Deforestation in Indonesia

Last updated

Deforestation in Riau province, Sumatra, to make way for an oil palm plantation (2007). Riau palm oil 2007.jpg
Deforestation in Riau province, Sumatra, to make way for an oil palm plantation (2007).

Deforestation in Indonesia involves the long-term loss of forests and foliage across much of the country; it has had massive environmental and social impacts. Indonesia is home to some of the most biologically diverse forests in the world and ranks third in number of species behind Brazil and the Democratic Republic of Congo. [1]

Contents

As late as 1900, Indonesia was still a densely forested country: forests represented 84 percent of the total land area. Deforestation intensified in the 1970s [1] and has accelerated further since then. The estimated forest cover of 170 million hectares around 1900 decreased to less than 100 million hectares by the end of the 20th century. [2] In 2008, it was estimated that tropical rainforests in Indonesia would be logged out in a decade. [3] Of the total logging in Indonesia, up to 80% is reported to be performed illegally. [4]

Large areas of forest in Indonesia have been cleared by large multinational pulp companies, such as Asia Pulp and Paper, [5] and replaced by plantations. Forests are often burned by farmers [6] and plantation owners. Another major source of deforestation is the logging industry, driven by demand from China and Japan. [7] Agricultural development and transmigration programs moved large populations into rainforest areas, further increasing deforestation rates. The widespread deforestation (and other environmental destruction) in Indonesia is often described by academics as an ecocide. [8] [9] [10] [11] [12]

Logging and the burning of forests to clear land for cultivation has made Indonesia the world's third largest emitter of greenhouse gases, behind China and the United States. [13] Forest fires often destroy high capacity carbon sinks, including old-growth rainforest and peatlands. In May 2011, Indonesia declared a moratorium on new logging contracts to help combat this. [14] This appeared to be ineffective in the short-term, as the rate of deforestation continued to increase. By 2012 Indonesia had surpassed the rate of deforestation in Brazil, [15] and become the fastest forest clearing nation in the world. [16]

History

Deforestation for a tobacco plantation in North Sumatra (ca.1900). COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Boskap en aanleg afwateringskanaal langs een plantweg op een tabaksplantage TMnr 60038071.jpg
Deforestation for a tobacco plantation in North Sumatra (ca.1900).

The Indonesian archipelago of about 17,000 islands is home to some of the most biodiverse forests in the world. In 1900 the total forest represented 84% of the total land area. [1] By 1950 plantations and smallholder plantings of tree crops still only covered a small area. The forest cover by that time is estimated to 145 million ha (hectares) of primary forest and another 14 million ha (hectares) of secondary and tidal forest. [2]

In the early 1970s Indonesia used this valuable resource to its economic benefit with the development of the country's wood processing industries. From the late 1980s to 2000, production capacity has increased nearly 700% in the pulp and paper industries, making Indonesia the world's ninth largest pulp producer and eleventh largest paper producer. [1]

The rate of deforestation continues to increase. The 2009 State Environment Report launched by President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono revealed that the number of fire hotspots rose to 32,416 in 2009 from only 19,192 in 2008. The Environment Ministry blamed the increase on weak law enforcement and a lack of supervision from local authorities, with land clearance as the primary cause of the fires. [17]

Between 1990 and 2000 20% of the forest area in Indonesia had been lost (24 million ha) and by 2010, only 52% of the total land area was forested (94 million ha). [18] Even despite a moratorium on new logging contracts imposed in 2010, the rate of deforestation continued to increase to an estimated 840,000 hectares in 2012, surpassing deforestation in Brazil. [19] Deforestation in Indonesia peaked in 2016, and thereafter declined, falling by about 30% (comparing 2009–2016 with 2017–2019). [20] Studies attributed the decline to "a policy mix including bans on primary forest clearing and peat drainage, a review of land concessions, and a moratorium on new palm oil plantations and mines" as well as to oil palm sustainability certification programs for forests on existing plantations. [20] Community forest titles were also issued for 2.4 million hectares across Indonesia, but a 2021 study did not find evidence that these programs reduced deforestation. [20]

Drivers of deforestation

About 50 nickel mining companies operate in southeast Sulawesi. In order to mine nickel, large areas of trees are cut down to create open pits. Sulawesi, Indonesia (PIA26007).jpg
About 50 nickel mining companies operate in southeast Sulawesi. In order to mine nickel, large areas of trees are cut down to create open pits.

Over the years 20012016, the largest single driver of deforestation in Indonesia was palm oil plantations, accounting for about 23% of deforestation nationwide. The second largest driver of deforestation was conversion of forests to grassland/shrubland, accounting for about 20% of deforestation nationwide. Clearances for small-scale agriculture and small-scale mixed plantations accounted for a combined 22% of deforestation nationwide. Logging roads and small-scale clearings, followed by regrowth of secondary forest, accounted for about 10% of deforestation nationwide. All other causes (such as mining and fish ponds) collectively accounted for about 5% of deforestation nationwide. [21]

In Indonesia, at least 3.3 million hectares of forest were turned into palm oil plantation. However, annual primary forest loss declined from 930,000 hectares in 2016 to 230,000 hectares in 2022. According to the new rules established by the government, landowners that grow oil palm plantation on production forest land will pay fines, while those who grow them on protected forest land will give them to government for being converted to forests again. 200,000 hectares of plantation will be converted to forest. Legal action will be taken against companies who grow the plantations illegally. [22]

In 2024, nickel mining and processing was one of the main causes of deforestation in Indonesia. [23] [24]

Effects

Rapid and increasing deforestation harms Indonesia's broad biodiversity and drives Indonesia's greenhouse gas emissions, which are among the world's highest. [21] The conversion and burning of peat soils causes severe air pollution, presenting major public health harms. [21]

Affected regions

The deforestation of a peat swamp forest for palm oil production in Indonesia. Riau deforestation 2006.jpg
The deforestation of a peat swamp forest for palm oil production in Indonesia.

Indonesia's lowland tropical forests, the richest in timber resources and biodiversity, are most at risk. By 2000 they have been almost entirely cleared in Sulawesi, and predicted to disappear within few years in Sumatra and Kalimantan. [2]

In Sumatra tens of thousands of square kilometres of forest have been destroyed often under central government concessions given to palm oil companies to remove the forest. [25] In Kalimantan, from 1991 to 2014, large areas of the forest were burned because of uncontrollable fire causing atmospheric pollution across South-East Asia. [26]

Illegal land clearing

NASA's Terra satellite picture of thick smoke hung over the island of Borneo on 5 October 2006. The fires occur annually in the dry season (August-October), caused mainly by land-clearing and other agricultural fires, but fires escape control and burn into forests and peat-swamp areas. Borneo fires October 2006.jpg
NASA's Terra satellite picture of thick smoke hung over the island of Borneo on 5 October 2006. The fires occur annually in the dry season (August–October), caused mainly by land-clearing and other agricultural fires, but fires escape control and burn into forests and peat-swamp areas.

A 2007 United Nations Environment Program report estimated that between 73% and 88% of timber logged in Indonesia is the result of illegal logging. Subsequent estimates were that between 40% and 55% of logged in Indonesia is the result of illegal logging. [27] A 2021 study estimated that 81% of forest conversion for palm oil in Indonesia was illegal, and that Indonesia's Supreme Audit Agency determined that less than 20% of the nation's palm oil operations complied with national laws and regulations. [28]

Malaysia is the key transit country for illegal wood products from Indonesia. [29]

Private corporations, motivated by economic profits from local and regional market demands for timber, are culpable for deforestation. These agro-industrial companies often do not comply with the basic legal regulations by inappropriately employing cost effective yet environmentally inefficient deforestation methods such as forest fires to clear the land for agricultural purposes. The 1999 Forestry Law states that it is essential for companies to be endorsed by authorities in respective regions with an IPK permit, a timber harvesting permit, for legal approval of their deforestation activities. [30] Many of these corporations could circumvent this red tape, maximise revenue profits by employing illegal logging activities as lax law enforcement and porous law regulations in large developing countries like Indonesia undermine forestry conservation efforts. [31]

In the social landscape, small-scale subsistence farmers in rural areas, who received minimal education, employ a basic method of slash-and-burn to support their agricultural activities. This rudimentary agricultural technique involves the felling of forest trees before a dry season and, subsequently, the burning of these trees in the following dry season to provide fertilisers to support their crop activities. This agricultural practice is repetitively employed on the same plot of land until it is denuded of its nutrients and could no longer suffice to support agricultural yields. Thereafter, these farmers will move on to occupy another plot of land and continually practice their slash-and-burn technique. [32] This contributing social factor to deforestation reinforces the challenges faced by forestry sustainability in developing countries such as Indonesia.

On the political front, the Indonesian governmental role in curbing deforestation has largely been criticised. Corruption amongst local Indonesian officials fuels cynicism with regard to the governmental clampdown on illegal logging activities. In 2008, the acquittal of a proprietor for a timber firm, Adelin Lis, alleged for illegal logging further galvanised public opinion and drew criticisms at the Indonesian political institution. [33]

The Indonesian government grapples with the management of deforestation with sustainable urban development as rural-urban migration necessitates the expansion of cities. [34] The lack of accountability to deforestation with pertinence to transmigration projects undertaken by the Indonesian government illustrates minimal supporting evidence to testify to considerations for forestry sustainability in their development projects. This further augments scepticism in the Indonesian government's credibility in efficiently and responsibly managing their urban development projects and forestry conservation efforts. [35]

Conservation efforts

Efforts to curb global climate change have included measures designed to monitor the progression of deforestation in Indonesia and incentivise national and local governments to halt it. The general term for these sorts of programs is Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD). New systems to monitor deforestation are being applied to Indonesia. One such system, the Center for Global Development's Forest Monitoring for Action platform currently displays monthly-updated data on deforestation throughout Indonesia. [36]

On 26 May 2010 Indonesia signed a letter of intent with Norway, to place a two-year moratorium on new logging concessions, part of a deal in which Indonesia will receive up to $US1 billion if it adheres to its commitment. The accord was expected to put curbs on Indonesia's palm oil industry and delay or slow plans for the creation of a huge agricultural estate in Papua province. [37] Funds will initially be devoted to finalising Indonesia's climate and forest strategy, building and institutionalising capacity to monitor, report and verify reduced emissions, and putting in place enabling policies and institutional reforms. [38] Norway is going to help Indonesia to set up a system to help reduce corruption so that the deal can be enforced. [39] [40] The two-year logging moratorium was declared on 20 May 2011. [14] The moratorium was extended by another two years in 2013. [41]

In 2014, Indonesia was one of about 40 countries who endorsed the New York Declaration on Forests, a voluntary pledge to halve deforestation by 2020 and end it by 2030. The agreement was not legally binding, however, and some key countries, such as Brazil, China, and Russia, did not sign onto it. [42] [43] [44] As a result, the effort failed, and deforestation increased from 2014 to 2020, both globally and in Indonesia. [42] [43] In November 2021, Indonesia was one of 141 countries (collectively making up around 85% of the world's primary tropical forests and 90% of global tree cover) agreed at the COP26 climate summit in Glasgow to the Glasgow Leaders' Declaration on Forests and Land Use, a pledge to end and reverse deforestation by 2030. [43] [45] [46] The agreement was accompanied by about $19.2 billion in associated funding commitments. [45] Like the earlier agreement, the Glasgow Leaders' Declaration was entered into outside the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change and is thus not legally binding. [45] Immediately after Indonesia entered the pledge, the county's government walked back the commitment, with environment minister Siti Nurbaya Bakar stating that "forcing Indonesia to zero deforestation in 2030 is clearly inappropriate and unfair". [47]

See also

General:

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deforestation</span> Conversion of forest to non-forest for human use

Deforestation or forest clearance is the removal and destruction of a forest or stand of trees from land that is then converted to non-forest use. Deforestation can involve conversion of forest land to farms, ranches, or urban use. About 31% of Earth's land surface is covered by forests at present. This is one-third less than the forest cover before the expansion of agriculture, with half of that loss occurring in the last century. Between 15 million to 18 million hectares of forest, an area the size of Bangladesh, are destroyed every year. On average 2,400 trees are cut down each minute. Estimates vary widely as to the extent of deforestation in the tropics. In 2019, nearly a third of the overall tree cover loss, or 3.8 million hectares, occurred within humid tropical primary forests. These are areas of mature rainforest that are especially important for biodiversity and carbon storage.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Palm oil</span> Edible vegetable oil from fruit of oil palms

Palm oil is an edible vegetable oil derived from the mesocarp of the fruit of oil palms. The oil is used in food manufacturing, in beauty products, and as biofuel. Palm oil accounted for about 36% of global oils produced from oil crops in 2014. Palm oils are easier to stabilize and maintain quality of flavor and consistency in ultra-processed foods, so they are frequently favored by food manufacturers. Globally, humans consumed an average of 7.7 kg (17 lb) of palm oil per person in 2015. Demand has also increased for other uses, such as cosmetics and biofuels, encouraging the growth of palm oil plantations in tropical countries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Illegal logging</span> Harvest, transportation, purchase, or sale of timber in violation of laws

Illegal logging is the harvest, transportation, purchase, or sale of timber in violation of laws. The harvesting procedure itself may be illegal, including using corrupt means to gain access to forests; extraction without permission, or from a protected area; the cutting down of protected species; or the extraction of timber in excess of agreed limits. Illegal logging is a driving force for a number of environmental issues such as deforestation, soil erosion and biodiversity loss which can drive larger-scale environmental crises such as climate change and other forms of environmental degradation.

Sinar Mas is one of the largest conglomerates in Indonesia. It was formed in 1938. It has numerous subsidiaries including Asia Pulp & Paper and palm oil producer PT SMART. The company also acquired Berau Coal Energy from Asia Resource Minerals PLC, a major mining group founded by Nathaniel Rothschild, in a takeover initiated by Fuganto Widjaja.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental issues in Indonesia</span>

Environmental issues in Indonesia are associated with the country's high population density and rapid industrialisation, and they are often given a lower priority due to high poverty levels, and an under-resourced governance.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Asia Pulp & Paper</span> Indonesian pulp and paper company

Asia Pulp & Paper (APP) is an Indonesian pulp and paper company based in Jakarta, Indonesia. One of the largest pulp and paper companies in the world, it was founded as Tjiwi Kimia by Eka Tjipta Widjaja in 1972. Asia Pulp & Paper is a subsidiary of Sinar Mas Group and was officially formed in 1994 when Sinar combined its paper and pulp operations from Tjiwi Kimia and PT Inda Kiat Pulp & Paper.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environment of Indonesia</span>

The environment of Indonesia consists of 17,508 islands scattered over both sides of the equator. Indonesia's size, tropical climate, and archipelagic geography, support the world's second highest level of biodiversity after Brazil.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deforestation in Nigeria</span>

The extensive and rapid clearing of forests (deforestation) within the borders of Nigeria has significant impacts on both local and global scales.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deforestation in Colombia</span>

Colombia loses 2,000 km2 of forest annually to deforestation, according to the United Nations in 2003. Some suggest that this figure is as high as 3,000 km2 due to illegal logging in the region. Deforestation results mainly from logging for timber, small-scale agricultural ranching, mining, development of energy resources such as hydro-electricity, infrastructure, cocaine production, and farming.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest</span>

The Amazon rainforest, spanning an area of 3,000,000 km2, is the world's largest rainforest. It encompasses the largest and most biodiverse tropical rainforest on the planet, representing over half of all rainforests. The Amazon region includes the territories of nine nations, with Brazil containing the majority (60%), followed by Peru (13%), Colombia (10%), and smaller portions in Venezuela, Ecuador, Bolivia, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deforestation in Malaysia</span> Climate emergency issue in Malaysia

Deforestation in Malaysia is a major environmental issue in the country. British colonial deforestation efforts began in 1880 and were rapidly driven by commercial rubber and palm oil cultivation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bukit Tigapuluh National Park</span> National park in Sumatra

Bukit Tigapuluh National Park - The Thirty Hills - is a 143,223-hectare National Park in eastern Sumatra, consisting primarily of tropical lowland forest, largely in Riau province, with a smaller part of 33,000 ha in Jambi province. It is famous as one of the last refuges of endangered species such as the Sumatran orangutan, Sumatran tiger, Sumatran elephant, and Asian tapir, as well as many endangered bird species. It forms part of the Tesso Nilo Complex biodiversity hotspot. The Park is inhabited by the indigenous peoples of the Orang Rimba and Talang Mamak tribes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deforestation by continent</span> Removal of forests worldwide

Rates and causes of deforestation vary from region to region around the world. In 2009, two-thirds of the world's forests were located in just 10 countries: Russia, Brazil, Canada, the United States, China, Australia, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Indonesia, India, and Peru.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Social and environmental impact of palm oil</span> Discussion of impact

Palm oil, produced from the oil palm, is a basic source of income for many farmers in South East Asia, Central and West Africa, and Central America. It is locally used as cooking oil, exported for use in much commercial food and personal care products and is converted into biofuel. It produces up to 10 times more oil per unit area than soybeans, rapeseed or sunflowers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deforestation in Borneo</span> Deforestation

Deforestation in Borneo has taken place on an industrial scale since the 1960s. Borneo, the third largest island in the world, divided between Indonesia, Malaysia and Brunei, was once covered by dense tropical and subtropical rainforests.

Royal Golden Eagle is a global integrated, resource-based industrial group, with businesses in paper, palm oil, viscose, construction and energy, property and asset management. Owned by Indonesian businessman Sukanto Tanoto, the group employs 80,000 people worldwide with assets exceeding US$35 billion.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deforestation in Papua New Guinea</span>

Deforestation in Papua New Guinea has been extensive and in recent decades from 2001 to 2020, Papua New Guinea (PNG) lost 1.57Mha of tree cover, equivalent to a 3.7% decrease in tree cover since 2000, and 1.15Gt of CO₂e emissions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Palm oil production in Indonesia</span>

Palm oil production is important to the economy of Indonesia as the country is the world's biggest producer and consumer of the commodity, providing about half of the world's supply. In 2016, Indonesia produced over 34.6 million metric tons of palm oil, and exported 25.1 million metric tons of it. Oil palm plantations stretch across at least 12 million hectares. There are several different types of plantations, including small, privately owned plantations, and larger, state-owned plantations. There are a variety of health, environmental, and societal impacts that result from the production of palm oil in Indonesia. A recent publication by the NGO Rainforest Action Network (RAN) indicates that the use of palm oil by some of the biggest chocolate and snacks' producers is increasing this problem.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deforestation in Myanmar</span>

Deforestation in Myanmar led to a reduction in forest cover from 70% of the country in 1948 to 48% by 2014. Myanmar possesses the largest expanse of tropical forest in mainland Southeast Asia, which contains high biodiversity. As of 2010, Myanmar's living forest biomass held 1,654 million metric tons of carbon and over 80 endemic species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Natural risk</span>

Natural risks or nature risks are risks recognized in risk management that are related to the loss of natural assets. They may impact businesses or economies by impacting directly on operations or by negatively affecting society in a way that then creates market risks. The loss of nature can also contribute to systemic geopolitical risk because nature's assets and services, such as clean air, plentiful fresh water, fertile soils, a stable climate, provide vital public goods on which human societies rely for their functioning. An example is tropical deforestation. It is a key source of nature risk for sectors that either have an impact or dependency on tropical forests.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 ABC Four Corners: Background information on Indonesia, deforestation and illegal logging Archived 16 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine , Retrieved 28 May 2010
  2. 1 2 3 Matthews, Emilly (ed.): The State of Forests Indonesia, Bogor 2002, Retrieved 28 May 2010
  3. China is black hole of Asia's deforestation, Asia News, 24 March 2008
  4. Riskanalys av glas, järn, betong och gips Archived 13 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine 29 March 2011. s.19–20 (in Swedish)
  5. "Indonesia without trees? - Record breaking logging of last rainforests". foei.org. Friends of the Earth International. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 8 March 2017.
  6. Slash and burn, Encyclopedia of Earth
  7. "Japan depletes Borneo's rainforests; China remains largest log importer". News.mongabay.com. Archived from the original on 29 May 2012. Retrieved 18 August 2013.
  8. "Forensic Architecture". forensic-architecture.org. Retrieved 5 July 2023.
  9. "Explainer: What is ecocide?". Eco-Business. 4 August 2022. Retrieved 5 July 2023.
  10. Aida, Melly; Tahar, Abdul Muthalib; Davey, Orima (2023), Perdana, Ryzal; Putrawan, Gede Eka; Saputra, Bayu; Septiawan, Trio Yuda (eds.), "Ecocide in the International Law: Integration Between Environmental Rights and International Crime and Its Implementation in Indonesia", Proceedings of the 3rd Universitas Lampung International Conference on Social Sciences (ULICoSS 2022), vol. 740, Paris: Atlantis Press SARL, pp. 572–584, doi: 10.2991/978-2-38476-046-6_57 , ISBN   978-2-38476-045-9
  11. Alberro, Heather; Daniele, Luigi (29 June 2021). "Ecocide: why establishing a new international crime would be a step towards interspecies justice". The Conversation. Retrieved 5 July 2023.
  12. Setiyono, Joko; Natalis, Aga (30 December 2021). "Ecocides as a Serious Human Rights Violation: A Study on the Case of River Pollution by the Palm Oil Industry in Indonesia". International Journal of Sustainable Development and Planning. 16 (8): 1465–1471. doi: 10.18280/ijsdp.160807 . ISSN   1743-7601. S2CID   245606762.
  13. Higgins, Andrew (19 November 2009). "The Washington Post, November 19, 2009". Washingtonpost.com. Retrieved 18 August 2013.
  14. 1 2 "Indonesia's forest moratorium: A stepping stone to better forest governance?", CIFOR Working Paper 76, 2011
  15. Bachelard, Michael: "World's worst illegal logging in Indonesia", in The Sydney Morning Herald , 30 June 2014
  16. "Deforestation in Indonesia Is Double the Government's Official Rate", in Scientific American, 30 June 2014
  17. Simamora, Adianto (11 June 2010). "More hotspots detected despite pledge to reduce forest fires". The Jakarta Post. Archived from the original on 12 June 2010. Retrieved 15 June 2010.
  18. Staff (30 November 2011) Global Forest Resources Assessment 2010 – Trends in Extent of Forest 1990–2010 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Media Centre, Accessed 5 March 2012
  19. John Vidal: "Rate of deforestation in Indonesia overtakes Brazil, says study" in The Guardian , 30 June 2014
  20. 1 2 3 Sebastian Kraus, Jacqueline Liu, Nicolas Koch, Sabine Fuss, No aggregate deforestation reductions from rollout of community land titles in Indonesia yet, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (October 2021), 118 (43), doi:10.1073/pnas.2100741118.
  21. 1 2 3 Kemen G. Austin, Amanda Schwantes, Yaofeng Gu & Prasad S. Kasibhatla, What causes deforestation in Indonesia?, Environmental Research Letters, Vol 14, No. 2 (2019).
  22. Bennett, Paige (2 November 2023). "200,000 Hectares of Oil Palm Plantations to Be Converted Into Forests, Indonesia's Government Says". Ecowatch. Retrieved 6 November 2023.
  23. "Indonesia's massive metals build-out is felling the forest for batteries". AP News. 15 July 2024.
  24. "EU faces green dilemma in Indonesian nickel". Deutsche Welle. 16 July 2024.
  25. Losing land to palm oil in Kalimantan, BBC News, 3 August 2007
  26. "Forest fires result from government failure in Indonesia". News.mongabay.com. Archived from the original on 13 July 2009. Retrieved 18 August 2013.
  27. Jake Schmidt, Illegal Logging in Indonesia: The Environmental Economic and Social Costs. BlueGreen Alliance, April 2010.
  28. Cassie Dummett, Arthur Blundell, Kerstin Canby, Michael Wolosin, and Eszter Bodnar, Report: Illicit Harvest, Complicit Goods: The State of Illegal Deforestation for Agriculture , Forest Policy, Trade, and Finance Initiative, Forest Trends Association, May 2021.
  29. Environmental Investigation Agency and Telepak (2004) Profiting from Plunder: How Malaysia Smuggles Endangered Wood.
  30. "Indonesia's Sinar Mas Accused of Illegal Land Clearing". The Jakarta Globe. 10 December 2009. Archived from the original on 4 February 2013. Retrieved 18 August 2013.
  31. "88 percent of logging illegal: ICW". The Jakarta Post. 22 June 2011. Archived from the original on 25 May 2013. Retrieved 18 August 2013.
  32. Tony Waters, The Persistence of Subsistence Agriculture, p. 3. Lexington Books (2007)
  33. "INECE Newsletter – 16th Edition". Inece.org. Archived from the original on 7 January 2008. Retrieved 18 August 2013.
  34. William D. Sunderlin and Ida Aju Pradnja Resosudarmo: "Rates and Causes of Deforestation in Indonesia: Towards a Resolution of the Ambiguities", in CIFOR Occasional Paper no.9, 1996
  35. Transparency International: "Tackling Political Corruption to Combat Illegal Logging" [ permanent dead link ], Project paper, 2011
  36. Center for Global Development: Forest Monitoring for Action, retrieved 24 October 2010
  37. Allard, Tom (28 May 2010). "Norway to pay for Indonesian logging moratorium". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 30 July 2020.
  38. The Norway Post: Deforestation agreement with Indonesia Archived 8 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine , retrieved 28 May 2010
  39. Belford, Aubrey (27 May 2010). "Indonesia Agrees to Curb Commercial Deforestation". The New York Times . Retrieved 30 May 2010.
  40. "Indonesia declares logging halt". Al Jazeera. 27 May 2010. Retrieved 30 May 2010.
  41. "Indonesia Extends Logging Ban to Protect Rainforest" Archived 3 September 2014 at the Wayback Machine , in The Jakarta Globa, 15 May 2013
  42. 1 2 "COP26: World leaders promise to end deforestation by 2030". BBC News. 2 November 2021.
  43. 1 2 3 Rhett A. Butler (5 November 2021). "What countries are leaders in reducing deforestation? Which are not?". Mongabay.
  44. "Endorsers of the New York Declaration on Forests". Forest Declaration. 25 August 2021.
  45. 1 2 3 Jake Spring; Simon Jessop (3 November 2021). "Over 100 global leaders pledge to end deforestation by 2030". Reuters.
  46. "Glasgow Leaders' Declaration on Forests and Land Use". 2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference. 12 November 2021. Archived from the original on 14 November 2021. Retrieved 15 November 2021.
  47. "Indonesia walks back zero-deforestation pledge at COP26". Agence France-Presse. 4 November 2021.