynasties, leaving monumental legacies like the Borobudur and Prambanan temples.[35] After the failed Mongol invasion of Java in the late 13th century,[36] the Hindu Majapahit kingdom rose to dominate much of the archipelago under Gajah Mada's leadership—a period often called the "Golden Age" of Indonesian history.[37] Islam arrived in the 13th century in northern Sumatra,[38] and following gradual adoption in other islands, it became the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by the 16th century, blending with pre-existing traditions to form a distinct Islamic culture, particularly in Java.[39]
The first Europeans began arriving in the archipelago in 1512, led by Portuguese traders under Francisco Serrão, to seek a monopoly of the lucrative spice trade in the Maluku Islands.[40] Dutch and British traders soon followed, with the former establishing the Dutch East India Company (Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie, VOC) in 1602,[41] which eventually became the dominant European power for almost two centuries. After the VOC's dissolution in 1799 during the French Revolutionary Wars,[41] the Dutch East Indies was established as a nationalised colony,[42] marking the beginning of formal colonial rule by the Netherlands.
Over the next century and a half, Dutch control over the archipelago was tenuous, as they faced continuous rebellions from local leaders like Prince Diponegoro in central Java, Imam Bonjol in central Sumatra, Pattimura in Maluku, and fighters in Aceh.[43][44][45] Dutch dominance only extended to Indonesia's modern boundaries in the early 20th century,[45][46][47][48] with the establishment of Dutch posts in New Guinea.[49]
In the post-Suharto era since 1998, the country has strengthened its democracy by granting regional autonomy and holding the first direct presidential election in 2004.[80][81] Political, economic and social instability and terrorism were persistent in the 2000s.[82][83] The economy has performed strongly since 2007, although corruption remains a chronic issue.[84] Relations among the diverse population are mostly harmonious, but sectarian discontent and violence remain problematic in some areas.[85] A political settlement to a separatist insurgency in Aceh was achieved in 2005.[86]
Indonesia's physical geography is defined by its vast archipelagic extent and diverse landforms. It lies between latitudes 11°S and 6°N and longitudes 95°E and 141°E,[87] and is the world's largest archipelagic state, stretching 5,120 kilometres (3,181mi) from east to west and 1,760 kilometres (1,094mi) from north to south.[88] The exact number of Indonesia's islands varies according to different sources, usually ranging from 13,000 to 17,000, with around 922 permanently inhabited.[89][3] Its five main islands are Sumatra, Java, Borneo (shared with Brunei and Malaysia), Sulawesi, and New Guinea (shared with Papua New Guinea).[90]
The country features diverse topography, including towering mountains, vast lakes, and extensive river systems. At 4,884 metres (16,024ft), Puncak Jaya in New Guinea is Indonesia's highest peak, while Lake Toba in Sumatra, covering 1,145km2 (442sqmi), is the largest lake. The country's major rivers, primarily in Kalimantan, include Kapuas, Barito and Mahakam, serving as vital transportation and communication routes for remote riverine communities.[91]
Indonesia's climate is shaped by its equatorial position and monsoon systems. The former helps ensure a relatively stable climate year-round,[92] characterised by two main seasons: the dry season from May to October and the wet season from November to April,[92] with no extremes of summer and winter. The climate is predominantly tropical rainforest, with cooler climates in higher areas over 500 metres (1,600 feet) above sea level.[87]
There is a variation in rainfall patterns, with regions like western Sumatra, Java, and the interiors of Kalimantan and Papua receiving more precipitation,[93] while areas closer to Australia, such as Nusa Tenggara, are drier.[93] The warm waters covering 81% of Indonesia's area keep land temperatures stable,[94] with high humidity (70–90%)[95] and moderate, predictable winds influenced by monsoon cycles.[96] Major weather hazards include strong currents in straits, such as the Lombok and Sape Straits,[97] rather than tropical cyclones.[98]
Several studies consider Indonesia to be at severe risk from the projected effects of climate change.[100] A temperature rise of 1.5°C (3°F)[101][102] could intensify droughts, disrupt rainfall patterns critical to agriculture,[102] and increase occurrences of food shortages, diseases, and wildfires.[102]Rising sea levels would threaten densely populated coastal regions,[103][104] particularly given Indonesia's extensive coastlines. Impoverished communities are expected to be disproportionately affected.[105]
Indonesia's geology is shaped by its position on the Pacific Ring of Fire, namely a subduction zone where several tectonic plates collide.[e][107] This tectonic activity makes the region highly unstable with volcanoes and earthquakes.[107] Around 130 volcanoes are classified as active,[107] stretching from Sumatra through Java, Bali and the Lesser Sunda Islands, and the Banda Islands to northeastern Sulawesi.[108]Volcanic ash, while harmful to agriculture, has created fertile soils that have historically sustained the high population densities of regions with volcanoes,[109] such as Java and Bali.
Recognised by Conservation International as one of 17 megadiverse countries,[114] Indonesia hosts one of the world's highest levels of biodiversity due to its tropical climate, large size, and archipelagic geography. The country's flora and fauna include a mix of Asian and Australasian species.[115] The Sunda Shelf islands (Sumatra, Java, and Borneo) have a wealth of Asian fauna as they were once linked to mainland Asia,[116][117] while Sulawesi, Lesser Sunda Islands, Maluku and Papua evolved unique ecosystems due to their separation from the continental landmasses.[118][119]
Indonesia boasts 54,716 kilometres (33,999 miles) of coastline,[3] featuring extensive coastal and marine ecosystems, such as dunes and mangroves,[12] as well as coral reefs in the Coral Triangle that harbour the highest diversity of coral reef fish globally.[120] The Wallace Line marks the biogeographical divide between Asian and Australasian species, with the region between the Wallace and Weber Lines (called Wallacea) hosting particularly high levels of endemic biodiversity.[121][122][123] In addition, 83% of Southeast Asia's old-growth forests are located in Indonesia.[124]
Indonesia faces severe environmental issues due to peatland destruction, over-exploitation of resources, and deforestation[125][f] driven by industries such as logging, plantations, agriculture,[126] and palm oil.[128][129][130] This situation threatens indigenous and endemic species, including the critically endangered Bali myna,[131]Sumatran orangutan,[132] and Javan rhinoceros,[133] and it is often given a lower priority due to high poverty levels and weak, under-resourced governance.[134] In academic discourse, some scholars have labelled the level of environmental degradation in Indonesia as ecocide.[135][136]
Conservation policy in Indonesia seeks to protect ecosystems amid ongoing environmental pressures. As of 2020, Indonesia has designated 27 million hectares (14% of the land area) as protected areas[137] and has established an extensive network of marine reserves.[138] Its conservation framework includes 54 national parks, several of which are recognised as World Heritage Sites, World Network of Biosphere Reserves, and wetlands of international importance under the 1971 Ramsar Convention.[139] These protected areas encompass a wide range of ecosystems, including tropical rainforests and mangroves, and are intended to safeguard biodiversity while supporting sustainable resource use and local livelihoods.[140]
Despite these measures, conservation efforts face persistent obstacles.[141] Studies have noted that enforcement and management capacity vary across regions,[137] while pressures from deforestation, land-use change, and resource exploitation continue to affect ecosystems and wildlife populations.[142] Habitat loss and environmental degradation have contributed to the decline of numerous species, including several classified as threatened or endangered.[140]
Legislative authority is vested in the People's Consultative Assembly (Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat, MPR), Indonesia's highest representative body that is responsible for amending the constitution, inaugurating and impeaching the president, and formalising state policies.[146][11] It consists of two houses: the People's Representative Council (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat, DPR), which has 580 members and handles legislation and executive oversight, and the Regional Representative Council (Dewan Perwakilan Daerah, DPD), which has 152 members and focuses on regional matters.[147] Since 1998, reforms have expanded the DPR's governance functionality.[143]
Judicial authority is exercised by several key institutions. The Supreme Court (Mahkamah Agung) is the highest judicial body, handling final appeals and case reviews.[148] The Constitutional Court (Mahkamah Konstitusi) adjudicates constitutional and political matters,[148] while the country's Religious Court (Pengadilan Agama) oversees Islamic personal law cases.[149] Additionally, the Judicial Commission (Komisi Yudisial) monitors judicial performance, and works to uphold the integrity and independence of the judiciary.[150]
Electoral politics in Indonesia have been characterised by a competitive multi-party system since 1999, wherein no single political party has secured an outright majority of seats in the legislative elections.[151] Political parties are commonly grouped into secular-nationalist and Islamic-oriented categories.[g][152] Indonesia's political scene is characterised by a preference for pragmatism over ideological orthodoxy to fit the prevailing political climate,[153]extensive power-sharing among parties,[154] and oversized governing coalitions.[151] Unlike many other democracies, pre-election party alliances are the norm in Indonesia.[153]
Indonesia held its first general election in 1955, and since 2004, the president and the legislature has been directly elected for a five-year term. Members of the DPR are elected through party-based contests, while members of the DPD are elected on a non-partisan basis to represent provincial constituencies.[147][143] Due to Indonesia's archipelagic geography and dispersed population, national elections are among the most logistically complex in the world. Ballots and electoral materials must be transported by land, sea, and air to reach remote islands, mountainous regions, and isolated communities.[155]
Indonesia's administrative structure is organised into multiple levels of regional governance. At the first level are the provinces, each with a legislature (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah, DPRD) and an elected governor. The second level includes regencies (kabupaten) and cities (kota), led by regents (bupati) and mayors (walikota), respectively, both supported by legislatures (DPRD Kabupaten/Kota). Below this are districts (kecamatan, called distrik in Papua), and the fourth level comprises villages, known by various names like desa, kampung, nagari (in West Sumatra), or gampong (in Aceh).[156] Villages are subdivided into community groups (rukun warga, RW) and neighbourhood groups (rukun tetangga, RT),[157] with further subdivisions like hamlets (dusun or dukuh) in Java.[156]
The village level is the lowest administrative unit but significantly influences daily life. Village governments are led by elected heads (lurah or kepala desa) and handle local matters.[158] Since the start of regional autonomy implementation in 1999, regencies and cities have become key administrative units responsible for delivering most public services.[80] Nine provinces have been granted a special autonomous status (otonomi khusus) in recognition of historical, cultural, or political considerations.[h] Aceh has the right to implement aspects of sharia law.[159] Yogyakarta retains its pre-colonial monarchy within the republican system,[160] while the provinces in Papua are granted special autonomy to address separatist tensions, accelerate development, and provide Papuans with greater self-governance.[161]
Jakarta hosts the headquarters of ASEAN and functions as the organisation's main diplomatic hub.
Indonesia follows an "independent and active" (bebas aktif) foreign policy, a term coined in 1948 by the country's first vice-president, Mohammad Hatta.[163] With this policy, the country aims to navigate great power politics, maintain autonomy, and avoid alignment with major powers.[164] The President holds the ultimate authority in determining the direction of foreign policy,[165][11] while the Ministry of Foreign Affairs is responsible for formulating and implementing it.[166] Meanwhile, the Parliament (DPR) provides oversight and ratifies international treaties.[167] Indonesia is considered to be a middle power in global politics.[168]
As the largest country in Southeast Asia and a founding member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), Indonesia considers ASEAN the cornerstone of its foreign policy.[169] Outside of its immediate region, Indonesia has actively supported Palestine[170] while refraining from formal diplomatic relations with Israel, although discreet ties exist.[171] Since the start of the 21st century, Indonesia has developed close relations with China, primarily relating to trade and investments in infrastructure,[172] while at the same time maintaining a strategic partnership with the United States, focusing on economic cooperation, security, and counterterrorism efforts.[173]
The Indonesian National Armed Forces (TNI) consists of the Army (TNI-AD), Navy (TNI-AL) (including the Marine Corps), and Air Force (TNI-AU), with active personnel numbering approximately 300,400 in the Army, 65,000 in the Navy, and 30,100 in the Air Force.[179] Established during the Indonesian National Revolution, the TNI initially engaged in guerrilla warfare alongside informal militias,[180] and eventually developed a territorial structure that focuses on maintaining domestic stability and deterring foreign threats.[181] During the New Order, the military exercised a direct political role, a doctrine known as "dual function" (dwifungsi).[182] Reforms in 1998 removed the military's overt political involvement, although it continued to wield political influence.[181][183] Defence spending in 2023 was 0.7% of GDP,[184] with controversies surrounding military-owned commercial ventures.[185]
Since independence, Indonesia has struggled to maintain unity against separatist movements and insurgencies, notably in Aceh and Papua.[186][187] While the former ended through a negotiated settlement in 2005,[86] the latter has continued alongside implementation of regional autonomy[188] and well-documented human rights abuses by the TNI, including extrajudicial killings, forced disappearances and restrictions on freedom of expression, as reported by Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, and the UNHRC.[189] Indonesia's historical military engagements include conflicts with the Netherlands over Dutch New Guinea, opposition to the British-backed creation of Malaysia (Konfrontasi), the anti-communist mass killings, and the invasion of East Timor, which was Indonesia's largest military operation.[190][191]
Law enforcement in Indonesia is primarily carried out by the Indonesian National Police (POLRI), which operates under the direct authority of the President. POLRI is tasked with law enforcement and maintaining public order and security, alongside various other agencies, supervised and trained by POLRI, that perform policing functions for specific public services.[192]
Indonesia has a documented history of racial discrimination and conflicts, particularly against Chinese Indonesians and Papuans,[193][194] which have at times escalated into violence, notably the anti-Chinese riots in 1998 and the ongoing Papua conflict since 1962. Other minorities, such as the LGBTQ, also face difficulties, where a rapid surge of anti-LGBTQ rhetoric has been observed since the mid-2010s[195] after relative obscurity on the topic in the decades prior.[196] Discrimination against religious minorities is also common.[85][197]
Issues regarding free speech and the right to assembly are prevalent despite constitutional protections.[198][11] Laws such as the Electronic Information and Transactions (Informasi dan Transaksi Elektronik, ITE) Law are often used to criminalise dissent, with critics and activists facing charges for expressing opinions online.[199] Peaceful protests, particularly those addressing sensitive issues such as indigenous rights in Papua, politics or environmental concerns, are frequently met with a heavy-handed response from law enforcement.[200] The government occasionally imposes restrictions on assembly permits, particularly for those critical of authorities or advocating rights.[201]
Indonesia operates a mixed economy where the private sector and the government play significant roles.[204] As the only G20 member state in Southeast Asia,[205] it has the region's largest economy and is classified as a newly industrialised country. In 2025, its nominal GDP was US$1.430trillion, ranking 17th globally, while its GDP at purchasing power parity (PPP) was US$5.009trillion, ranking 7th, with per capita values of US$17,612 (PPP) and US$5,027 (nominal).[6] In 2021, services dominate the economy in terms of employment (49.2%), followed by agriculture (28.9%) and industry (21.7%), while in terms of share of GDP in 2022, both services and industry dominate (roughly 41% each), followed by manufacturing (18.3%) and agriculture (12.4%).[206]
The economic structure has shifted significantly over time, transitioning from agriculture in the 1950s and 1960s to gradual industrialisation and urbanisation from the late 1960s to the 1980s.[207] Falling oil prices in the 1980s prompted diversification into manufactured exports, resulting in substantial economic growth (with GDP rising at an average annual rate of 7.1%) in the 1990s[208] and poverty reduction from 40% to 11%.[209] However, the economy took a severe hit during the Asian economic crisis in the late 1990s, when GDP fell by 13% and inflation reached 78%.[210]
Entering the 2000s, the country instituted a host of reforms, including prudent banking regulations, better monetary and fiscal policies, and flexible exchange rates.[211][212] These measures resulted in steady recovery, with growth rates consistently between 4% and 6% since 2004.[213] Along with strong domestic consumption, they also helped Indonesia weather the 2008 financial crisis.[211] The COVID-19 pandemic in the early 2020s caused a recession, but the economy rebounded within a year.[214]
Indonesia's abundant natural resources, including nickel, coal and petroleum, dominate its export portfolio.[215] It imports refined and crude petroleum and vehicle parts, with major trade partners including China, the United States, Japan, South Korea, India and ASEAN neighbours.[215] The country is also a major agricultural producer, leading in palm oil, rubber, coffee, rice, and tobacco, supported by ample rainfall, sunshine and fertile soil.[216]
A range of structural constraints in the economy remain. Inequality in wealth and opportunity is pronounced, particularly between the western and eastern regions.[217][218] Joblessness and low labor productivity persist,[219] while a majority of the workforce is still employed in the informal sector.[220] Infrastructure deficiencies, especially outside major cities, hinder equitable development.[221] The business climate is often undermined by, among other things, regulatory uncertainty and weak law enforcement, which deters investment.[222] Moreover, heavy reliance on commodity exports leaves the economy vulnerable to global price fluctuations and environmental damage, notably deforestation.[223][128]
Borobudur in Central Java, the world's largest Buddhist temple, is the single most visited tourist attraction in Indonesia.
Tourism is a significant source of revenue to the economy, drawing on Indonesia's natural landscapes and cultural heritage. In 2023, it contributed US$14billion to GDP and drew 11.6 million international visitors.[225] Australia, Singapore, Malaysia, China, and India are among the top five sources of visitors to Indonesia.[226]
The country is renowned for its rich and diverse natural ecosystems, with forests covering 47.7% of its land area.[127] Popular natural destinations include the rainforests of Sumatra and Kalimantan, particularly the Orangutan wildlife reserves.[227] Indonesia also has one of the world's longest coastlines, stretching 54,716 kilometres (33,999mi).[3] Cultural tourism features prominently, with attractions like the ancient Borobudur and Prambanan temples,[228] the Toraja highlands,[229] and the cultural festivals of Bali.[230]
Government spending on research and development in Indonesia has historically been a small proportion of national expenditure, at just 0.28% of GDP in 2020,[234] which has shaped the pace and scale of scientific and technological development.[235]
Historical innovations include the pinisi boats of the Bugis and Makassar people,[236] while the most recent ones include the Sosrobahu road construction technique that has been used internationally.[237][238] Indonesia also produces passenger trains and freight wagons through its state-owned Indonesian Railway Industry (Industri Kereta Api, INKA), which exports trains to international markets, including Africa and New Zealand.[239]
Indonesia is one of the few developing countries with an aircraft manufacturing industry and a space program.[240][241] The aerospace sector was influenced by leadership with technical expertise, including that of former President B. J. Habibie.[242] The state-owned Indonesian Aerospace (PT. Dirgantara Indonesia, PTDI) has domestically produced the N219,[243] collaborated with Spain's CASA to develop the CN-235,[240] and supplied components to Boeing and Airbus.[244]
Indonesia's transport system reflects its archipelagic geography and population concentration on Java.[248] Roads form the backbone of land transport,[249] and public bus networks support mobility in most large cities. Transjakarta operates one of the world’s largest bus rapid transit systems,[250] while ride-hailing services[251] and informal transport modes supplement conventional systems and are widely used.[j][252][253] In rural areas, village transport services known as angdes (angkutan pedesaan) help connect smaller communities to cities.[254]
Whoosh is the first high-speed rail in Southeast Asia and Southern Hemisphere. It is planned to be extended to the country's second largest city, Surabaya.
Railways operate mainly on Java, with additional lines in Sumatra and Sulawesi,[256][257] serving freight and passenger transport, including commuter and inter-city rail services like those in Greater Jakarta and Yogyakarta. Rapid transit systems were introduced in Jakarta and Palembang in the late 2010s,[255] and in 2023, Indonesia opened its first high-speed rail line (Whoosh) that links Jakarta and Bandung,[255] which is a product of collaboration with China.
Indonesia is a major energy producer and consumer[k] due to its large population, industrial base and resource endowment. Total installed power generation capacity in 2023 stands at 70.8 gigawatts (GW),[263] with coal forming the largest source of power.[264][265] Other significant sources include natural gas, oil and renewables such as geothermal, hydropower and solar.[266] The state-owned State Electricity Company (Perusahaan Listrik Negara, PLN) holds a monopoly on power generation, transmission and distribution across the country.[267]
Indonesia's energy mix remains dependent on non-renewable sources, particularly coal and followed by natural gas and oil.[268] Renewables, including geothermal, hydropower and solar account for a limited but gradually increasing share.[269] The potential for renewable energy is substantial, particularly geothermal, where the country ranks as one of the world's largest producers.[266] The country is an important exporter of energy commodities, including coal and liquefied natural gas,[270][215][271] while also importing refined petroleum products.[263]
The government has outlined plans to diversify energy sources and increase the share of renewables as part of longer-term efforts to reduce emissions.[272][268] However, the country has insufficient infrastructure for renewable energy, faces difficulties in providing electricity access to remote areas,[273] and continues to rely heavily on coal.[274]
A map of districts (kecamatan) coloured by population density as measured by person per square kilometres
Indonesia's population is large and regionally diverse, with significant variation in settlement patterns and social composition. The country's most recent census in 2020 recorded a population of 270.2million,[5] ranking Indonesia as the world's fourth most populous country, with the population growing at a rate of 1.25% between 2010 and 2020.[5] Java, the world's most populated island, is home to 56% of the population.[5] The overall population density stands at 141 peopleper square kilometre (370 people/mi2),[5] but Java's density is significantly higher, reaching 1,171 peopleper square kilometre (3,030 people/mi2).[275] Indonesia's first post-colonial census in 1961 recorded a population of 97 million,[276] and projections estimate it will grow to 335 million by 2050.[277] The country maintains a relatively young demographic, with a median age of 31.5 years as of 2024.[3]
Indonesia is home to around 600 distinct native ethnic groups,[283] predominantly descended from Austronesian peoples speaking Proto-Austronesian languages, likely from modern-day Taiwan.[284] The Melanesians, who inhabit eastern Indonesia, represent another significant ethnic grouping.[27][285][26] The Javanese, making up 40% of the population,[286] are the largest ethnic group and the politically dominant one,[287] primarily residing in central and eastern Java, with sizeable numbers in other provinces. Other major groups include the Sundanese, Malay, Batak, Madurese, Betawi, Minangkabau, and Bugis.[286][l] A sense of Indonesian nationhood exists alongside strong regional identities.[288]
The official language, Indonesian, is a standardized variety of Malay based on its prestige dialect originating around the Riau-Johor region, which became the archipelago's lingua franca over the course of centuries.[289][m] It was first promoted by nationalists in the 1920s and gained official status in 1945, following independence, under the name Bahasa Indonesia, and has since been widely adopted due to its use in education, media, business, and governance.[292] While nearly all Indonesians speak Bahasa, most also speak one of over 700 local languages,[293] often as their first language. These are predominantly from the Austronesian family, with more than 150 Papuan languages in eastern Indonesia.[294]Javanese is the most widely spoken local language[293] and holds co-official status in Yogyakarta.[295]
The Dutch and other European-descended populations like the Indos, though significant during colonial times, always represented a small fraction of the population, numbering only around 200,000 in 1930.[296] The Dutch language never gained substantial traction due to the Dutch colonial focus on commerce rather than cultural integration.[297][298] Dutch fluency exists today in small numbers among some older generations and legal professionals,[299] as specific legal codes remain available only in that language.[300]
A map of districts (kecamatan) coloured by plurality/majority religious affiliation and what percentage of citizens it represents
Indonesia officially recognises six religions: Islam, Protestantism, Roman Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism,[301][302] while acknowledging religious freedom in the constitution.[303][11] As of 2023, 87.1% of the population (244 million Indonesians) are Muslims, making Indonesia the world's most populous Muslim-majority country,[304][2] with Sunnis constituting 99% of the Muslim population.[305][n] Christians, comprising 10% of the population,[2] form majorities in several eastern provinces,[307] while Hindus and Buddhists are primarily Balinese and Chinese Indonesians, respectively.[308][309]
Before the arrival of major world religions, Indonesia's native peoples practised animism and dynamism, worshipping ancestral spirits and believing in the supernatural (hyang) inhabiting natural elements, such as large trees, mountains and forests.[310] Such beliefs are common to the Austronesian peoples.[310] These indigenous traditions, such as Sundanese Sunda Wiwitan, Javanese Kejawèn and Dayak's Kaharingan, have profoundly influenced modern religious practices, resulting in a less orthodox and syncretic form of faith like Javanese abangan, Balinese Hinduism and Dayak Christianity.[311]
A Hindu prayer ceremony at Besakih Temple in Bali, the only province where Hinduism is the predominant religion
Hinduism reached the archipelago in the 1st century CE,[312] followed by Buddhism in the 5th century.[313] Through empires such as Majapahit, Srivijaya, and Sailendra, both religions played a major role in shaping Indonesia's religious history and left enduring cultural influences that persist even though neither is a majority faith.[314][315] Islam arrived as early as the 8th century[316][317] through Sunni and Sufi traders from the Indian subcontinent and southern Arabian peninsula, mixing with local cultural and religious traditions to form a distinct Islamic culture (santri).[39][318] By the 16th century, Islam had become the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra, resulting from the blend of trade, dawah, such as by the Wali Sanga and Chinese explorer Zheng He, and military campaigns by several sultanates.[319][320]
Catholicism and Protestantism were later introduced through missionary efforts during European colonisation, such as by Francis Xavier,[321][322] though the spread of the former faced difficulties under the VOC and Dutch colonial era policies. The latter's primary branches include Calvinism and Lutheranism,[323][324][325] though a multitude of other denominations exist in the country.[326] A small Jewish presence has existed in the archipelago, primarily descendants of Dutch and Iraqi Jews, though their numbers have dwindled since independence in 1945. Only a few Jews remain today, mostly in major cities like Jakarta, Manado and Surabaya.[327] One of the remaining synagogues, Sha'ar Hashamayim, is located in Tondano, North Sulawesi, around 31km from Manado.[327][328]
Religion is central to the lives of the overwhelming majority of Indonesians, reflecting its integral role in the country's society, culture, and identity.[329][330] Interfaith relations are significantly shaped by political leadership and civil society, guided by the first principle of Pancasila, which emphasises belief in a supreme deity and religious tolerance.[331][332] While it promotes harmony,[333] religious intolerance continues to be a recurring issue.[85][197] Followers of indigenous religions, officially called aliran kepercayaan or cultural belief systems, have faced a lack of legal and governmental recognition that leads to discrimination as well as uncertainty regarding their exact numbers.[302]
Indonesia has one of the largest education systems in the world, with over 50 million students, 4 million teachers, and more than 250,000 schools.[334] Overseen by several government ministries,[o] the system follows a 6-3-3-4 structure: six years of elementary school, three years each of junior and senior secondary school, and four years of tertiary education.[335] While the literacy rate is high (96%),[3] it is lower in rural areas.[336] Enrolment rates vary across educational levels, with near-universal enrolment in primary education (97.9%), but drop to 81.7% and 64.2% in lower and upper secondary education and around 42.6% for tertiary education.[337][338]
Government spending on education accounted for approximately 1.3% of GDP in 2023.[339] In 2022, there were 4,481 higher education institutions in the country, including universities, Islamic institutions, and open universities.[340] Among these, the University of Indonesia, Gadjah Mada University, and the Bandung Institute of Technology stand out as the country’s leading institutions, all ranking within the world’s top 300 universities.[341]
Issues regarding quality and equity are persistent, particularly urban–rural disparities, inadequate infrastructure, and a lack of qualified teachers, whose wages are lower than those in neighbouring countries.[342][343] The system also lags behind international benchmarks, such as the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), where Indonesian students consistently rank near the bottom in reading, mathematics, and science.[344] The higher education sector has been struggling with underfunding, low quality, limited research output and a mismatch between graduates' skills and labour market needs.[345][346]
Indonesia has made significant progress in developing its healthcare system since 1945. Initially, healthcare services were limited, with a shortage of doctors, hospitals, and infrastructure.[347] In the late 1960s, the government began establishing community health centres (puskesmas) to provide basic services in rural areas.[347] With the help of the World Health Organization in the 1970s and 1980s, Indonesia implemented an immunisation program to combat diseases like polio and measles.[348] The system experienced a major transformation in 2014 with the launch of Jaminan Kesehatan Nasional (JKN), a universal health care managed by the Social Security Agency on Health (BPJS Kesehatan).[349] It is one of the world's largest single-payer systems, covering over 95% of the population (265 million people) by 2023.[350]
Government spending on healthcare accounted for 2.69% of GDP in 2022.[351] Primary healthcare is delivered through puskesmas, hospitals, and private clinics.[347] While the healthcare system lags behind those in ASEAN neighbours like Malaysia and Singapore,[352] significant public health outcomes have been achieved, such as an increase in life expectancy (from 54.9 years in 1973 to 71.1 years in 2023),[353] a decline in child mortality (from 15.5 deaths per 100 live births in 1972 to 2.1 deaths in 2022),[354] polio eradication in 2014,[348] and decreasing cases of malaria.[355]
Some chronic health issues persist, including child stunting that affects 21.6% of children under five according to a 2022 data.[356] Low air quality, particularly in major cities,[357] contributes to respiratory illnesses, while maternal and child health indicators remain areas of concern, with a maternal mortality rate the third highest in the region.[358] Additionally, Indonesia has one of the highest smoking rates globally (34.8% of adults), contributing to a high prevalence of non-communicable diseases like cardiovascular issues and lung cancer.[359]
Indonesia's culture reflects more than two millennia of interaction between indigenous traditions and external influences. Its cultural development has been shaped by Austronesian and Melanesian heritage, as well as sustained contact with the Indian subcontinent, China, the Middle East, and Europe through trade, migration, and colonisation.[360][361] These interactions have produced a society characterised by diversity in culture, language and ethnicity,[293][283] including artistic expression and social practice.
Indonesian visual arts encompass a wide range of traditional and contemporary forms that reflect regional diversity and historical exchange.[363] Bali's artistic traditions, such as classical Kamasan and Wayang-style painting, are renowned, originating from visual narratives depicted on candi bas-reliefs from eastern Java.[364] Traditional architecture varies significantly among ethnic groups and regions, with iconic and traditional houses (rumah adat) like Toraja's Tongkonan, Minangkabau's Rumah Gadang, Java's Pendopo, and Dayak longhouses each showcasing unique local customs and histories.[365]
Megalithic sculptures discovered in parts of Sumatra, Sulawesi, and eastern Indonesia illustrate tribal arts among communities such as the Nias, Batak, Asmat, Dayak, and Toraja peoples.[366][367][368] From the 8th to the 15th centuries, the Javanese civilisation excelled in sophisticated stone sculpting and architecture, heavily influenced by the Hindu-Buddhist Dharmic culture. This period produced monumental works like the Borobudur and Prambanan temples.[369][370] both of which are emblematic of Indonesia's cultural heritage.
Music and dance play an important role in Indonesian cultural life and have long been associated with ritual, storytelling, and communal gatherings. Indigenous musical traditions predate written records, with tribes employing instruments like the angklung, gamelan, and sasando. Over time, external influences enriched Indonesian music, such as the gambus and qasida from the Middle East,[371]keroncong from Portugal,[372] and dangdut, which incorporates Hindi, Malay, and Middle Eastern elements.[373] Today, Indonesian music enjoys regional popularity in Malaysia and Singapore due to cultural similarities and language intelligibility.[374][375]
Indonesia is home to more than 3,000 traditional dances, many of which originated in rituals and religious worship,[376] such as the dance of witch doctors and Hudoq, as well as periods of Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic influence. In contemporary Indonesia, traditional dances like those of Java, Bali, and Dayak continue to be a living tradition[377] amid the growing popularity of modern and urban dances shaped by Western and South Korean cultures, such as hip-hop and K-pop.[378][379]
Clothing traditions also vary widely across the archipelago. Batik and kebaya are widely recognised as national attire, with predominant roots in Javanese culture.[380] Traditional attire varies by region and province, such as the Batak ulos, Malay and Minangkabau songket, and Sasak ikat, and is commonly worn for ceremonies, weddings, and formal events.[381]
The Pandavas and Krishna in an act of the Wayang Wong performance
Traditional Indonesian theatre encompasses a variety of performance forms that combine storytelling, music, and visual art. Wayang shadow puppetry, is one of the best-known forms, often depicting Hindu epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata.[382] Other theatrical traditions include Ludruk, Ketoprak, Sandiwara, Lenong,[383][384] and Balinese dance dramas, which often incorporate humour, music, and audience interaction.[385] Regional performance traditions reflect local histories and values like the Minangkabau Randai, which combines music, dance, and martial arts (silat) to recount legends and historical narratives.[386][387] In the modern period, theatre groups such as Teater Koma, have used satire to address social and political themes.[388]
Indonesia's film industry began during the Dutch colonial period with the release of Loetoeng Kasaroeng (1926)[389] and it expanded post-independence with Usmar Ismail's pioneering work in the 1950s.[389][390] During the latter part of the Sukarno era in the 1960s, films were used to promote nationalism and anti-Western sentiment,[389] while Suharto's New Order imposed censorship to maintain social order.[391] Film productions peaked in the 1980s with notable titles such as Pengabdi Setan (1980), Tjoet Nja' Dhien (1988) and Warkop comedy films, but the industry declined in the 1990s.[392]
In the post-Suharto era, the industry saw a resurgence.[393] Independent filmmakers tackled previously censored themes like race, religion, and love,[391] producing notable films such as Kuldesak (1999) and Ada Apa dengan Cinta? (2002).[392] The 2025 animated film Jumbo set box office records, becoming the most-watched Indonesian film with more than 10 million tickets sold.[394] The Indonesian Film Festival (Festival Film Indonesia), which gives out the Citra Award, has celebrated cinematic achievements since 1955.[395]
Media and literary traditions in Indonesia reflect both historical continuity and technological change. Early literature include Sanskrit inscriptions from the 5th century and a strong oral tradition,[397] later expressed through written forms such as syair, pantun, hikayat, and babad.[398] Notable works in this category include Hikayat Hang Tuah and Babad Tanah Jawi. The establishment of Balai Pustaka in 1917 marked a push to develop indigenous literature, leading to a literary Golden Age in the 1950s and 1960s.[399] Early modern literature originates in the Sumatran tradition[400][401] and has been shaped by political and social change,[399][402] producing works from notable figures like Chairil Anwar, Pramoedya Ananta Toer, and Ayu Utami.
Media freedom in Indonesia significantly improved after the fall of Suharto's rule, during which the Ministry of Information tightly controlled the media.[403] The early years of the post-Suharto era was marked by a proliferation of print and electronic media amid greater press freedom.[404][405] Internet use, which began in the early 1990s after the first Internet service provider went commercial,[406] grew rapidly after 2000[407] and began transforming patters of media consumption, which had become evident during the 2010s.[408] By 2023, the country had 210 million internet users, with mobile phones as the primary point of access.[409]
Indonesian cuisine reflects the country’s geographic diversity, cultural plurality, and long history of external contact. It comprises numerous regional traditions shaped by indigenous practices and foreign influences, including Chinese, Middle Eastern, Indian, African, and European cuisines.[410] Rice is the primary staple food across much of the archipelago and is typically served with side dishes of meat, vegetables, or fish.[411] Fundamental ingredients include spices—particularly chilli—along with coconut milk,[412] fish, and chicken, which contribute to the distinctive flavour profiles found across different regions.[411]
Some popular dishes, such as nasi goreng, gado-gado, mie, and sate, are widely consumed throughout the country.[413] Regional cuisines remain strongly associated with local identities, with Minangkabau dishes like rendang[414] gaining international recognition.[411] Fermented foods also form part of Indonesian culinary traditions, including oncom, which is produced using various fungal cultures and is especially prevalent in West Java.[415] In 2014, the Ministry of Tourism designated tumpeng as an icon of Indonesian traditional cuisine, symbolising the nation’s diverse food cultures.[416]
A demonstration of pencak silat, a form of martial arts
Sports in Indonesia include both internationally competitive disciplines and traditional activities. Association football is the most popular sport in terms of nationwide engagement and interest.[417] The Super League functions as the country's top-tier competition. Indonesia was the first Asian representative to appear at the FIFA World Cup, taking part in the 1938 tournament as the Dutch East Indies.[417] Despite its popularity, the national program has only achieved limited success at the regional level, such as the Southeast Asian Games (SEA Games),[418] and continues to face challenges, including inconsistent quality of play, spectator violence, and episodes of political intervention.[419]
Badminton has produced Indonesia's most notable international sporting results.[420] The country is among the few to have won both the Thomas and Uber Cups, the world team championship of men's and women's badminton.[421] Together with weightlifting, badminton contributes the largest share of Indonesia's Olympic gold medals.[422] Other popular sports include boxing and basketball, which were featured in the country's multi-sport event National Sports Week (Pekan Olahraga Nasional, PON) in 1948.[423]
Examples of traditional sports include sepak takraw, bull racing (karapan sapi) in Madura,[424][425] and ritual combat traditions, such as caci in Flores and pasola in Sumba.[426]Pencak silat is an Indonesian martial art,[427] which became an official event at the 2018 Asian Games, where Indonesia emerged as one of the leading competitors.[428] In multi-sport regional competitions, Indonesia has topped the SEA Games medal table ten times since 1977,[429] and ranks second in the all-time medal standings behind Thailand.[430]
↑During the Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation in 1965, Indonesia withdrew from the UN due to the latter's election to the United Nations Security Council, although it returned 18 months later. It marked the first time in UN history that a member state had attempted a withdrawal.[174]
↑Examples include rickshaws such as bajaj and becak, as well as shared taxis including angkot and minibuses.
↑Small but significant populations of ethnic Chinese, Indians, Europeans, and Arabs are concentrated mostly in urban areas.
↑Due to significant contact with other languages, it is rich in local and foreign influences, which include Javanese, Sundanese, Minangkabau, Makassarese, Sanskrit, Chinese, Arabic, Dutch, Portuguese, and English.[290][291]
↑The rest consists of the Shias and Ahmadis, who form 1% (1–3 million) and 0.2% (200,000–400,000) of the Muslim population.[302][306]
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284,438,782 [4] (4th)
$5.009 trillion [6] (7th)
37.9 [7] 
