Deforestation in Haiti is a complex and intertwined environmental and social problem. The most-recent national research on charcoal estimates that approximately 946,500 metric tons of charcoal are produced and consumed annually in Haiti, making it the second-largest agricultural value chain in the country and representing approximately 5% of GDP. [1]
 | This section's factual accuracy is disputed .(March 2018) |
The rapid deforestation of Haiti began during the colonial period, facilitated by slavery of captive Africans, and was intensified when coffee was introduced in 1730. Upland forests were cleared and fifty years later, a quarter of the colony's land was under coffee. The system of plantation monoculture and clean-cultivation between rows of coffee, indigo, tobacco, and sugarcane exhausted soil nutrients and led to rapid erosion. [2]
Following the Haitian Revolution, the government was forced to export timber throughout the 19th century to pay off a 90 million franc indemnity to France [2] due to French claims of lost property, including the formerly enslaved population. For more than a century, the original sum plus interest had to be paid in the form of installments on the timber. [3] Though no longer under colonial rule, land remained unequally distributed, and most people were granted access only to marginal slopes between 200 and 600m above the fertile plains and below the zones of coffee production. These hillside soils were particularly susceptible to erosion when cleared for farming. [2]
Most of the deforestation, however, occurred during the second half of the 20th century. In 1950, forest still covered about 50% of Haiti's territory. It had declined to a mere 8% by 1970, and was nearing 2% in the early 1980s. [4]
Deforestation sped up after Hurricane Hazel drowned trees throughout the island in 1954. [5] Beginning in about 1954, concessionaires stepped up their logging operations in response to Port-au-Prince's intensified demand for charcoal. Deforestation accelerated, which had already become a problem because of environmentally unsound agricultural practices, rapid population growth, and increased competition over land. [5] Techniques that could make forestry more productive for fuel like coppicing and pollarding were not used.
The most direct effect of deforestation is soil erosion. [5] An estimated 15,000 acres (61 km2) of topsoil are washed away each year, with erosion also damaging other productive infrastructure such as dams, irrigation systems, roads, and coastal marine ecosystems. [6] Soil erosion also lowers the productivity of the land, worsens droughts, and eventually leads to desertification, all of which increase the pressure on the remaining land and trees. [5]
 | This section needs to be updated.(September 2023) |
Dominican military officials have created a lucrative charcoal trade, and have hired Haitian labor to produce charcoal just over the border. Much of this charcoal is destined for Puerto Rico and the United States mainland, although a small amount crosses over the border into Haiti. Some estimates calculate the illegal movement of 115 tons of charcoal per week from the Dominican Republic to Haiti in 2014, but these estimates are based on incomplete surveys and the numbers are highly contested. Dominican officials estimate that at least 10 trucks per week are crossing the border loaded with charcoal. [7]
The uncertainty around how much charcoal is originating from the Dominican Republic will be settled by a nationwide charcoal production and consumption study financed by the World Bank, and due out in late 2018. [1] This study positioned charcoal truck and charcoal boat enumerators along with all border entry points, at three different week-long periods throughout the year, 24 hours a day. The counts will be extrapolated to the entire year.
There have been a number of recent national-level forest cover estimates conducted for Haiti, each employing different standards of definition for what constitutes a forest. One study found less than 1% of original primary forest in Haiti based an "old-growth forest", "primordial", or "virgin forest" definition. [8] Another study, applying the United Nation’s FAO standard forest definition, found approximately 30% forest cover. [9]
These differences in forest cover estimates for Haiti are emblematic of the different ways people conceptualize and classify what constitutes a forest. Classifications are driven in part by the different viewpoints and agendas of academics, conservationists, policy-makers, and practitioners. The large number of different forest definitions employed in estimates of forest cover—and their varying results—is a well-known global phenomenon and has been well-documented. [10]
The island of Hispaniola was first colonized by humans 6,000 years ago and the population size was likely more than one million when the European colonists first arrived in 1492. [6] Those original inhabitants used trees and caused extinctions of birds and mammals. [11] [12] Nonetheless, the greatest deforestation occurred after 1492. [8]
Before the quantitative analysis of aerial photos [13] and satellite imagery, [14] [9] [8] starting in the 1980s, the pattern and rate of deforestation in Haiti is essentially unknown except for anecdotal reports. However, those quantitative analyses published since 1980 have differed in their estimates of "forest cover", ranging from <1% to 32% of the total land area, with most reporting very low estimates, such as one or two percent. [8]
The most-recent study, published in the journal Forests in 2021, found "a 35% increase [in tree cover] from 2002 to 2010". [15]
The second-most recent study, published in 2020, found "considerably higher forest cover" than reported in earlier studies. [16]
An earlier study, published in 2018 found <1% forest cover using a sophisticated "time series" analysis of satellite imagery that was able to distinguish primary forest, also called old-growth forest. Authors of that 2018 study also determined why a previous satellite imagery analysis published in 2014 [9] found a much higher (32%) percentage of forest cover. Authors of that 2014 study had used the UN global standard definition of what constitutes a "forest" (10% canopy cover), and did not use a time-series analysis to detect primary forest. Primary forest is the most important forest for the preservation of biodiversity. [17] [18] Consequently, the loss of primary forest is the greatest threat to species survival. [19]
Based on one study of forest cover in Haiti, [8] primary forest in the country declined from 4.4% to 0.32% between 1988 and 2016. Those authors estimated that the first of the 50 largest mountains in Haiti lost all of its primary forest (i.e., became "bald") in 1986, and only eight of those 50 mountains had any remaining primary forest by 2016.
In a letter that followed this publication, [20] it was argued that the unusually-strict forest cover definition, which deviated not only from the United Nations standard, resulted in a low forest cover estimate that discounted other known forest types in Haiti, and would have "negative policy reverberations and implications globally". The academic authors of the 2018 study believed the critique from the authors of this letter (policy-makers and practitioners) amounted to "sugarcoating the truth" and that the "best and most-effective policies will follow from unbiased conclusions". [21]
Since 2015, the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO) has initiated the Action Against Desertification in Haiti. The program has implemented the following:
Source: [22]
Most of Haiti's governments have paid only lip service to the imperative of reforestation. [5] The main impetus to act came from abroad. [5] USAID's Agroforestry Outreach Program, Pwojè Pyebwa, was Haiti's major reforestation program in the 1980s. [5] Peasants planted more than 25 million trees under Projè Pyebwa in its first incarnation. [5]
Later efforts to save Haiti's trees focused on intensifying reforestation programs, reducing waste in charcoal production, introducing more wood-efficient stoves, and importing wood under USAID's Food for Peace program. [5] Because most Haitians depend upon wood and charcoal as their primary fuel source, energy alternatives are needed to save the forests. [23] A 15-year Environment Action Plan, authorized in 1999, proposed to stop deforestation by developing alternative fuel sources. [23] Political instability and lack of funding have limited the impact of this reform effort. [23]
Several agencies and companies that produce solar cookers as an alternative to using wood and charcoal have been working in Haiti to establish solutions to the poverty and fuel issues, though their effectiveness and the degree to which they are used are questionable. [12] [24]
Arable land is any land capable of being ploughed and used to grow crops. Alternatively, for the purposes of agricultural statistics, the term often has a more precise definition:
Arable land is the land under temporary agricultural crops, temporary meadows for mowing or pasture, land under market and kitchen gardens and land temporarily fallow. The abandoned land resulting from shifting cultivation is not included in this category. Data for 'Arable land' are not meant to indicate the amount of land that is potentially cultivable.
Deforestation or forest clearance is the removal and destruction of a forest or stand of trees from land that is then converted to non-forest use. Deforestation can involve conversion of forest land to farms, ranches, or urban use. About 31% of Earth's land surface is covered by forests at present. This is one-third less than the forest cover before the expansion of agriculture, with half of that loss occurring in the last century. Between 15 million to 18 million hectares of forest, an area the size of Bangladesh, are destroyed every year. On average 2,400 trees are cut down each minute. Estimates vary widely as to the extent of deforestation in the tropics. In 2019, nearly a third of the overall tree cover loss, or 3.8 million hectares, occurred within humid tropical primary forests. These are areas of mature rainforest that are especially important for biodiversity and carbon storage.
Desertification is a type of gradual land degradation of fertile land into arid desert due to a combination of natural processes and human activities. This spread of arid areas is caused by a variety of factors, such as overexploitation of soil as a result of human activity and the effects of climate change. Geographic areas most affected are located in Africa, Asia and parts of South America. Drylands occupy approximately 40–41% of Earth's land area and are home to more than 2 billion people. Effects of desertification include sand and dust storms, food insecurity, and poverty.
A forest is an ecosystem characterized by a dense community of trees. Hundreds of definitions of forest are used throughout the world, incorporating factors such as tree density, tree height, land use, legal standing, and ecological function. The United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) defines a forest as, "Land spanning more than 0.5 hectares with trees higher than 5 meters and a canopy cover of more than 10 percent, or trees able to reach these thresholds in situ. It does not include land that is predominantly under agricultural or urban use." Using this definition, Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 found that forests covered 4.06 billion hectares, or approximately 31 percent of the world's land area in 2020.
Reforestation is the practice of restoring previously existing forests and woodlands that have been destroyed or damaged. The prior forest destruction might have happened through deforestation, clearcutting or wildfires. Two important purposes of reforestation programs are for harvesting of wood or for climate change mitigation purposes. Reforestation can also help with ecosystem restoration. One method for reforestation is to establish tree plantations, also called plantation forests. They cover about 131 million ha worldwide, which is 3 percent of the global forest area and 45 percent of the total area of planted forests.
Land development is the alteration of landscape in any number of ways such as:
Environmental issues in Haiti include a historical deforestation problem, overpopulation, a lack of sanitation, natural disasters, and food insecurity. The major reasons for these environmental issues are corruption, human exploitation, and the embezzlement of taxpayers' funds for personal gains. In addition, there is not sufficient protection or management of the country's natural resources. Other environmental issues, such as decreases in precipitation and more severe natural disasters, will likely arise in Haiti as a result of climate change. Experts agree that Haiti needs to adopt new policies to address both the issues that already exist and to prepare for the effects of climate change.
Deforestation in Ethiopia is due to locals clearing forests for their personal needs, such as for fuel, hunting, agriculture, and sometimes religious reasons. The main causes of deforestation in Ethiopia are shifting agriculture, livestock production and fuel in drier areas. Deforestation is the process of removing the forest ecosystem by cutting the trees and changing the shape of the land to suit different uses.
There have been great challenges to the environment and biodiversity of Haiti. Deforestation in Haiti has left approximately 30% percent of forest cover at present.
Deforestation in Nigeria refers to the extensive and rapid clearing of forests within the borders of Nigeria. This environmental issue has significant impacts on both local and global scales.
Deforestation is a major threat to biodiversity and ecosystems in Costa Rica. The country has a rich biodiversity with some 12,000 species of plants, 1,239 species of butterflies, 838 species of birds, 440 species of reptiles and amphibians, and 232 species of mammals, which have been under threat from the effects of deforestation. Agricultural development, cattle ranching, and logging have caused major deforestation as more land is cleared for these activities. Despite government efforts to mitigate deforestation, it continues to cause harm to the environment of Costa Rica by impacting flooding, soil erosion, desertification, and loss of biodiversity.
Rates and causes of deforestation vary from region to region around the world. In 2009, two-thirds of the world's forests were located in just 10 countries: Russia, Brazil, Canada, the United States, China, Australia, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Indonesia, India, and Peru.
Forest degradation is a process in which the biological wealth of a forest area is permanently diminished by some factor or by a combination of factors. "This does not involve a reduction of the forest area, but rather a quality decrease in its condition." The forest is still there, but with fewer trees, or less species of trees, plants or animals, or some of them affected by plagues. This degradation makes the forest less valuable and may lead to deforestation. Forest degradation is a type of the more general issue of land degradation. Deforestation and forest degradation continue to take place at alarming rates, which contributes significantly to the ongoing loss of biodiversity.
Deforestation in Madagascar is an ongoing environmental issue. Deforestation creates agricultural or pastoral land but can also result in desertification, water resource degradation, biodiversity erosion and habitat loss, and soil loss.
Deforestation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) is an environmental conflict of international importance. Most of the deforestation takes place in the Congo Basin, which has the second largest rainforest in the world after the Amazon. Roughly half the remaining rainforest in the Congo Basin is in the DRC.
Forest restoration is defined as “actions to re-instate ecological processes, which accelerate recovery of forest structure, ecological functioning and biodiversity levels towards those typical of climax forest” i.e. the end-stage of natural forest succession. Climax forests are relatively stable ecosystems that have developed the maximum biomass, structural complexity and species diversity that are possible within the limits imposed by climate and soil and without continued disturbance from humans. Climax forest is therefore the target ecosystem, which defines the ultimate aim of forest restoration. Since climate is a major factor that determines climax forest composition, global climate change may result in changing restoration aims. Additionally, the potential impacts of climate change on restoration goals must be taken into account, as changes in temperature and precipitation patterns may alter the composition and distribution of climax forests.
Pwojè Pyebwa is a tree-planting project in Haiti. It was designed, implemented, and initially run by cultural anthropologists. Different from reforestation projects, Pwojè Pyebwa promoted agroforestry—the strategic mixing of crops, trees, and animals. The agroforestry project in Haiti project was funded by the United States Agency for International Development USAID, but implemented through the Pan American Development Organization (PADF) and CARE. It was originally called the Agroforestry Outreach Project (AOP). The original project spanned a decade (1981–1991), but policies from Pwojè Pyebwa continued to direct PADF tree-planting through a second decade (1992–2000).
Eden Reforestation Projects (Eden) is a nonprofit NGO that works in developing countries to rebuild natural landscapes destroyed by deforestation. Eden works directly with communities experiencing extreme poverty resulting from the deforestation and destruction of the land that sustains them. The organization employs thousands of local community members and provides them with the education and tools necessary to plant, grow, and protect to maturity, millions of trees each year. Eden currently plants approximately 15 million trees a month, and in 2020 reached over 423 million trees planted of which over 225 million are mangrove trees.
Forest cover is the amount of forest that covers a particular area of land. It may be measured as relative or absolute. Nearly a third of the world's land surface is covered with forest, with closed-canopy forest accounting for 4 - 5 billion hectares of land. Forests provide many ecosystem services that humans and animals cannot survive without, but anthropogenic actions and climate change are threatening global forest cover in potentially irreversible ways.
Sustainable Development Goal 15 is about "Life on land". One of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals established by the United Nations in 2015, the official wording is: "Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss". The Goal has 12 targets to be achieved by 2030. Progress towards targets will be measured by 14 indicators.
