Deforestation in Madagascar

Last updated
Illegal slash-and-burn practice in the region west of Manantenina. Manantenina bushfire.jpg
Illegal slash-and-burn practice in the region west of Manantenina.

Deforestation in Madagascar is an ongoing environmental issue. Deforestation [1] creates agricultural or pastoral land but can also result in desertification, water resource degradation, biodiversity erosion and habitat loss, and soil loss.

Contents

It has been noticed that Madagascar has lost 80 or 90% of its "original" or "pre-human" forest cover, but this claim is difficult to prove and is not supported by evidence. [2] [3] What is certain is that the arrival of humans on Madagascar some 2000+ years ago began a process of fire, cultivation, logging and grazing that has reduced forest cover. Industrial forest exploitation during the Merina monarchy [4] and French colonialism [5] contributed to forest loss. Evidence from air photography and remote sensing suggest that by c. 2000, around 40% to 50% of the forest cover present in 1950 was lost. [3] [6] [7] Current hotspots for deforestation include dry forests in the southwest being converted for maize cultivation and rain forests in the northeast exploited for tropical hardwoods. [8]

Primary causes of forest loss include slash-and-burn for agricultural land (a practice known locally as tavy) and for pasture, selective logging for precious woods or construction material, the collection of fuel wood (including charcoal production) and, in certain sites, forest clearing for mining. [9] [10]

History of deforestation in Madagascar

Early history

Deforestation by life in Madagascar by human intervention first made an impact on its highland forests as early as AD 600 in the establishment of swidden fields by Indonesian settlers. [11] The creation of swidden fields is a subsistence method of agriculture that has been practiced by humans across the globe for over 12000 years by means of a slash-and-burn technique that clears an area in preparation for crop growth. [12] An increase in the rate of forest removal was seen around AD 1000 with the introduction of cattle from Africa, compelling Malagasy islanders to expand their grassland grazing areas. Historical records point to the importance that this impact has caused with the disappearance of most of Madagascar's highland forest by 1600 AD. [13] Attempts to conserve Madagascar's forests were introduced by rulers in the establishment of environmental regulations, the earliest being seen in 1881 when Queen Ranavalona II placed a ban on using slash-and-burn techniques in agriculture. [14] These efforts aimed to protect the future of the countries rainforests, however, it has been estimated that over 80 percent of Madagascar's original forests are gone with half of this loss occurring since the late 1950s. [14]

Recent history

Early estimates of deforestation in Madagascar were unreliable until using data taken over a 35-year period from a combination of aerial photography, taken in 1950, and more recently data from satellite imagery available since 1972 were used to clearly see the extent of rainforest cleared in the eastern areas of Madagascar. [15] By 1985, only 50 percent of the 7.6 million hectares that existed in 1950 remained equating to an average deforestation rate of over 111,000 hectares per year [15] and by 2005 the country had seen a total of 854,000 hectares of forest lost since 1990. [14] Since the first evidence of human occupation less than 2000 years ago the island of Madagascar's population in 2002 had grown to about 12 million people (McConnell, 2002). Agricultural fires, erosion and soil degradation continue to contribute to the degradation of the countries ecological stability impeding forest regrowth [13] and according to recent data taken over the 2001 – 2012 period the rate of forest loss in Madagascar's has continued to increase. [14]

Ecoregions and forest types in Madagascar Ecoregions and forest types in Madagascar.jpg
Ecoregions and forest types in Madagascar 

As shown in the diagram on the left, Madagascar can be divided into four climatic ecoregions with four forest types: moist forest in the East (green), dry forest in the West (orange), spiny forest in the South (red), and mangrove forests along the West coast (blue). Ecoregions were defined following climatic  [17] and vegetation criteria. [18] The dark grey areas represent the remaining natural forest cover for the year 2014. Forest types are defined on the basis of their belonging to one of the four ecoregions. [16]

Forest cover change on six decades from 1953 to 2014 Forest cover change on six decades from 1953 to 2014 in Madagascar.jpg
Forest cover change on six decades from 1953 to 2014 

The main figure in the diagram on the right shows the changes in forest cover from 1973 to 2014. Forest cover in 1953 is shown in the bottom-right inset. Two zooms in the western dry (left part) and eastern moist (right part) ecoregions present more detailed views of (from top to bottom): forest cover in 1953, forest cover change from 1973 to 2014, forest fragmentation in 2014 and distance to forest edge in 2014. Data on water bodies (blue) and water seasonality (light blue for seasonal water to dark blue for permanent water) have been extracted from Pekel et al. (2016). [19] [16]

Causes

Agriculture

The primary cause for deforestation in Madagascar is the slash-and-burn practice. Historically and culturally known as tavy, the process involves setting vegetation alight after being cut down, creating potential land for rice cultivation. [20] Coupled with the establishment of rural communities who undertake farming, [21] hectares of forest are lost to agriculture.

Population increase

Since the 1940s, the population in Madagascar has rapidly increased, putting pressure on the land available for housing and farming. Thousands of hectares of rainforests have been cut down in order to provide for the increased population.

Firewood

As 40% of Madagascar's rural population lives in poverty and has little to no access to electricity, they have to resort to using firewood for completing daily tasks. Consuming approximately 100 kg of firewood monthly, Madagascan households use this energy for cooking, home heating and lighting. [22]

Timber

Illegal export of rosewood from Marojejy National Park Illegal export of rosewood 002.jpg
Illegal export of rosewood from Marojejy National Park

The Masoala Peninsula, in Madagascar's east, consists of valuable hardwood timber. Mostly ebony and rosewood, rainforests are degraded in order to satisfy a high demand within the international market. [14] [10]

Illegal logging

Illegal logging in Madagascar has been a problem for decades and is perpetuated by extreme poverty and government corruption. Often taking the form of selective logging, the trade has been driven by high international demand for expensive, fine-grained lumber such as rosewood and ebony. [23] Historically, logging and exporting in Madagascar have been regulated by the Malagasy government, although the logging of rare hardwoods was explicitly banned from protected areas in 2000. Since then, government orders and memos have intermittently alternated between permitting and banning exports of precious woods. The most commonly cited reason for permitting exports is to salvage valuable wood from cyclone damage, although this reasoning has come under heavy scrutiny. This oscillating availability of Malagasy rosewood and other precious woods has created a market of rising and falling prices, allowing traders or "timber barons" to stockpile illegally sourced logs during periodic bans and then flood the market when the trade windows open and prices are high. [24]

Environmental impacts

Biodiversity

Lemurs in Madagascar's dry deciduous forests are threatened by deforestation for the creation of farmland and pasture. Slash and Burn Agriculture, Morondava, Madagascar.jpg
Lemurs in Madagascar's dry deciduous forests are threatened by deforestation for the creation of farmland and pasture.

Since its divergence from Africa over 88 million years ago, Madagascar has evolved into an incredibly biodiverse island. [25] Including more than 13000 plants and 700 vertebrates, [25] close to 90% of Madagascar's species are endemic and are found nowhere else in the world. [26] However, with deforestation depleting key habitats and food resources, over 8000 species are either classified as vulnerable or endangered and some, including 15 species of lemur, have actually gone extinct. [27] Coupled with its geographic isolation thus increasing vulnerability to destruction, [26] deforestation will continue to impact Madagascar's flora and fauna, increasing rates of extinction.

Lemurs are an endemic species of primates to the island of Madagascar. [28] They act as pollinators, seed dispersers, and prey in their ecosystems. [29] The majority of lemurs are classified as endangered due to human activities, including deforestation. [28] This deforestation has led to different forest types in Madagascar: primary or intact forests, secondary or intermediate forests, mosaic forests, and agricultural land. [28] The primary forests have not been deforested and are the most biodiverse. [30] These forests have the highest abundance of lemurs. [29] The secondary forests are somewhat degraded, but some lemur species are just as abundant in these areas. [29] Mosaic forests are fragmented and are heavily affected by deforestation. Some species of lemurs cannot survive in these forests, [28] while others can. [30] Survival in these mosaic forests depends on a variety of factors, such as diet. [29] Research suggests that omnivores and folivores can tolerate these varying habitats since their diets include a wide variety of food sources. [29] For example, microcebus, an omnivore, has been found living in these forests and takes advantage of the abundance of insects here. [30] However, lemurs that have specialized diets, such as frugivores, are more sensitive to habitat disturbance. [29] These lemurs are found more often in primary forests. [30]

Research in Masoala National Park, the largest protected forest in Madagascar, [29] showed that there was a positive correlation between mean tree height and lemur abundance. [30] This explains why the primary lowland forests, which had the tallest trees and most canopy cover, had the greatest number of lemurs. [30] Lepilemur scotterum, avahi mooreorum, [30] and eulemur albifrons were mostly found in the greatest densities in these areas. [29] Other species, like avahi laniger, allocebus, and microcebus, were found in equal densities in primary, secondary, and degraded forests. [29]

A study of the Antserananomby Forest in western Madagascar in the 1960s and 1970s showed it had the highest population densities for each lemur species living there. [31] A more recent study has shown that much of the forest has been cleared for agricultural use and population densities of lemurs have declined significantly. [31] Reduced forest size has been shown to have a direct negative effect on lemur diversity. [28]

Soil and water

Deforestation of the Highland Plateau has led to extensive siltation and unstable flows of western rivers. Madagascar highland plateau.jpg
Deforestation of the Highland Plateau has led to extensive siltation and unstable flows of western rivers.

Like many habitats that undergo deforestation, Madagascar experiences soil erosion, of which can adversely affect river systems and lakes. In the case of Lake Alaotra in Ambatondrazaka area, in the country's east, deforestation in the hills above has caused heavy erosion, leading to increased sedimentation in the lake. As result, Lake Alaotra has actually decreased in size by approximately 30% in last 40 years. Moreover, the water quality of the lake has suffered, thus reducing the productivity of neighbouring rice cultivations. [32] Soil can also become infertile after vegetation clearing. When plants die or shed their leaves, micro-organisms in soil decompose the leaf litter as they consume it, breaking it down to key nutrients valuable to future plant growth. Should this biomass be removed, there will be no nutrient recycling, reducing soil fertility and reducing plant growth. [26]

Atmosphere and climate

Deforestation in Madagascar, as well as other parts of the world, can have an influence on climate. When the forest is cleared, the understorey is left exposed to the sun to a greater extent than before. This increased sunlight reduces soil moisture and increases rates of evapotranspiration in plants, ultimately dehydrating them and stunting growth. [33] At a global level, deforestation is also known to have an effect on carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere through;

It is with the loss of crucial carbon sinks and continuation of slash-and-burn deforestation that carbon dioxide levels will continue to increase in the atmosphere, ultimately contributing to global warming. [33]

Economic impacts

Economic impacts of deforestation in Madagascar closely align with the degradation of its natural environment and resources. Examples exist within;

Agriculture

Deforested agricultural countryside in Madagascar Fianarantsoa-people.jpg
Deforested agricultural countryside in Madagascar

While a key cause of deforestation, [20] agriculture can also be one of its victims. Without vegetation to anchor soil, the chance of erosion increases, sending close to 400 tonnes/ha of sediment into waterways annually. [20] As a result, water quality decreases and coupled with a lack of nutrient cycling due to minimal biomass, plant productivity is reduced, including valuable rice crops. [35] [36]

Medicine

As a product of its biodiversity, Madagascar has a vast array of plant species, with 2,300 having medicinal properties that treat many illness, from common ailments to cancers. [37] Should deforestation continue, the pharmaceutical industry will lose a key resource, eventually suffering decreases in profit. [38]

Ecotourism

Madagascar possesses a vast array of species, 90% of which are only unique to the island. [36] With deforestation destroying habitats and causing increased extinctions, Madagascar will potentially lose a great tourism asset, eliminating incentive to invest in ecotourism operations (such as resorts, recreational facilities, and national parks), thus decreasing long-lasting employment opportunities for local communities. [37]

Reforestation efforts

Despite the deforestation trend, tree cover is increasing in some parts of the country, though largely of introduced (non-native) species such as Eucalyptus (various species), pine (Pinus kesiya, Pinus patula,) silver wattle (Acacia dealbata), silky oak (Grevillea banksii), and paperbark/niaouli ("Melaleuca quinquenervia"). Some of these trees are planted by foresters and farmers; others have become invasive of their own accord. [39] [40] [41] Reforestation by eucalypts, pines, and wattles has been demonstrated, for instance, in the central highlands. [42]

Reforestation efforts with native species, particularly in rainforest corridors, have had mixed success. Some reforestation efforts have been conducted by Rio Tinto, a mining organization. This effort includes the set-up of 2 tree nurseries near Fort Dauphin. The nurseries are called the Rio Tinto QMM's nurseries. The nurseries plant some 600 tree species native to Madagascar. [43] [44] However, in 2003, Rio Tinto also announced plans to mine ilmenite (used to make toothpaste and paint) in southern Madagascar. These plans included the creation of a new port, roads, and other facilities. Mostly migrant workers would be employed, despite high levels of unemployment in the region. This unemployment and poverty drives charcoal production, which is a major factor in deforestation in that region. [45]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deforestation</span> Conversion of forest to non-forest for human use

Deforestation or forest clearance is the removal and destruction of a forest or stand of trees from land that is then converted to non-forest use. Deforestation can involve conversion of forest land to farms, ranches, or urban use. About 31% of Earth's land surface is covered by forests at present. This is one-third less than the forest cover before the expansion of agriculture, with half of that loss occurring in the last century. Between 15 million to 18 million hectares of forest, an area the size of Bangladesh, are destroyed every year. On average 2,400 trees are cut down each minute. Estimates vary widely as to the extent of deforestation in the tropics. In 2019, nearly a third of the overall tree cover loss, or 3.8 million hectares, occurred within humid tropical primary forests. These are areas of mature rainforest that are especially important for biodiversity and carbon storage.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rainforest</span> Type of forest with high rainfall

Rainforests are forests characterized by a closed and continuous tree canopy, moisture-dependent vegetation, the presence of epiphytes and lianas and the absence of wildfire. Rainforests can be generally classified as tropical rainforests or temperate rainforests, but other types have been described.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tropical rainforest</span> Forest in areas with heavy rainfall in the tropics

Tropical rainforests are dense and warm rainforests that occur in tropical rainforest climate where there is no dry season – all months have an average precipitation of at least 60 mm. True rainforests are typically found between 10 degrees north and south of the equator ; they are a subset of the tropical forest biome that occurs roughly within the 28-degree latitudes. Tropical rainforests are a type of tropical moist broadleaf forest, that includes the more extensive seasonal tropical forests.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Clearcutting</span> Forestry/logging practice in which most or all trees in an area are uniformly cut down

Clearcutting, clearfelling or clearcut logging is a forestry/logging practice in which most or all trees in an area are uniformly cut down. Along with shelterwood and seed tree harvests, it is used by foresters to create certain types of forest ecosystems and to promote select species that require an abundance of sunlight or grow in large, even-age stands. Logging companies and forest-worker unions in some countries support the practice for scientific, safety and economic reasons, while detractors consider it a form of deforestation that destroys natural habitats and contributes to climate change. Environmentalists, traditional owners, local residents and others have regularly campaigned against clearcutting, including through the use of blockades and nonviolent direct action.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Habitat destruction</span> Process by which a natural habitat becomes incapable of supporting its native species

Habitat destruction occurs when a natural habitat is no longer able to support its native species. The organisms once living there have either moved to elsewhere or are dead, leading to a decrease in biodiversity and species numbers. Habitat destruction is in fact the leading cause of biodiversity loss and species extinction worldwide.

Environmental issues in Bolivia include deforestation caused by commercial agriculture, urbanization, and illegal logging, and biodiversity loss attributed to illegal wildlife trade, climate change, deforestation, and habitat destruction. Since 1990, Bolivia has experienced rapid urbanization raising concerns about air quality and water pollution.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deforestation in Thailand</span> Overview of the history and state of Thailands forests

Deforestation in Thailand refers to the conversion of its forested land to other uses. Deforestation numbers are inexact due to the scope of the issue. According to the Royal Forest Department (RFD) in 2019, Thai forests cover 31.6% of Thailand's landmass. The department claims that forest coverage grew by 330,000 rai in 2018, an area equivalent in size to the island of Phuket. A year earlier, an academic claimed that, since 2016, forested area has declined by 18,000 rai, a significant improvement over the period 2008–2013, when a forested million rai were lost each year. In 1975, the government set a goal of 40% forest coverage—25% natural forest and 15% commercial forest—within 20 years. To achieve that target in 2018, 27 million rai would have to be afforested.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wildlife of Madagascar</span> Animals of the island of Madagascar

The composition of Madagascar's wildlife reflects the fact that the island has been isolated for about 88 million years. The prehistoric breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana separated the Madagascar-Antarctica-India landmass from the Africa-South America landmass around 135 million years ago. Madagascar later split from India about 88 million years ago, allowing plants and animals on the island to evolve in relative isolation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deforestation in Brazil</span>

Brazil once had the highest deforestation rate in the world and in 2005 still had the largest area of forest removed annually. Since 1970, over 700,000 square kilometres (270,000 sq mi) of the Amazon rainforest have been destroyed. In 2001, the Amazon was approximately 5,400,000 square kilometres (2,100,000 sq mi), which is only 87% of the Amazon's original size. According to official data, about 729,000 km² have already been deforested in the Amazon biome, which corresponds to 17% of the total. 300,000 km² have been deforested in the last 20 years.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deforestation in Nigeria</span>

Deforestation in Nigeria refers to the extensive and rapid clearing of forests within the borders of Nigeria. This environmental issue has significant impacts on both local and global scales.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Silky sifaka</span> A large lemur from Madagascar

The silky sifaka is a large lemur characterized by long, silky, white fur. It has a very restricted range in northeastern Madagascar, where it is known locally as the simpona. It is one of the rarest mammals on Earth. The silky sifaka is one of nine sifaka species, and one of four former subspecies of diademed sifaka (P. diadema). Studies in 2004 and 2007 compared external proportions, genetics, and craniodental anatomy supporting full species status, which has generally been accepted.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marojejy National Park</span> National park in the Sava region of northeastern Madagascar

Marojejy National Park is a national park in the Sava region of northeastern Madagascar. It covers 55,500 ha (214 sq mi) and is centered on the Marojejy Massif, a mountain chain that rises to an elevation of 2,132 m (6,995 ft). Access to the area around the massif was restricted to research scientists when the site was set aside as a strict nature reserve in 1952. In 1998, it was opened to the public when it was converted into a national park. It became part of the World Heritage Site known as the Rainforests of the Atsinanana in 2007. "Unique in the world, a place of dense, jungly rainforests, sheer high cliffs, and plants and animals found nowhere else on earth", Marojejy National Park has received plaudits in the New York Times and Smithsonian Magazine for its natural beauty and rich biodiversity that encompasses critically endangered members of the silky sifaka. To that end, a global consortium of conservation organizations, including the Lemur Conservation Foundation, Duke Lemur Center and Madagascar National Parks, have sought to promote research and conservation programs in Marojejy National Park, neighboring Anjanaharibe-Sud Reserve and Antanetiambo Private Reserve, to protect the endemic flora and fauna that reside in northeastern Madagascar. In addition, these organizations have implemented a variety of community-based initiatives to mitigate human encroachment on the park, such as poaching and selective logging, by encouraging local communities to engage in afforestation and silvicultural initiatives to promote a sustainable alternative to mining, slash-and-burn agriculture, and wood collection.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deforestation in Costa Rica</span>

Deforestation is a major threat to biodiversity and ecosystems in Costa Rica. The country has a rich biodiversity with some 12,000 species of plants, 1,239 species of butterflies, 838 species of birds, 440 species of reptiles and amphibians, and 232 species of mammals, which have been under threat from the effects of deforestation. Agricultural development, cattle ranching, and logging have caused major deforestation as more land is cleared for these activities. Despite government efforts to mitigate deforestation, it continues to cause harm to the environment of Costa Rica by impacting flooding, soil erosion, desertification, and loss of biodiversity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deforestation by continent</span> Removal of forests worldwide

Rates and causes of deforestation vary from region to region around the world. In 2009, two-thirds of the world's forests were located in just 10 countries: Russia, Brazil, Canada, the United States, China, Australia, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Indonesia, India, and Peru.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Illegal logging in Madagascar</span>

Illegal logging has been a problem in Madagascar for decades and is perpetuated by extreme poverty and government corruption. Often taking the form of selective logging, the trade has been driven by high international demand for expensive, fine-grained lumber such as rosewood and ebony. Historically, logging and exporting in Madagascar have been regulated by the Malagasy government, although the logging of rare hardwoods was explicitly banned from protected areas in 2000. Since then, government orders and memos have intermittently alternated between permitting and banning exports of precious woods. The most commonly cited reason for permitting exports is to salvage valuable wood from cyclone damage, although this reasoning has come under heavy scrutiny. This oscillating availability of Malagasy rosewood and other precious woods has created a market of rising and falling prices, allowing traders or "timber barons" to stockpile illegally sourced logs during periodic bans and then flood the market when the trade windows open and prices are high. Over 350,000 trees were illegally felled in Madagascar between 2010 and 2015, according to TRAFFIC.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deforestation in Central America</span> Loss of forest biome in the Americas

Central American countries have experienced cycles of deforestation and reforestation since the decline of Maya civilization, influenced by many factors such as population growth, agriculture, narcotic distribution and illegal practices. From 2001 to 2010, 5,376 square kilometres (2,076 sq mi) of forest were lost in the region. In 2010 Belize had 63% of remaining forest cover, Costa Rica 46%, Panama 45%, Honduras 41%, Guatemala 37%, Nicaragua 29%, and El Salvador 21%. Most of the loss occurred in the moist forest biome, with 12,201 square kilometers. Woody vegetation loss was partially set off by a plus in the coniferous forest biome with 4,730 km2, and at 2,054 km2. Mangroves and deserts contributed only 1% to the loss in forest vegetation. The bulk of the deforestation was located at the Caribbean slopes of Nicaragua with a minus of 8,574 square kilometers of forest lost in the period from 2001 to 2010. The most significant regrowth of 3,050 km2 of forest was seen in the coniferous woody vegetation of Honduras.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deforestation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo</span>

Deforestation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) is an environmental conflict of international importance. Most of the deforestation takes place in the Congo Basin, which has the second largest rainforest in the world after the Amazon. Roughly half the remaining rainforest in the Congo Basin is in the DRC.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Flora of Madagascar</span> Plants endemic to Madagascar

The flora of Madagascar consists of more than 12,000 species of plants, as well as a poorly known number of fungi and algae. Around 83% of Madagascar's vascular plants are found only on the island. These endemics include five plant families, 85% of the over 900 orchid species, around 200 species of palms, and such emblematic species as the traveller's tree, six species of baobab and the Madagascar periwinkle. The high degree of endemism is due to Madagascar's long isolation following its separation from the African and Indian landmasses in the Mesozoic, 150–160 and 84–91 million years ago, respectively. However, few plant lineages remain from the ancient Gondwanan flora; most extant plant groups immigrated via across-ocean dispersal well after continental break-up.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Madagascar</span> Effects and responses to climate change in the African island country

Climate change is a significant threat to Madagascar's environment and people. Climate change has raised temperatures, made the dry season longer and has resulted in more intense tropical storms. The country's unique ecosystems, animal and plant life are being impacted.

<i>Paroedura manongavato</i> Species of lizard

Paroedura manongavato is a species of lizard in the family Gekkonidae. It was described as a distinct species in 2023, and while specimens have been known for years prior, they were formerly assigned to Paroedura bastardi. It is a microendemic species found only in two locations in Madagascar.

References

  1. ↑ "Saving the Wildlife of Madagascar", Time , September 25, 2008.
  2. ↑ McConnell, William; Kull, Christian (2014). "Protecting lemurs: Madagascar's forests". Science . 344 (6182): 358. Bibcode:2014Sci...344..358M. doi:10.1126/science.344.6182.358-a. PMID   24763569.
  3. 1 2 McConnell, William; Kull, Christian (2014). Ivan R. Scales (ed.). "Deforestation in Madagascar: debates over the island's forest cover and challenges of measuring forest change" (PDF). Conservation and Environmental Management in Madagascar. London: Routledge-Earthscan: 67–104.
  4. ↑ Campbell, Gwyn (2013). "Forest Depletion in Imperial Madagascar, c.1790–1861". Contest for Land in Madagascar: Environment, Ancestors and Development, Edited by S. Evers, G. Campbell & M. Lambek (Leiden: Brill).: 63–96. doi:10.1163/9789004256231_005. ISBN   978-90-04-25622-4.
  5. ↑ Jarosz, Lucy (1993). "Defining and explaining tropical deforestation: shifting cultivation and population growth in colonial Madagascar (1896-1940)". Economic Geography. 69 (4): 366–379. doi:10.2307/143595. JSTOR   143595. PMID   12318844.
  6. ↑ Allnutt, Thomas; et al. (2008). "A method for quantifying biodiversity loss and its application to a 50-year record of deforestation across Madagascar". Conservation Letters. 1 (4): 173–181. Bibcode:2008ConL....1..173A. doi: 10.1111/j.1755-263X.2008.00027.x .
  7. ↑ Deforestation causes species extinction in Madagascar
  8. ↑ Harper, Grady; Steininger, Marc; Tucker, Compton; Juhn, Daniel; Hawkins, Frank (2007). "Fifty years of deforestation and forest fragmentation in Madagascar". Environmental Conservation. 34 (4): 325–333. doi:10.1017/s0376892907004262. S2CID   86120326.
  9. ↑ Mittermeier, R.A.; Konstant, W.R.; Hawkins, F.; Louis, E.E.; Langrand, O.; Ratsimbazafy, J.; Rasoloarison, R.; Ganzhorn, J.U.; Rajaobelina, S.; Tattersall, I.; Meyers, D.M. (2006). "Chapter 4: Conservation of Lemurs". Lemurs of Madagascar. Illustrated by S.D. Nash (2nd ed.). Conservation International. pp. 52–84. ISBN   1-881173-88-7.
  10. 1 2 Zhu, Annah (2017). "Rosewood Occidentalism and Orientalism in Madagascar". Geoforum.
  11. ↑ Gade, D; Sussman, R (1996). "Deforestation and Its Effects in Highland Madagascar". Mountain Research and Development. 16 (2). International Mountain Society: 101–116. doi:10.2307/3674005. JSTOR   3674005.
  12. ↑ Stief, C (2017). "Slash and Burn Agriculture- An Overview of Slash and Burn". Geography.about.com.
  13. 1 2 Gade, D (1996). "Deforestation and Its Effects in Highland Madagascar". Mountain Research and Development. 16 (2). International Mountain Society: 101–116. doi:10.2307/3674005. JSTOR   3674005.
  14. 1 2 3 4 5 Butler, R. "Madagascar". doi:10.2307/1435954. JSTOR   1435954.
  15. 1 2 Green, M; Sussman, R (1990). "). Deforestation History of the Eastern Rain Forests of Madagascar from Satellite Images". Science. New Series. 248 (4952): 212–215. Bibcode:1990Sci...248..212G. doi:10.1126/science.248.4952.212. PMID   17740137. S2CID   8288722.
  16. 1 2 3 4 Vieilledent, Ghislain; Grinand, Clovis; Rakotomalala, Fety A.; Ranaivosoa, Rija; Rakotoarijaona, Jean-Roger; Allnutt, Thomas F.; Achard, Frédéric (2018). "Combining global tree cover loss data with historical national forest cover maps to look at six decades of deforestation and forest fragmentation in Madagascar". Biological Conservation. 222. Elsevier BV: 189–197. Bibcode:2018BCons.222..189V. doi: 10.1016/j.biocon.2018.04.008 . ISSN   0006-3207. CC-BY icon.svg Modified material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
  17. ↑ Cornet A. (1974) "Essai De Cartographie Bioclimatique à Madagascar", Tech. Rep, Orstom.
  18. ↑ Ministère de l’Environnement (1996) "IEFN: Inventaire Ecologique Forestier National", Tech. Rep., Ministère De l’Environnement De Madagascar, Direction Des Eaux Et Forêts, DFS Deutsch Forest Service GmbH, Entreprise d’études de développement rural “Mamokatra”, FTM.
  19. ↑ Pekel J.F., Cottam A., Gorelick N., Belward A.S. (2016) "High-resolution mapping of global surface water and its long-term changes", Nature, 540: 418–422.
  20. 1 2 3 Jorgen, K (2002). "Deforestation in the Madagascar Highlands". GeoJournal. 56 (3): 191–199. doi:10.1023/A:1025187422687. S2CID   150928630. ProQuest   223672089.
  21. ↑ Brooks, C.P.; Holmes, C; Kramer, K; Barnett, B; Keitt, T.H. (2009). "The Role of Demography and Markets in Determining Deforestation Rates Near Ranomafana National Park, Madagascar". PLOS ONE. 4 (6): e5783. Bibcode:2009PLoSO...4.5783B. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0005783 . PMC   2691994 . PMID   19536282.
  22. ↑ NASA. "Deforestation in Madagascar". Lcluc.umd.edu. Archived from the original on 2017-04-23. Retrieved 2017-05-08.
  23. ↑ Zhu, Annah (2020). "China's Rosewood Boom: A Cultural Fix to Capital Overaccumulation". Annals of the American Association of Geographers.
  24. ↑ Anonymous (2018). "Rosewood democracy in the political forests of Madagascar". Political Geography .
  25. 1 2 Scales, Ivan R. (2014). Conservation and Environmental Management in Madagascar (1st ed.). Hoboken: Taylor and Francis.
  26. 1 2 3 Smith, Thomas M.; Smith, Robert Leo (2015). Elements of Ecology (9h ed.). Harlow, England: Pearson. ISBN   9781292077406.
  27. ↑ Clark, Megan (2015). "Deforestation in Madagascar: Consequences of Population Growth and Unsustainable Agricultural Processes" (PDF). Global Majority e-Journal. 3 (1): 61–71.
  28. 1 2 3 4 5 Schüßler, Dominik; Radespiel, Ute; Ratsimbazafy, Jonah Henri; Mantilla-Contreras, Jasmin (2018-12-01). "Lemurs in a dying forest: Factors influencing lemur diversity and distribution in forest remnants of north-eastern Madagascar". Biological Conservation. 228: 17–26. Bibcode:2018BCons.228...17S. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2018.10.008. ISSN   0006-3207. S2CID   92420538.
  29. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Murphy, Asia J.; Farris, Zach J.; Karpanty, Sarah; Ratelolahy, Felix; Kelly, Marcella J. (2016-06-01). "Estimating Encounter Rates and Densities of Three Lemur Species in Northeastern Madagascar". International Journal of Primatology. 37 (3): 371–389. doi:10.1007/s10764-016-9906-0. ISSN   1573-8604. S2CID   7670062.
  30. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Sawyer, Rachel Mary; Fenosoa, Zo Samuel Ella; Andrianarimisa, Aristide; Donati, Giuseppe (2017-01-01). "The effect of habitat disturbance on the abundance of nocturnal lemur species on the Masoala Peninsula, northeastern Madagascar". Primates. 58 (1): 187–197. doi:10.1007/s10329-016-0552-0. ISSN   1610-7365. PMID   27394434. S2CID   25928477.
  31. 1 2 Kelley, Elizabeth A.; Sussman, Robert W.; Muldoon, Kathleen M. (January 2007). "The Status of Lemur Species at Antserananomby: An Update". Primate Conservation . 22 (1): 71–77. doi: 10.1896/052.022.0105 . ISSN   0898-6207.
  32. ↑ Bakoariniaina, Lao Nathalie; Kusky, Timothy; Raharimahefa, Tsilavo (2006). "Disappearing Lake Alaotra: Monitoring catastrophic erosion, waterway silting, and land degradation hazards in Madagascar using Landsat imagery". Journal of African Earth Sciences. 44 (2): 241–252. Bibcode:2006JAfES..44..241B. doi:10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.10.013.
  33. 1 2 3 "Soil Erosion and Degradation". World Wildlife Foundation. Retrieved 24 November 2021.
  34. ↑ Reece, Jane B.; Taylor, Martha R.; Simon, Eric J.; Dickey, Jean L. (2015). Campbell Biology Concepts & Connections (8th ed.). England: Pearson Education Limited.
  35. ↑ Bakoariniaina, L; Kusky, T; Raharimahefa, T (2006). "Monitoring catastrophic erosion, waterway silting, and land degradation hazards in Madagascar using Lansat imagery". Journal of African Earth Sciences. 44 (2): 241–252. Bibcode:2006JAfES..44..241B. doi:10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.10.013.
  36. 1 2 Smith, T.M.; Smith, R.L (2015). Elements of Ecology (9 ed.). Harlow, Essex: Pearson.
  37. 1 2 "Making conservation work in Madagascar". Wildmadagascar.org. 2017.
  38. ↑ "ecoDestinations-Madagascar". ecotourism.org. The International Ecotourism Society.
  39. ↑ Carriere, Stephanie; Randriambanona. "Biodiversité introduite et autochtone: antagonisme ou complémentarité? Le cas de l'eucalyptus à Madagascar" (PDF). Bois et Forêts des Tropiques. 292 (2): 5–21. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-10-24.
  40. ↑ Kull, Christian; Tassin, Jacques; Rangan, Haripriya (2007). "Multifunctional, scrubby, and invasive forests? Wattles in the highlands of Madagascar". Mountain Research and Development. 27 (3): 224–231. doi: 10.1659/mrd.0864 . S2CID   106404585.
  41. ↑ Tassin, Jacques (2009). "Evaluation préliminaire des risques d'invasion par les essences forestières à Madagascar". Bois et Forêts des Tropiques. 299 (1): 27–36. doi: 10.19182/bft2009.299.a20420 .
  42. ↑ Kull, Christian (2012). "Air photo evidence of historical land cover change in the highlands: wetlands and grasslands give way to crops and woodlots". Madagascar Conservation & Development. 7 (3): 144–152. doi: 10.4314/mcd.v7i3.7 .
  43. ↑ IUCN report on Rio Tinto mines in Madagascar
  44. ↑ Indian Ocean With Simon Reeve documentary
  45. ↑ "Deforestation of Tropical Rainforests - A Case Study of Madagascar" (PDF). Geocases. 2005. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 November 2013. Retrieved 30 October 2013.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.