Deforestation in Haiti is a severe environmental problem. Haitians burn wood charcoal for 60% of their domestic energy production. [1]
In 1923 over 60% of Haiti's land was forested. In 2006, less than 2% of the land was forested. [2]
This section's factual accuracy is disputed .(March 2018) |
The rapid deforestation of Haiti began during the colonial period, facilitated by slavery of captive Africans, and was intensified when coffee was introduced in 1730. Upland forests were cleared and fifty years later, a quarter of the colony's land was under coffee. The system of plantation monoculture and clean-cultivation between rows of coffee, indigo, tobacco, and sugarcane exhausted soil nutrients and led to rapid erosion. [3]
Following the Haitian Revolution, the government was forced to export timber throughout the 19th century to pay off a 90 million franc indemnity to France [3] due to French claims of lost property, including the formerly enslaved population. For more than a century, the original sum plus interest had to be paid in the form of installments on the timber. [4] Though no longer under colonial rule, land remained unequally distributed, and most people were granted access only to marginal slopes between 200 and 600m above the fertile plains and below the zones of coffee production. These hillside soils were particularly susceptible to erosion when cleared for farming. [3]
Most of the deforestation, however, occurred during the second half of the 20th century. In 1950, forest still covered about 50% of Haiti's territory. It had declined to a mere 8% by 1970, and was nearing 2% in the early 1980s. [5]
Deforestation sped up after Hurricane Hazel drowned trees throughout the island in 1954. [6] Beginning in about 1954, concessionaires stepped up their logging operations in response to Port-au-Prince's intensified demand for charcoal. Deforestation accelerated, which had already become a problem because of environmentally unsound agricultural practices, rapid population growth, and increased competition over land. [6] Techniques that could make forestry more productive for fuel like coppicing and pollarding were not used.
The most direct effect of deforestation is soil erosion. [6] An estimated 15,000 acres (61 km2) of topsoil are washed away each year, with erosion also damaging other productive infrastructure such as dams, irrigation systems, roads, and coastal marine ecosystems. [7] Soil erosion also lowers the productivity of the land, worsens droughts, and eventually leads to desertification, all of which increase the pressure on the remaining land and trees. [6]
This section needs to be updated.(September 2023) |
Dominican military officials have created a lucrative charcoal trade, and have hired Haitian labor to produce charcoal just over the border. Much of this charcoal is destined for Puerto Rico and the United States mainland, although a small amount crosses over the border into Haiti. Some estimates calculate the illegal movement of 115 tons of charcoal per week from the Dominican Republic to Haiti in 2014, but these estimates are based on incomplete surveys and the numbers are highly contested. Dominican officials estimate that at least 10 trucks per week are crossing the border loaded with charcoal. [8]
The uncertainty around how much charcoal is originating from the Dominican Republic will be settled by a nationwide charcoal production and consumption study financed by the World Bank, and due out in late 2018. [9] This study positioned charcoal truck and charcoal boat enumerators along with all border entry points, at three different week-long periods throughout the year, 24 hours a day. The counts will be extrapolated to the entire year.
There have been a number of recent national-level forest cover estimates conducted for Haiti, each employing different standards of definition for what constitutes a forest. One study found less than 1% of original primary forest in Haiti based an "old-growth forest", "primordial", or "virgin forest" definition. [1] Another study, applying the United Nation’s FAO standard forest definition, found approximately 30% forest cover. [10]
These differences in forest cover estimates for Haiti are emblematic of the different ways people conceptualize and classify what constitutes a forest. Classifications are driven in part by the different viewpoints and agendas of academics, conservationists, policy-makers, and practitioners. The large number of different forest definitions employed in estimates of forest cover—and their varying results—is a well-known global phenomenon and has been well-documented. [11]
The island of Hispaniola was first colonized by humans 6,000 years ago and the population size was likely more than one million when the European colonists first arrived in 1492. [7] Those original inhabitants used trees and caused extinctions of birds and mammals. [12] [13] Nonetheless, the greatest deforestation occurred after 1492. [1]
Before the quantitative analysis of aerial photos [14] and satellite imagery, [15] [10] [1] starting in the 1980s, the pattern and rate of deforestation in Haiti is essentially unknown except for anecdotal reports. However, those quantitative analyses published since 1980 have differed in their estimates of "forest cover", ranging from <1% to 32% of the total land area, with most reporting very low estimates, such as one or two percent. [1]
The most-recent study, published in the journal Forests in 2021, found "a 35% increase [in tree cover] from 2002 to 2010". [16]
The second-most recent study, published in 2020, found "considerably higher forest cover" than reported in earlier studies. [17]
An earlier study, published in 2018 found <1% forest cover using a sophisticated "time series" analysis of satellite imagery that was able to distinguish primary forest, also called old-growth forest. Authors of that 2018 study also determined why a previous satellite imagery analysis published in 2014 [10] found a much higher (32%) percentage of forest cover. Authors of that 2014 study had used the UN global standard definition of what constitutes a "forest" (10% canopy cover), and did not use a time-series analysis to detect primary forest. Primary forest is the most important forest for the preservation of biodiversity. [18] [19] Consequently, the loss of primary forest is the greatest threat to species survival. [20]
Based on the most complete study of forest cover and deforestation in Haiti, [1] primary forest in the country declined from 4.4% to 0.32% between 1988 and 2016. Those authors estimated that the first of the 50 largest mountains in Haiti lost all of its primary forest (i.e., became "bald") in 1986, and only eight of those 50 mountains had any remaining primary forest by 2016.
In a letter that followed this publication, [21] it was argued that the unusually-strict forest cover definition, which deviated not only from the United Nations standard, resulted in a low forest cover estimate that discounted other known forest types in Haiti, and would have "negative policy reverberations and implications globally". The academic authors of the 2018 study believed the critique from the authors of this letter (policy-makers and practitioners) amounted to "sugarcoating the truth" and that the "best and most-effective policies will follow from unbiased conclusions". [22]
Since 2015, the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO) has initiated the Action Against Desertification in Haiti. The program has implemented the following:
Source: [23]
Most of Haiti's governments have paid only lip service to the imperative of reforestation. [6] The main impetus to act came from abroad. [6] USAID's Agroforestry Outreach Program, Pwojè Pyebwa, was Haiti's major reforestation program in the 1980s. [6] Peasants planted more than 25 million trees under Projè Pyebwa in its first incarnation. [6]
Later efforts to save Haiti's trees focused on intensifying reforestation programs, reducing waste in charcoal production, introducing more wood-efficient stoves, and importing wood under USAID's Food for Peace program. [6] Because most Haitians depend upon wood and charcoal as their primary fuel source, energy alternatives are needed to save the forests. [2] A 15-year Environment Action Plan, authorized in 1999, proposed to stop deforestation by developing alternative fuel sources. [2] Political instability and lack of funding have limited the impact of this reform effort. [2]
Several agencies and companies that produce solar cookers as an alternative to using wood and charcoal have been working in Haiti to establish solutions to the poverty and fuel issues, though their effectiveness and the degree to which they are used are questionable. [13] [24]
Deforestation or forest clearance is the removal and destruction of a forest or stand of trees from land that is then converted to non-forest use. Deforestation can involve conversion of forest land to farms, ranches, or urban use. The most concentrated deforestation occurs in tropical rainforests. About 31% of Earth's land surface is covered by forests at present. This is one-third less than the forest cover before the expansion of agriculture, with half of that loss occurring in the last century. Between 15 million to 18 million hectares of forest, an area the size of Bangladesh, are destroyed every year. On average 2,400 trees are cut down each minute.
A forest is an ecosystem characterized by a dense community of trees. Hundreds of definitions of forest are used throughout the world, incorporating factors such as tree density, tree height, land use, legal standing, and ecological function. The United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) defines a forest as, "Land spanning more than 0.5 hectares with trees higher than 5 meters and a canopy cover of more than 10 percent, or trees able to reach these thresholds in situ. It does not include land that is predominantly under agricultural or urban use." Using this definition, Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 found that forests covered 4.06 billion hectares, or approximately 31 percent of the world's land area in 2020.
Reforestation is the natural or intentional restocking of existing forests and woodlands (forestation) that have been depleted, usually through deforestation but also after clearcutting. Two important purposes of reforestation programs are for harvesting of wood or for climate change mitigation purposes.
Forestation is a vital ecological process where forests are established and grown through afforestation and reforestation efforts. Afforestation involves planting trees on previously non-forested lands, while reforestation focuses on replanting trees in areas that were once deforested. This process plays an important role in restoring degraded forests, enhancing ecosystems, promoting carbon sequestration, and biodiversity conservation.
Land development is the alteration of landscape in any number of ways such as:
Afforestation is the establishment of a forest or stand of trees (forestation) in an area where there was no recent tree cover. In comparison, reforestation means re-establishing forest that have either been cut down or lost due to natural causes, such as fire, storm, etc. There are three types of afforestation: Natural regeneration, agroforestry and commercial plantations. The intended benefits of afforestation are numerous. In the context of climate change, afforestation can be helpful for climate change mitigation through the route of carbon sequestration. Afforestation can also improve the local climate through increased rainfall and by being a barrier against high winds. The additional trees can also prevent or reduce topsoil erosion, floods and landslides. Finally, additional trees can be a habitat for wildlife, and provide employment and wood products.
Environmental issues in Haiti include a historical deforestation problem, overpopulation, a lack of sanitation, natural disasters, and food insecurity. The major reasons for these environmental issues are corruption, human exploitation, and the embezzlement of taxpayers' funds for personal gains. In addition, there is not sufficient protection or management of the country's natural resources. Other environmental issues, such as decreases in precipitation and more severe natural disasters, will likely arise in Haiti as a result of climate change. Experts agree that Haiti needs to adopt new policies to address both the issues that already exist and to prepare for the effects of climate change.
Forest transition refers to a geographic theory describing a reversal or turnaround in land-use trends for a given territory from a period of net forest area loss to a period of net forest area gain. The term "landscape turnaround" has also been used to represent a more general recovery of natural areas that is independent of biome type.
Deforestation in Ethiopia is due to locals clearing forests for their personal needs, such as for fuel, hunting, agriculture, and sometimes religious reasons. The main causes of deforestation in Ethiopia are shifting agriculture, livestock production and fuel in drier areas. Deforestation is the process of removing the forest ecosystem by cutting the trees and changing the shape of the land to suit different uses.
There have been great challenges to the environment and biodiversity of Haiti. Deforestation in Haiti has left approximately 30% percent of forest cover at present.
Deforestation in Nigeria refers to the extensive and rapid clearing of forests within the borders of Nigeria. This environmental issue has significant impacts on both local and global scales.
Deforestation is a major threat to biodiversity and ecosystems in Costa Rica. The country has a rich biodiversity with some 12,000 species of plants, 1,239 species of butterflies, 838 species of birds, 440 species of reptiles and amphibians, and 232 species of mammals, which have been under threat from the effects of deforestation. Agricultural development, cattle ranching, and logging have caused major deforestation as more land is cleared for these activities. Despite government efforts to mitigate deforestation, it continues to cause harm to the environment of Costa Rica by impacting flooding, soil erosion, desertification, and loss of biodiversity.
Deforestation is one of the most serious environmental issues in Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka's current forest cover as of 2017 was 29.7%. In the 1920s, the island had a 49 percent forest cover but by 2005 this had fallen by approximately 26 percent. Between 1990 and 2000, Sri Lanka lost an average of 26,800 ha of forests per year. This amounts to an average annual deforestation rate of 1.14%. Between 2000 and 2005 the rate accelerated to 1.43% per annum. However, with a long history of policy and laws towards environmental protection, deforestation rates of primary cover have decreased 35% since the end of the 1990s thanks to a strong history of conservation measures. The problem of deforestation in Sri Lanka is not as significant in the southern mountainous regions as it is in northern and lowland southern Sri Lanka, largely due to the nature of environmental protection.
Rates and causes of deforestation vary from region to region around the world. In 2009, two-thirds of the world's forests were located in just 10 countries: Russia, Brazil, Canada, the United States, China, Australia, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Indonesia, India, and Peru.
Forest degradation is a process in which the biological wealth of a forest area is permanently diminished by some factor or by a combination of factors. "This does not involve a reduction of the forest area, but rather a quality decrease in its condition." The forest is still there, but with fewer trees, or less species of trees, plants or animals, or some of them affected by plagues. This degradation makes the forest less valuable and may lead to deforestation. Forest degradation is a type of the more general issue of land degradation. Deforestation and forest degradation continue to take place at alarming rates, which contributes significantly to the ongoing loss of biodiversity.
Deforestation in Madagascar is an ongoing environmental issue. Deforestation creates agricultural or pastoral land but can also result in desertification, water resource degradation, biodiversity erosion and habitat loss, and soil loss.
Central American countries have experienced cycles of deforestation and reforestation since the decline of Maya civilization, influenced by many factors such as population growth, agriculture, narcotic distribution and illegal practices. From 2001 to 2010, 5,376 square kilometres (2,076 sq mi) of forest were lost in the region. In 2010 Belize had 63% of remaining forest cover, Costa Rica 46%, Panama 45%, Honduras 41%, Guatemala 37%, Nicaragua 29%, and El Salvador 21%. Most of the loss occurred in the moist forest biome, with 12,201 square kilometers. Woody vegetation loss was partially set off by a plus in the coniferous forest biome with 4,730 km2, and at 2,054 km2. Mangroves and deserts contributed only 1% to the loss in forest vegetation. The bulk of the deforestation was located at the Caribbean slopes of Nicaragua with a minus of 8,574 square kilometers of forest lost in the period from 2001 to 2010. The most significant regrowth of 3,050 km2 of forest was seen in the coniferous woody vegetation of Honduras.
Deforestation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) is an environmental conflict of international importance. Most of the deforestation takes place in the Congo Basin, which has the second largest rainforest in the world after the Amazon. Roughly half the remaining rainforest in the Congo Basin is in the DRC.
Eden Reforestation Projects (Eden) is a nonprofit NGO that works in developing countries to rebuild natural landscapes destroyed by deforestation. Eden works directly with communities experiencing extreme poverty resulting from the deforestation and destruction of the land that sustains them. The organization employs thousands of local community members and provides them with the education and tools necessary to plant, grow, and protect to maturity, millions of trees each year. Eden currently plants approximately 15 million trees a month, and in 2020 reached over 423 million trees planted of which over 225 million are mangrove trees.
Deforestation is the purposeful clearing of forested land. Zimbabwe hosts some of the most important biodiversity hotspots in the world and is home to species of plants and animals. Forests currently cover around 45% of the country’s total land area, but deforestation is an increasingly pressing issue, resulting in forests disappearing quickly. The rate of deforestation in the country accelerated to 327,000 ha per year (1.9%) during the years 2000 and 2010 and is also currently the highest in Southern Africa. In fact, the rate of deforestation in Zimbabwe is one of the highest globally – directly affecting ecosystems, biodiversity, and livelihoods. In 2010, Zimbabwe had 1.06Mha of tree cover, extending over 2.7% of its land area. In 2021, it lost 9.05kha of tree cover, equivalent to 3.82Mt of CO₂ emissions.