The Indonesian archipelago has been a valuable region for trade since at least the seventh century, when Sumatra's Srivijaya and later Java's Majapahit kingdoms engaged in commerce with entities from mainland China and the Indian subcontinent. Over the centuries, local rulers assimilated foreign influences, leading to the flourishing of Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms. Sunni traders and Sufi scholars later brought Islam, and European powers fought one another to monopolise trade in the Spice Islands of Maluku during the Age of Discovery. Following three and a half centuries of Dutch colonialism, Indonesia proclaimed its independence on 17 August 1945. Since then, it has faced challenges such as separatism, corruption, and natural disasters, alongside democratisation and rapid economic growth.
The Indonesian archipelago has carried different names in the past, such as "East Indies" in this 1855 map.
The name Indonesia derives from the Greek words Indos (Ἰνδός) and nesos (νῆσος), meaning "Indian islands".[12] The name dates back to the 19th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his preference, Malayunesians—for the inhabitants of the "Indian Archipelago or Malay Archipelago".[13][14] In the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago.[15][16] Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia. They preferred Malay Archipelago (Dutch: Maleische Archipel); the Netherlands East Indies (Nederlandsch Oost Indië), popularly Indië; the East (de Oost); and Insulinde.[17]
After 1900, Indonesia became more common in academic circles outside the Netherlands, and native nationalist groups adopted it for political expression.[17]Adolf Bastian of the University of Berlin popularised the name through his book Indonesien oder die Inseln des Malayischen Archipels, 1884–1894. The first native scholar to use the name was Ki Hajar Dewantara, who established a press bureau in the Netherlands, Indonesisch Pers-bureau, in 1918.[14]
The Indonesian archipelago has been inhabited since the time of Homo erectus or "Java Man," with fossils dating back 2 million to 500,000 BCE.[18][19][20] Fossils of Homo floresiensis, found on Flores, date around 700,000 to 60,000 BCE, while Homo sapiens arrived around 50,000 BCE.[21][22] Sulawesi and Borneo are home to the world's oldest known cave paintings, dating back 40,000 to 60,000 years,[23][24] and megalithic sites such as western Java's Gunung Padang, Sulawesi's Lore Lindu, as well as Sumatra's Nias and Sumba reflect early human settlements and ceremonial practices.[25]
Around 2,000 BCE, Austronesian peoples began arriving in Southeast Asia from the island of Taiwan, gradually displacing native Melanesians to the far eastern part of the archipelago as they spread east,[26] and would eventually form the majority of Indonesia's modern population. Favourable agricultural conditions and advancements like wet-field rice cultivation by the 8th century BCE[27] enabled the growth of villages and kingdoms by the first century CE. The archipelago's strategic location fostered inter-island and international exchange with civilisations from the Indian subcontinent and mainland China, profoundly influencing Indonesian history and culture through trade.[28][29][30]
By the 7th century CE, the Srivijaya naval kingdom thrived on trade, adopting Hindu and Buddhist influences.[31][32] The 8th to 10th centuries saw the rise and decline of the Buddhist Sailendra and Hindu Mataram dynasties, leaving monumental legacies like the Borobudur and Prambanan temples.[33] After the failed Mongol invasion of Java in the late 13th century,[34] the Hindu Majapahit kingdom rose to dominate much of the archipelago under Gajah Mada's leadership—a period often called the "Golden Age" of Indonesian history.[35] Islam arrived in the 13th century in northern Sumatra,[36] and following gradual adoption in other islands, it became the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by the 16th century, blending with pre-existing traditions to form a distinct Islamic culture, particularly in Java.[37]
In 1512, Europeans began arriving in the archipelago, led by Portuguese traders under Francisco Serrão, to seek a monopoly of the lucrative spice trade in the Maluku Islands.[38] Dutch and British traders soon followed, with the former establishing the Dutch East India Company (Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie, VOC) in 1602,[39] which eventually became the dominant European power for almost two centuries. After the VOC's dissolution in 1799 during the French Revolutionary Wars,[39] the Dutch East Indies was established as a nationalised colony,[40] marking the beginning of formal colonial rule by the Netherlands.
Over the next century and a half, Dutch control over the archipelago was tenuous, as they faced continuous rebellions from local leaders like Prince Diponegoro in central Java, Imam Bonjol in central Sumatra, Pattimura in Maluku, and fighters in Aceh.[41][42][43] Dutch dominance only extended to Indonesia's modern boundaries in the early 20th century,[43][44][45][46] with the establishment of Dutch posts in New Guinea.[47]
In the post-Suharto era since 1998, the country has strengthened its democracy by granting regional autonomy and holding the first direct presidential election in 2004.[78][79] Political, economic and social instability and terrorism were persistent in the 2000s.[80][81] The economy has performed strongly since 2007, although corruption remains a chronic issue.[82] Relations among the diverse population are mostly harmonious, but sectarian discontent and violence remain problematic in some areas.[83] A political settlement to a separatist insurgency in Aceh was achieved in 2005.[84]
The southernmost country in Asia, Indonesia lies between latitudes 11°S and 6°N and longitudes 95°E and 141°E.[85] It is also a transcontinental country, spanning Southeast Asia and Oceania and is the world's largest archipelagic state, stretching 5,120 kilometres (3,181mi) from east to west and 1,760 kilometres (1,094mi) from north to south.[86] The exact number of Indonesia's islands varies according to different sources, usually ranging from 13,000 to 17,000, with around 922 permanently inhabited.[87][3] Its five main islands are Sumatra, Java, Borneo (shared with Brunei and Malaysia), Sulawesi, and New Guinea (shared with Papua New Guinea).[86]
The country features diverse topography, including towering mountains, vast lakes, and extensive river systems. At 4,884 metres (16,024ft), Puncak Jaya is Indonesia's highest peak, while Lake Toba in Sumatra, covering 1,145km2 (442sqmi), is the largest lake. The country's major rivers, primarily in Kalimantan, include Kapuas, Barito and Mahakam, serving as vital transportation and communication routes for remote riverine communities.[88]
Indonesia's equatorial position ensures a relatively stable climate year-round,[89] characterised by two main seasons: the dry season from May to October and the wet season from November to April,[89] with no extremes of summer and winter. The climate is predominantly tropical rainforest, with cooler climates in higher areas over 500 metres (1,600 feet) above sea level.[85] In highland regions, the climate is cooler and wetter than in the lowlands. Areas near tropical rainforests tend to receive consistent rainfall year-round (Köppen: Cfb), while those closer to monsoon and savanna regions have more distinct dry seasons (Köppen: Cwb).[90][91]
There is a variation in rainfall patterns, with regions like western Sumatra, Java, and the interiors of Kalimantan and Papua receiving more precipitation,[92] while areas closer to Australia, such as Nusa Tenggara, are drier.[92] The warm waters covering 81% of Indonesia's area keep land temperatures stable,[93] with high humidity (70–90%)[94] and moderate, predictable winds influenced by monsoon cycles.[95] Major weather hazards include strong currents in straits, such as the Lombok and Sape Straits,[96] rather than typhoons or storms.
Several studies consider Indonesia to be at severe risk from the projected effects of climate change,[98] including a temperature rise of 1.5°C (3°F) by 2050 due to unreduced emissions.[99][100] This warming could intensify droughts, disrupt rainfall patterns critical to agriculture,[100] and increase occurrences of food shortages, diseases, and wildfires.[100]Rising sea levels would also threaten densely populated coastal regions,[101][102] and impoverished communities are expected to be disproportionately affected by climate change.[103]
Indonesia's geology is shaped by its position on the Pacific Ring of Fire, namely a subduction zone where three tectonic plates collide: the Eurasian plate, the Indo-Australian plate, and the Pacific plate.[104] This tectonic activity makes the region highly unstable with volcanoes and earthquakes.[104] Around 130 volcanoes are classified as active,[104] stretching from Sumatra through Java, Bali and the Lesser Sunda Islands, and the Banda Islands to northeastern Sulawesi.[105] Although volcanic ash is harmful to agriculture, it has also created fertile soils that have historically sustained the high population densities of areas near volcanoes.[106] Between 1972 and 1991, Java experienced a total of 29 volcanic eruptions.[107]
Recognised by Conservation International as one of 17 megadiverse countries,[112] Indonesia hosts one of the world's highest levels of biodiversity due to its tropical climate, large size, and archipelagic geography. The country's flora and fauna include a mix of Asian and Australasian species.[113] The Sunda Shelf islands (Sumatra, Java, and Borneo) have a wealth of Asian fauna as they were once linked to mainland Asia,[114][115] while Sulawesi, Lesser Sunda Islands, Maluku and Papua evolved unique ecosystems due to their separation from the continental landmasses.[116][117] In terms of total endemic species, the Indonesian archipelago ranks among the highest globally.[118]
The country also boasts 54,716 kilometres (33,999 miles) of coastline,[3] featuring diverse sea and coastal ecosystems, such as dunes and mangroves,[12] as well as coral reefs in the Coral Triangle that harbour the highest diversity of coral reef fish globally, with over 2,000 species.[119] The Wallace Line, described by English naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace, marks the biogeographical divide between Asian and Australasian species, with the region between the Wallace and Weber Lines (called Wallacea) hosting unique biodiversity as described in Wallace's 1869 book, The Malay Archipelago.[120][121] Eighty-three percent of Southeast Asia's old-growth forests are located in Indonesia.[122]
Indonesia faces severe environmental challenges due to extensive deforestation,[123] peatland destruction, and over-exploitation of resources, driven by industries such as logging, plantations and agriculture since the 1970s,[124] and in most recent years, palm oil.[125][126] Forest cover declined from 87% in 1950 to 47.7% in 2023,[127][124] highlighting the country as a leading forest-based emitter of greenhouse gases.[128] These issues are often given a lower priority due to high poverty levels and weak, under-resourced governance.[129] They also threaten indigenous and endemic species, with the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) listing many as critically endangered, such as the Bali myna,[130]Sumatran orangutan,[131] and Javan rhinoceros.[132] Environmental degradation has prompted some academics to label these activities as ecocide.[133][134]
As of 2023, Indonesia has designated 21.3% of its land as protected areas and aims to align its strategy with the 2022 Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework.[135] Additionally, 411 marine reserves account for 9% of the country's maritime area, with a target to increase this to 30% by 2045. However, a recent study highlights that the current efforts are off track and existing marine reserves are poorly managed.[136] Approximately 390 marine areas are managed by government bodies, communities, and other sectors, with potential for classification as other effective area-based conservation measures (OECMs), though there is no national mechanism for reporting them.[137]
Indonesia's conservation framework includes 55 national parks, covering around 9% of the country's surface area. Among these, nine are predominantly marine parks,[138] with six recognised as World Heritage Sites, seven as part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves[139] and five wetlands of international importance under the 1971 Ramsar Convention. Notably, Indonesia has over 100 marine protected areas spanning 15.7 million hectares as of 2012, and these are managed by the Ministry of Forestry and local governments. Previous targets included reaching 20 million hectares by 2020 under former President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono's 2009 initiative and 10% of territorial waters, or 31 million hectares.[140]
The People's Consultative Assembly (Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat, MPR) is Indonesia's highest representative body, responsible for amending the constitution, inaugurating and impeaching the president, and formalising state policies.[144][11] It consists of two houses: the People's Representative Council (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat, DPR), which has 580 members and handles legislation and executive oversight, and the Regional Representative Council (Dewan Perwakilan Daerah, DPD), which has 152 members and focuses on regional matters.[145] Since 1998, reforms have significantly enhanced the DPR's governance functionality.[141] The DPD represents the interests of the diverse regions of Indonesia.[146][11]
Indonesia's judiciary includes several key institutions. The Supreme Court (Mahkamah Agung) is the highest judicial authority, handling final appeals and case reviews.[147] The Constitutional Court (Mahkamah Konstitusi) addresses constitutional and political matters,[147] while the country's Religious Court (Pengadilan Agama) oversees Islamic personal law cases.[148] Additionally, the Judicial Commission (Komisi Yudisial) monitors judicial performance.[149]
Since 1999, Indonesia has operated under a multi-party system, wherein no single political party has secured an outright majority of seats in the legislative elections.[150] Political parties are generally classified into two categories: secular and nationalist parties, and Islamic parties.[d][151] Indonesia's political scene is characterised by a preference for pragmatism over ideological orthodoxy to fit the prevailing political climate,[152]extensive power-sharing among parties,[153] and oversized governing coalitions.[150] Unlike many other democracies, pre-election party alliances are the norm in Indonesia.[152]
In 1955, the first general election was held to elect members of the DPR and the Constitutional Assembly (Konstituante). At the most recent elections in 2024, eight political parties secured representation in the DPR, with a parliamentary threshold of 4% of the national vote.[154] At the national level, Indonesians did not elect a President until 2004. Since then, the President has been elected for a five-year term, as are the party-aligned members of the DPR and the non-partisan DPD.[145][141] Due to the country's sprawling geography, national elections have gained a reputation for being among the most logistically complex in the world, involving the transport of ballots and other electoral goods by various means of transportation to reach difficult areas, such as mountains and small islands.[155]
Indonesia is divided into several administrative levels. At the first level are the provinces, each with a legislature (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah, DPRD) and an elected governor. The number of provinces has grown from 8 in 1945[156] to 38 today, with the most recent one, Southwest Papua, established in 2022.[157] The second level includes regencies (kabupaten) and cities (kota), led by regents (bupati) and mayors (walikota), respectively, both supported by legislatures (DPRD Kabupaten/Kota). Below this are districts (kecamatan, called distrik in Papua), and the fourth level comprises villages, known by various names like desa, kelurahan, kampung, nagari (in West Sumatra), or gampong (in Aceh). Villages are subdivided into community groups (rukun warga, RW) and neighbourhood groups (rukun tetangga, RT), with further subdivisions like hamlets (dusun or dukuh) in Java.[158]
The village level is the lowest administrative unit but significantly influences daily life. Village governments are led by elected heads (lurah or kepala desa) and handle local matters.[159] Since the start of regional autonomy implementation in 1999, regencies and cities have become key administrative units responsible for most government services.[78] Nine provinces are granted a special autonomous status (otonomi khusus) from the central government.[e] A conservative Islamic territory, Aceh has the right to apply aspects of sharia law.[160] Yogyakarta uniquely retains its pre-colonial monarchy, with its Sultan and Duke serving as governor and vice governor,[161] while the provinces in Papua are granted special autonomy to address separatist tensions, accelerate development, and provide Papuans with greater self-governance.[162]
Indonesia serves as the seat of ASEAN headquarters, with Jakarta serving as the organisation's diplomatic capital.
Indonesia follows an "independent and active" (bebas aktif) foreign policy, a term coined in 1948 by the country's first vice-president, Mohammad Hatta.[164] With this policy, the country aims to navigate great power politics, maintain autonomy, and avoid alignment with major powers.[165] The President holds the ultimate authority in determining foreign policy directions,[166][11] while the Foreign Affairs Ministry is responsible for formulating and implementing foreign policy.[167] Meanwhile, the Parliament (DPR) provides oversight and ratifies international treaties.[168] Indonesia is considered to be a middle power in global politics.[169]
As the largest country in Southeast Asia and a founding member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), Indonesia considers ASEAN the cornerstone of its foreign policy.[170] Outside of its immediate region, Indonesia has actively supported Palestine[171] while refraining from formal diplomatic relations with Israel. However, the two countries maintain discreet ties.[172] Since the start of the 21st century, Indonesia has developed close relations with China, primarily relating to investments in infrastructure and trade,[173] while at the same time maintaining a strategic partnership with the United States, focusing on economic cooperation, security, and counterterrorism efforts.[174]
The Indonesian National Armed Forces (TNI) consists of the Army (TNI-AD), Navy (TNI-AL) (including the Marine Corps), and Air Force (TNI-AU), with active personnel numbering approximately 300,400 in the Army, 65,000 in the Navy, and 30,100 in the Air Force.[180] Established during the Indonesian National Revolution, the TNI initially engaged in guerrilla warfare alongside informal militias.[181] Its territorial structure focuses on maintaining domestic stability and deterring foreign threats.[182] Though political reforms in 1998 removed TNI's formal legislative role, it continues to wield political influence, albeit reduced from its peak during the New Order.[183] Defence spending in 2023 was 0.7% of GDP,[184] with controversies surrounding military-owned commercial ventures.[185]
Since independence, Indonesia has struggled to maintain unity against separatist movements and insurgencies, notably in Aceh and Papua.[186][187] While the former ended peacefully in 2005,[84] the latter has continued amid the implementation of regional autonomy[188] and well-documented human rights abuses by the TNI, including extrajudicial killings, forced disappearances and restrictions on freedom of expression, as reported by Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, and the UNHRC.[189] Indonesia's historical military engagements include conflicts with the Netherlands over Dutch New Guinea, opposition to the British-backed creation of Malaysia (Konfrontasi), the anti-communist mass killings, and the invasion of East Timor, which was Indonesia's largest military operation.[190][191]
Law enforcement in Indonesia is primarily handled by the Indonesian National Police (POLRI), supported by other agencies under the President, ministries, or state-owned companies. These agencies perform specific policing duties and are supervised and trained by the POLRI, which serves as the country's national civilian police force responsible for maintaining law and order.[192]
Indonesia has a documented history of racial discrimination and conflicts, particularly against Chinese Indonesians and Papuans,[193][194] which have at times escalated into violence, notably the anti-Chinese riots in 1998 and the ongoing Papua conflict since 1962. Other minorities, such as the LGBTQ, also face challenges, where a rapid surge of anti-LGBTQ rhetoric has been observed since the mid-2010s[195] after relative obscurity on the topic in the decades prior.[196] Discrimination against religious minorities is also common.[83][197]
Issues regarding free speech and the right to assembly are prevalent despite constitutional protections.[198][11] Laws such as the Electronic Information and Transactions (Informasi dan Transaksi Elektronik, ITE) Law are often used to criminalise dissent, with critics and activists facing charges for expressing opinions online.[199] Peaceful protests, particularly those addressing sensitive issues such as indigenous rights in Papua, politics or environmental concerns, are frequently met with a heavy-handed response from law enforcement.[200] The government occasionally imposes restrictions on assembly permits, particularly for those critical of authorities or advocating rights.[201]
Indonesia operates a mixed economy where the private sector and the government play significant roles.[204] As the only G20 member state in Southeast Asia,[205] it has the region's largest economy and is classified as a newly industrialised country. In 2025, its nominal GDP was US$1.430trillion, ranking 17th globally, while its GDP at purchasing power parity (PPP) was US$5.009trillion, ranking 7th, with per capita values of US$17,612 (PPP) and US$5,027 (nominal).[6] In 2021, services dominate the economy in terms of employment (49.2%), followed by agriculture (28.9%) and industry (21.7%), while in terms of share of GDP in 2022, both services and industry dominate (roughly 41% each), followed by manufacturing (18.3%) and agriculture (12.4%).[206]
The economic structure has shifted significantly over time, transitioning from agriculture in the 1950s and 1960s to gradual industrialisation and urbanisation from the late 1960s to the 1980s.[207] Falling oil prices in the 1980s prompted diversification into manufactured exports, resulting in substantial economic growth (the GDP rose at an average rate of 7.1%) and poverty reduction from 40% to 11%.[208] However, the economy took a severe hit during the Asian economic crisis in the late 1990s, when the GDP fell by 13%, inflation reached 78% and GDP grew by only 0.8% in 1999.[209]
Entering the 2000s, the country instituted a host of reforms, including prudent banking regulations, better monetary and fiscal policies, and flexible exchange rates.[210][211] These measures resulted in steady recovery, with growth rates consistently between 4% and 6% since 2004.[212] Along with strong domestic consumption, they also helped Indonesia weather the 2008 financial crisis.[210] The COVID-19 pandemic in the early 2020s caused a recession, but the economy rebounded within a year.[213]
Indonesia's abundant natural resources, including nickel, coal, and petroleum, dominate its export portfolio.[214] It imports refined and crude petroleum and vehicle parts, with major trade partners including China, the United States, Japan, South Korea, India, and ASEAN neighbours.[214] The country is also a major agricultural producer, leading in palm oil, rubber, coffee, rice, and tobacco, supported by ample rainfall, sunshine and fertile soil.[215]
A range of structural challenges in the economy remain. Inequality in wealth and opportunity is pronounced, particularly between the western and eastern regions.[216][217] Joblessness and low labor productivity persist,[218] while a majority of the workforce is still employed in the informal sector.[219] Infrastructure deficiencies, especially outside major cities, hinder equitable development.[220] The business climate is often undermined by, among other things, regulatory uncertainty and weak law enforcement, which deters investment.[221] Moreover, heavy reliance on commodity exports leaves the economy vulnerable to global price fluctuations and environmental damage, notably deforestation.[222][125]
Borobudur in Central Java, the world's largest Buddhist temple, is the single most visited tourist attraction in Indonesia.
Tourism plays a significant role in Indonesia's economy, contributing US$14billion to GDP and drawing 11.6 million international visitors in 2023.[224] Australia, Singapore, Malaysia, China, and India are among the top five sources of visitors to Indonesia.[225]
The tourism industry thrives on Indonesia's natural and cultural wealth. The country boasts a well-preserved natural ecosystem, with rainforests covering 57% of its land area (225 million acres).[226] Popular natural destinations include the rainforests of Sumatra and Kalimantan, particularly the Orangutan wildlife reserves.[227] Indonesia also has one of the world's longest coastlines, stretching 54,716 kilometres (33,999mi).[3] Cultural tourism features prominently, with attractions like the ancient Borobudur and Prambanan temples,[228] the Toraja highlands,[229] and the cultural festivals of Bali.[230]
Government spending on research and development is relatively low at 0.28% of GDP in 2020.[234] Despite being ranked 55th among 133 countries on the 2025 Global Innovation Index, the country performs above expectations for its upper middle-income status.[235][236] Historical innovations include the pinisi boats of the Bugis and Makassar people,[237] while the most recent ones include the Sosrobahu road construction technique developed by Tjokorda Raka Sukawati, and the Fast Fourier Transform-based signal processing technique used in 4G Long-Term Evolution (LTE), co-developed by Khoirul Anwar.[238] Indonesia also produces passenger trains and freight wagons through its state-owned Indonesian Railway Industry (Industri Kereta Api, INKA), which exports trains abroad.[239]
Indonesia has a long history of manufacturing both commuter and military aircraft and is the only country in Southeast Asia with an indigenous aircraft industry.[240][241][242] Its state-owned aerospace company, Indonesian Aerospace (PT. Dirgantara Indonesia, PTDI), has supplied components to Boeing and Airbus[243] and co-developed the CN-235 with Spain's CASA.[244] Former President B. J. Habibie, an aerospace engineer before getting into politics, played a key role in advancing the country's aerospace research.[245] Recently, Indonesia has been collaborating with South Korea on the 4.5-generation fighter jet KAI KF-21 Boramae.[246]
Indonesia's space program, formerly managed by the National Institute of Aeronautics and Space (Lembaga Penerbangan dan Antariksa Nasional, LAPAN), launched its first satellite (Palapa) in 1976 with assistance from the United States,[247] making Indonesia the first developing country with a satellite system. Since 2003, LAPAN has developed and launched micro-satellites under the LAPAN-TUBSAT program to conduct Earth-observation and technology-development experiments.[248] These efforts were followed by the domestically developed LAPAN-A series (A1, A2, A3), which expanded national capabilities in remote sensing and maritime monitoring.[249] LAPAN has also carried out suborbital rocket tests under its RX program,[250] at the Pameungpeuk launch site in Garut Regency, West Java.
Indonesia's transport system reflects its archipelagic geography and population distribution, which is heavily concentrated on Java.[251] As of 2022, the predominant road network spanned 548,097 kilometres (340,572 miles),[252] including Transjakarta, which operates the world's longest bus rapid transit system.[253] Common urban transport includes rickshaws like bajaj and becak and shared taxis such as angkot and minibuses.[254][255]
Indonesia is the first country in Southeast Asia and Southern Hemisphere to operate a high-speed rail.
Railways are primarily located in Java and parts of Sumatra and Sulawesi,[256] serving freight and passenger transport, including commuter and inter-city rail services like those in Greater Jakarta and Yogyakarta. In the late 2010s, rapid transit systems were introduced in Jakarta and South Sumatra,[257] and in collaboration with China, Indonesia inaugurated its first high-speed rail (Whoosh) in 2023, connecting Jakarta and Bandung. It was the first such system in Southeast Asia and the Southern Hemisphere.[257]
Indonesia is a major energy producer and consumer, producing 5,500 terawatt-hours (18.8quadrillionBritish thermal units) and consuming 3,081 terawatt-hours (10.514quadrillion British thermal units) worth of energy in 2023.[262] The country's total installed power generation capacity in 2022 is approximately 83.8 gigawatts (GW),[263] primarily from coal (61%).[263] Other significant sources include natural gas, oil, and renewables such as geothermal, hydropower, and solar.[264] The state-owned State Electricity Company (Perusahaan Listrik Negara, PLN) holds a monopoly on electric power distribution in the country.[265]
Indonesia's energy mix is still dominated by non-renewable sources, with coal being the majority, followed by natural gas and oil.[266] Renewables, including geothermal (5%), hydropower (7%), and solar (1%), make up a smaller but growing share.[267] The potential for renewable energy is immense, particularly geothermal, where the country ranks as one of the world's largest producers.[264] The country is one of the world's largest producers and exporters of coal[268][214] and a significant exporter of liquefied natural gas (LNG).[269]
The government plans to transition towards greener energy sources[270] and achieve net-zero carbon emissions by 2050.[266] In the latest energy plan in early 2025, the government aims for a 71-gigawatt expansion in power capacity by 2034, with a focus on renewables.[270] However, the country has insufficient infrastructure for renewable energy, faces difficulties in providing electricity access to remote areas,[271] and continues to rely heavily on coal.[272]
A map of districts (kecamatan) coloured by population density as measured by person per square kilometres
According to the 2020 census, Indonesia had a population of 270.2million,[5] making it the world's fourth most populous country. The population grew at a rate of 1.25% between 2010 and 2020.[5] Java, the world's most populated island, is home to 56% of Indonesia's population.[5] The overall population density stands at 141 peopleper square kilometre (370 people/sqmi),[5] but Java's density is significantly higher, reaching 1,171 peopleper square kilometre (3,030 people/sqmi).[273] Indonesia's first post-colonial census in 1961 recorded a population of 97 million,[274] and projections estimate it will grow to 335 million by 2050.[275] The country maintains a relatively young demographic, with a median age of 31.5 years as of 2024.[3]
Indonesia's population distribution is highly uneven, reflecting its diverse geography and varying levels of development.[276] It ranges from the bustling megacity of Jakarta to remote and uncontacted tribes in Papua.[277] As of 2024, approximately 59% of Indonesians live in urban areas,[278] with Jakarta as the country's primate city and the second-most populous urban area globally, housing more than 30million people.[279] Additionally, about 8 million Indonesians reside overseas, with large communities in Malaysia, the Netherlands, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Taiwan, Hong Kong, the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia.[280]
Indonesia is home to around 600 distinct native ethnic groups,[281] predominantly descended from Austronesian peoples speaking Proto-Austronesian languages, likely from modern-day Taiwan. The Melanesians, who inhabit eastern Indonesia, represent another significant ethnic grouping.[26][282][283][284] The Javanese, making up 40% of the population,[285] are the largest ethnic group and the politically dominant one,[286] primarily residing in central and eastern Java, with sizeable numbers in other provinces. Other major groups include the Sundanese, Malay, Batak, Madurese, Betawi, Minangkabau, and Bugis.[285][g] A sense of Indonesian nationhood exists alongside strong regional identities.[287]
The official language, Indonesian, is a standardized variety of Malay based on its prestige dialect originating around the Riau-Johor region, which became the archipelago's lingua franca over the course of centuries.[288][h] It was first promoted by nationalists in the 1920s and gained official status in 1945, following independence, under the name Bahasa Indonesia, and has since been widely adopted due to its use in education, media, business, and governance.[291] While nearly all Indonesians speak Bahasa, most also speak one of over 700 local languages, often as their first language.[292] These are predominantly from the Austronesian family, with over 270 Papuan languages in eastern Indonesia.[292]Javanese is the most widely spoken local language[3] and holds co-official status in Yogyakarta.[293]
The Dutch and other European-descended populations like the Indos, though significant during colonial times, always represented a small fraction of the population, numbering only around 200,000 in 1930.[294] The Dutch language never gained substantial traction due to the Dutch colonial focus on commerce rather than cultural integration.[295][296] Dutch fluency exists today in small numbers among some older generations and legal professionals,[297] as specific legal codes remain available only in that language.[298]
A map of districts (kecamatan) coloured by plurality/majority religious affiliation and what percentage of citizens it represents
Indonesia officially recognises six religions: Islam, Protestantism, Roman Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism,[299][300] while acknowledging religious freedom in the constitution.[301][11] As of 2023, 87.1% of the population (244 million Indonesians) are Muslims, making Indonesia the world's most populous Muslim-majority country,[302][2] with Sunnis constituting 99% of the Muslim population.[303][i] Christians, comprising 10% of the population,[2] form majorities in several eastern provinces,[305] while Hindus and Buddhists are primarily Balinese and Chinese Indonesians, respectively.[306][307]
Before the arrival of major world religions, Indonesia's natives practised animism and dynamism, worshipping ancestral spirits and believing in the supernatural (hyang) inhabiting natural elements, such as large trees, mountains and forests.[308] Such beliefs are common to the Austronesian peoples.[308] These indigenous traditions, such as Sundanese Sunda Wiwitan, Javanese Kejawèn and Dayak's Kaharingan, have profoundly influenced modern religious practices, resulting in a less orthodox and syncretic form of faith like Javanese abangan, Balinese Hinduism and Dayak Christianity.[309]
A Hindu prayer ceremony at Besakih Temple in Bali, the only province where Hinduism is the predominant religion
Hinduism reached the archipelago in the 1st century CE,[310] followed by Buddhism in the 5th century.[311] Through empires such as Majapahit, Srivijaya, and Sailendra, both religions played a major role in shaping Indonesia's religious history and left enduring cultural influences that persist even though neither is a majority faith.[312][313] Islam arrived as early as the 8th century[314][315] through Sunni and Sufi traders from the Indian subcontinent and southern Arabian peninsula, mixing with local cultural and religious traditions to form a distinct Islamic culture (santri).[37][316] By the 16th century, Islam had become the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra, resulting from the blend of trade, dawah, such as by the Wali Sanga and Chinese explorer Zheng He, and military campaigns by several sultanates.[317][318]
Catholicism and Protestantism were later introduced through missionary efforts during European colonisation, such as by JesuitFrancis Xavier,[319][320] though the spread of the former faced challenges under the VOC and Dutch colonial era policies. The latter's primary branches include Calvinism and Lutheranism,[321][322][323] though a multitude of other denominations exist in the country.[324] A small Jewish presence has existed in the archipelago, primarily descendants of Dutch and Iraqi Jews, though their numbers have dwindled since independence in 1945. Only a few Jews remain today, mostly in major cities like Jakarta, Manado and Surabaya.[325] One of the remaining synagogues, Sha'ar Hashamayim, is located in Tondano, North Sulawesi, around 31km from Manado.[325][326]
Religion is central to the lives of the overwhelming majority of Indonesians, reflecting its integral role in the country's society, culture, and identity.[327][328] Interfaith relations are significantly shaped by political leadership and civil society, guided by the first principle of Pancasila, which emphasises belief in a supreme deity and religious tolerance.[329][330] While it promotes harmony,[331] religious intolerance continues to be a recurring issue.[83][197] Followers of indigenous religions, officially called aliran kepercayaan or cultural belief systems, have faced a lack of legal and governmental recognition that leads to discrimination as well as uncertainty regarding their exact numbers.[300]
Indonesia has one of the largest education systems in the world, with over 50 million students, 4 million teachers, and more than 250,000 schools spanning the archipelago.[332] Overseen by the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education, the Ministry of Higher Education, Science, and Technology and the Ministry of Religious Affairs for Islamic schools,[332] the system follows a 6-3-3-4 structure: six years of elementary school, three years each of junior and senior secondary school, and four years of tertiary education.[333] While the literacy rate is high (96%),[3] it is lower in rural and remote areas. Enrolment rates vary across educational levels, with near-universal enrolment in primary education (97.9%), but drop to 81.7% and 64.2% in lower and upper secondary education and around 42.6% for tertiary education.[334][335]
Government spending on education accounted for approximately 1.3% of GDP in 2023.[336] In 2022, there were 4,481 higher education institutions in the country, including universities, Islamic institutions, and open universities.[337] The University of Indonesia, Gadjah Mada University, and the Bandung Institute of Technology are the top three universities in the country, all of which rank within the world's top 300 universities.[338]
Issues regarding quality and equity are persistent, particularly urban-rural disparities, inadequate school infrastructure, and a lack of qualified teachers.[339] The system also lags behind international benchmarks, such as the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), where Indonesian students consistently rank near the bottom in reading, mathematics, and science.[340] The higher education sector has been struggling with underfunding, low quality, limited research output and a mismatch between graduates' skills and labour market needs.[341][342]
Indonesia has made significant progress in developing its healthcare system since 1945. Initially, healthcare services were limited, with a shortage of doctors, hospitals, and infrastructure.[343] In the late 1960s, the government began establishing community health centres (puskesmas) to provide basic services in rural areas.[343] With the help of the World Health Organization in the 1970s and 1980s, Indonesia implemented an immunisation program to combat diseases like polio and measles.[344] The system experienced a major transformation in 2014 with the launch of Jaminan Kesehatan Nasional (JKN), a universal health care managed by the Social Security Agency on Health (BPJS Kesehatan).[345] It is one of the world's largest single-payer systems, covering over 95% of the population (265 million people) by 2023.[346]
Government spending on healthcare accounted for 2.69% of GDP in 2022.[347] Primary healthcare is delivered through puskesmas, hospitals, and private clinics. While the healthcare system lags behind those in ASEAN neighbours like Malaysia and Singapore,[348] significant public health outcomes have been achieved, such as an increase in life expectancy (from 54.9 years in 1973 to 71.1 years in 2023),[349] a decline in child mortality (from 15.5 deaths per 100 live births in 1972 to 2.1 deaths in 2022),[350] polio eradication in 2014,[344] and decreasing cases of malaria.[351]
Some chronic health issues persist, including child stunting that affects 21.6% of children under five according to a 2022 data.[352] Low air quality, particularly in major cities,[353] contributes to respiratory illnesses, while maternal and child health indicators remain areas of concern, with a maternal mortality rate the third highest in the region.[354] Additionally, Indonesia has one of the highest smoking rates globally (34.8% of adults), contributing to a high prevalence of non-communicable diseases like cardiovascular issues and lung cancer.[355]
Indonesian arts encompass traditional and contemporary forms shaped by influences from India, the Arab world, China, and Europe, driven by cultural exchange and trade.[359] Bali's artistic traditions, such as classical Kamasan and Wayang-style painting, are renowned, originating from visual narratives depicted on candi bas-reliefs from eastern Java.[360] Traditional architecture reflects ethnic diversity, with iconic and traditional houses (rumah adat) like Toraja's Tongkonan, Minangkabau's Rumah Gadang, Java's Pendopo, and Dayaklonghouses each showcasing unique customs and histories.[361]
Discoveries of megalithic sculptures led to the flourishing of tribal art among the Nias, Batak, Asmat, Dayak, and Toraja communities,[362][363][364] who utilised wood and stone as primary sculpting materials. From the 8th to the 15th centuries, the Javanese civilisation excelled in sophisticated stone sculpting and architecture, heavily influenced by the Hindu-Buddhist Dharmic culture. This period produced monumental works like the Borobudur and Prambanan temples.[365]
Indonesia's musical heritage predates historical records, with indigenous tribes using chants and traditional instruments like the angklung, gamelan, and sasando in rituals. Influences from other cultures have enriched Indonesian music, such as the gambus and qasida from the Middle East,[366]keroncong from Portugal,[367] and dangdut (one of the country's most popular music genres), which incorporates Hindi, Malay, and Middle Eastern elements.[368] Today, Indonesian music enjoys regional popularity in Malaysia, Singapore, and Brunei due to cultural similarities and language intelligibility.[369][370]
With over 3,000 traditional dances, Indonesian dance forms have their origins in rituals and religious worship,[371] such as the dance of witch doctors and Hudoq, as well as periods of Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic influence. While modern and urban dances shaped by Western and South Korean cultures are gaining popularity,[372][373] traditional dances like those of Java, Bali, and Dayak remain a living tradition.[374]
Indonesia's rich cultural history is also reflected in its diverse clothing styles. National costumes like batik and kebaya are widely recognised, with roots in Javanese, Sundanese, and Balinese cultures.[375][376] Traditional attire varies by region and province, such as the Batak ulos, Malay and Minangkabau songket, and Sasak ikat, and is commonly worn for ceremonies, weddings, and formal events.[376]
Traditional Indonesian theatre, such as wayang shadow puppetry, often depicts Hindu epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata.[377] Other forms of drama, such as Ludruk, Ketoprak, Sandiwara, Lenong,[378][379] and Balinese dance dramas, often incorporate humour, music, and audience interaction.[380] Unique traditions like the Minangkabau Randai combine music, dance, and martial arts (silat), telling semi-historical legends during traditional ceremonies and festivals.[381][382] Modern theatre, exemplified by Teater Koma, addresses social and political themes through satire.[383]
The first film produced in the archipelago was Loetoeng Kasaroeng (1926), a silent film by Dutch director L. Heuveldorp,[384] and the film industry expanded post-independence with Usmar Ismail's pioneering work in the 1950s.[385] During the latter part of the Sukarno era in the 1960s, films were used to promote nationalism and anti-Western sentiment,[384] while Suharto's New Order imposed censorship to maintain social order.[386] Film productions peaked in the 1980s with notable titles such as Pengabdi Setan (1980), Tjoet Nja' Dhien (1988) and Warkop comedy films, but the industry declined in the next decade.[387]
In the post-Suharto era, the industry saw a resurgence.[388] Independent filmmakers tackled previously censored themes like race, religion, and love,[386] producing notable films such as Kuldesak (1999) and Ada Apa dengan Cinta? (2002).[387] The 2025 animated film Jumbo set box office records, becoming the most-watched Indonesian film with more than 10 million tickets sold.[389] The Indonesian Film Festival (Festival Film Indonesia), which gives out the Citra Award, has celebrated cinematic achievements since 1955.[390]
The Pandavas and Krishna in an act of the Wayang Wong performance
Advertisement for Loetoeng Kasaroeng (1926), the first fiction film produced in the Dutch East Indies
Media freedom in Indonesia significantly improved after the fall of Suharto's rule, during which the Ministry of Information tightly controlled the media.[392] The early years of the post-Suharto era was marked by a proliferation of print and electronic media amid greater press freedom.[393][394] Internet development began in the early 1990s, with the first commercial Internet service provider, PT. Indo Internet, starting operations in 1994.[395] Rapid growth in internet penetration since 2000[396] led to a major digital shift in the 2010s, as traditional media declined and social media and mass adoption of smartphones transformed how Indonesians consumed media.[397] By 2023, the country had 210 million internet users, with mobile phones as the primary point of access.[398]
Indonesian cuisine has many regional cuisines, often based upon indigenous culture and foreign influences such as Chinese, African, European, Middle Eastern, and Indian precedents.[404] Rice is the leading staple food and is served with side dishes of meat and vegetables. Spices (notably chilli), coconut milk, fish, and chicken are fundamental ingredients.[405]
Some popular dishes, such as nasi goreng, gado-gado, mie ayam, bakso, sate, and soto, are ubiquitous and considered national dishes. The Ministry of Tourism, however, chose tumpeng in 2014 as an icon of Indonesian traditional cuisine representing the nation's diverse food cultures.[406] Other popular dishes include rendang, one of the many Minangkabau cuisines, along with dendeng and gulai. Another fermented food is oncom, which is similar in some ways to tempeh but uses a variety of bases (not only soy), created by different fungi, and is prevalent in West Java.[407]
Other popular sports include boxing and basketball, which were part of the first National Games (Pekan Olahraga Nasional, PON) in 1948.[413]Sepak takraw and karapan sapi (bull racing) in Madura are some examples of Indonesia's traditional sports.[376][414] In areas with a history of tribal warfare, mock fighting contests are held in, such as caci in Flores and pasola in Sumba.[376]Pencak silat is an Indonesian martial art[376] that became one of the sporting events in the 2018 Asian Games, with Indonesia appearing as one of the leading competitors.[415] In Southeast Asia, Indonesia topped the SEA Games medal table ten times since 1977,[416] most recently in 2011.[417]
↑During the Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation in 1965, Indonesia withdrew from the UN due to the latter's election to the United Nations Security Council, although it returned 18 months later. It marked the first time in UN history that a member state had attempted a withdrawal.[175]
↑Small but significant populations of ethnic Chinese, Indians, Europeans, and Arabs are concentrated mostly in urban areas.
↑Due to significant contact with other languages, it is rich in local and foreign influences, which include Javanese, Sundanese, Minangkabau, Makassarese, Sanskrit, Chinese, Arabic, Dutch, Portuguese, and English.[289][290]
↑The rest consists of the Shias and Ahmadis, who form 1% (1–3 million) and 0.2% (200,000–400,000) of the Muslim population.[300][304]
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↑Chapter II, Article 3, 3rd Clause of the 1945 Constitution.
↑Chapter VIIA, Article 22D of the 1945 Constitution.
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284,438,782 [4] (4th)
$5.009 trillion [6] (7th)
37.9 [7] 
