Forestry

Last updated
A Timberjack wheeled harvester stacking cut timber in Finland TJ harvesteri.jpg
A Timberjack wheeled harvester stacking cut timber in Finland

Forestry is the science and craft of creating, managing, planting, using, conserving and repairing forests and woodlands for associated resources for human and environmental benefits. [1] Forestry is practiced in plantations and natural stands. [2] The science of forestry has elements that belong to the biological, physical, social, political and managerial sciences. [3] Forest management plays an essential role in the creation and modification of habitats and affects ecosystem services provisioning. [4]

Contents

Modern forestry generally embraces a broad range of concerns, in what is known as multiple-use management, including: the provision of timber, fuel wood, wildlife habitat, natural water quality management, recreation, landscape and community protection, employment, aesthetically appealing landscapes, biodiversity management, watershed management, erosion control, and preserving forests as "sinks" for atmospheric carbon dioxide.

Forest ecosystems have come to be seen as the most important component of the biosphere, [5] and forestry has emerged as a vital applied science, craft, and technology. A practitioner of forestry is known as a forester. Another common term is silviculturist. Silviculture is narrower than forestry, being concerned only with forest plants, but is often used synonymously with forestry.

All people depend upon forests and their biodiversity, some more than others. [6] Forestry is an important economic segment in various industrial countries, [7] as forests provide more than 86 million green jobs and support the livelihoods of many more people. [6] For example, in Germany, forests cover nearly a third of the land area, [8] wood is the most important renewable resource, and forestry supports more than a million jobs and about €181 billion of value to the German economy each year. [9]

Worldwide, an estimated 880 million people spend part of their time collecting fuelwood or producing charcoal, many of them women. [6] [ quantify ] Human populations tend to be low in areas of low-income countries with high forest cover and high forest biodiversity, but poverty rates in these areas tend to be high. [6] Some 252 million people living in forests and savannahs have incomes of less than US$1.25 per day. [6]

Science

Forestry as a science

Over the past centuries, forestry was regarded as a separate science. With the rise of ecology and environmental science, there has been a reordering in the applied sciences. In line with this view, forestry is a primary land-use science comparable with agriculture. [10] Under these headings, the fundamentals behind the management of natural forests comes by way of natural ecology. Forests or tree plantations, those whose primary purpose is the extraction of forest products, are planned and managed to utilize a mix of ecological and agroecological principles. [11] In many regions of the world there is considerable conflict between forest practices and other societal priorities such as water quality, watershed preservation, sustainable fishing, conservation, and species preservation. [12]

Silvology

Silvology (Latin: silva or sylva, "forests and woods"; Ancient Greek : -λογία, -logia , "science of" or "study of") is the biological science of studying forests and woodlands, incorporating the understanding of natural forest ecosystems, and the effects and development of silvicultural practices. The term complements silviculture, which deals with the art and practice of forest management. [13]

Silvology is seen as a single science for forestry and was first used by Professor Roelof A.A. Oldeman at Wageningen University. [14] It integrates the study of forests and forest ecology, dealing with single tree autecology and natural forest ecology.

Dendrology

This section is an excerpt from Dendrology.[ edit ]
Leaf shape is a common method used to identify trees. Leaf morphology.svg
Leaf shape is a common method used to identify trees.

Dendrology (Ancient Greek: δένδρον, dendron, "tree"; and Ancient Greek: -λογία, -logia , science of or study of) or xylology (Ancient Greek: ξύλον, ksulon, "wood") is the science and study of woody plants (trees, shrubs, and lianas), specifically, their taxonomic classifications. [15] There is no sharp boundary between plant taxonomy and dendrology; woody plants not only belong to many different plant families, but these families may be made up of both woody and non-woody members. Some families include only a few woody species. Dendrology, as a discipline of industrial forestry, tends to focus on identification of economically useful woody plants and their taxonomic interrelationships. As an academic course of study, dendrology will include all woody plants, native and non-native, that occur in a region. A related discipline is the study of sylvics, which focuses on the autecology of genera and species.

In the past, dendrology included the study of the natural history of woody species in specific regions, but this aspect is now considered part of ecology. The field also plays a role in conserving rare or endangered species. [15]

Genetic diversity in forestry

The provenance of forest reproductive material used to plant forests has a great influence on how the trees develop, hence why it is important to use forest reproductive material of good quality and of high genetic diversity. [16] More generally, all forest management practices, including in natural regeneration systems, may impact the genetic diversity of trees.

The term genetic diversity describes the differences in DNA sequence between individuals as distinct from variation caused by environmental influences. The unique genetic composition of an individual (its genotype) will determine its performance (its phenotype) at a particular site. [17]

Genetic diversity is needed to maintain the vitality of forests and to provide resilience to pests and diseases. Genetic diversity also ensures that forest trees can survive, adapt and evolve under changing environmental conditions. Furthermore, genetic diversity is the foundation of biological diversity at species and ecosystem levels. Forest genetic resources are therefore important to consider in forest management. [16]

Genetic diversity in forests is threatened by forest fires, pests and diseases, habitat fragmentation, poor silvicultural practices and inappropriate use of forest reproductive material.

About 98 million hectares of forest were affected by fire in 2015; this was mainly in the tropical domain, where fire burned about 4 percent of the total forest area in that year. More than two-thirds of the total forest area affected was in Africa and South America. Insects, diseases and severe weather events damaged about 40 million hectares of forests in 2015, mainly in the temperate and boreal domains. [18]

Furthermore, the marginal populations of many tree species are facing new threats due to the effects of climate change. [16]

Most countries in Europe have recommendations or guidelines for selecting species and provenances that can be used in a given site or zone. [17]

Forest management

This section is an excerpt from Forest management.[ edit ]

Forest management is a branch of forestry concerned with overall administrative, legal, economic, and social aspects, as well as scientific and technical aspects, such as silviculture, forest protection, and forest regulation. This includes management for timber, aesthetics, recreation, urban values, water, wildlife, inland and nearshore fisheries, wood products, plant genetic resources, and other forest resource values. [19] Management objectives can be for conservation, utilisation, or a mixture of the two. Techniques include timber extraction, planting and replanting of different species, building and maintenance of roads and pathways through forests, and preventing fire.

Many tools like remote sensing, GIS and photogrammetry [20] [21] modelling have been developed to improve forest inventory and management planning. [22] Scientific research plays a crucial role in helping forest management. For example, climate modeling, [23] [24] [25] biodiversity research, [26] [27] carbon sequestration research, [24] [23] [28] GIS applications, [26] [29] and long-term monitoring [25] [27] help assess and improve forest management, ensuring its effectiveness and success.

Urban forestry

This section is an excerpt from Urban forestry.[ edit ]
Tree pruning in Durham, North Carolina 2008-04-21 Tree trimming on Gregson St 1.jpg
Tree pruning in Durham, North Carolina
Professional Tree Climber (arborist: Zack Weiler) climbing a willow tree in Port Elgin, ON. Canada Professional tree climber.jpg
Professional Tree Climber (arborist: Zack Weiler) climbing a willow tree in Port Elgin, ON. Canada
James Kinder, an ISA Certified Municipal Arborist examining a Japanese Hemlock at Hoyt Arboretum ISA Certified Municipal Arborist, James Kinder.jpg
James Kinder, an ISA Certified Municipal Arborist examining a Japanese Hemlock at Hoyt Arboretum
Urban forestry is the care and management of single trees and tree populations in urban settings for the purpose of improving the urban environment. Urban forestry involves both planning and management, including the programming of care and maintenance operations of the urban forest. [30] Urban forestry advocates the role of trees as a critical part of the urban infrastructure. Urban foresters plant and maintain trees, support appropriate tree and forest preservation, conduct research and promote the many benefits trees provide. Urban forestry is practiced by municipal and commercial arborists, municipal and utility foresters, environmental policymakers, city planners, consultants, educators, researchers and community activists.

Forestry education

History of forestry education

The first dedicated forestry school was established by Georg Ludwig Hartig at Hungen in the Wetterau, Hesse, in 1787, though forestry had been taught earlier in central Europe, including at the University of Giessen, in Hesse-Darmstadt.

In Spain, the first forestry school was the Forest Engineering School of Madrid (Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros de Montes), founded in 1844.

The first in North America, the Biltmore Forest School was established near Asheville, North Carolina, by Carl A. Schenck on September 1, 1898, on the grounds of George W. Vanderbilt's Biltmore Estate. Another early school was the New York State College of Forestry, established at Cornell University just a few weeks later, in September 1898.

Early 19th century North American foresters went to Germany to study forestry. Some early German foresters also emigrated to North America.

In South America the first forestry school was established in Brazil, in Viçosa, Minas Gerais, in 1962, and moved the next year to become a faculty at the Federal University of Paraná, in Curitiba. [31]

Forestry education today

Prescribed burning is used by foresters to reduce fuel loads. Burn9582.JPG
Prescribed burning is used by foresters to reduce fuel loads.

Today, forestry education typically includes training in general biology, ecology, botany, genetics, soil science, climatology, hydrology, economics and forest management. Education in the basics of sociology and political science is often considered an advantage. Professional skills in conflict resolution and communication are also important in training programs. [32]

In India, forestry education is imparted in the agricultural universities and in Forest Research Institutes (deemed universities). Four year degree programmes are conducted in these universities at the undergraduate level. Masters and Doctorate degrees are also available in these universities.

In the United States, postsecondary forestry education leading to a Bachelor's degree or Master's degree is accredited by the Society of American Foresters. [33]

In Canada the Canadian Institute of Forestry awards silver rings to graduates from accredited university BSc programs, as well as college and technical programs. [34]

In many European countries, training in forestry is made in accordance with requirements of the Bologna Process and the European Higher Education Area.

The International Union of Forest Research Organizations is the only international organization that coordinates forest science efforts worldwide. [35]

Continuing education

In order to keep up with changing demands and environmental factors, forestry education does not stop at graduation. Increasingly, forestry professionals engage in regular training to maintain and improve on their management practices. An increasingly popular tool are marteloscopes; one hectare large, rectangular forest sites where all trees are numbered, mapped and recorded.

These sites can be used to do virtual thinnings and test one's wood quality and volume estimations as well as tree microhabitats. This system is mainly suitable to regions with small-scale multi-functional forest management systems

History

Society and culture

Literature

The first book edition of Sylva Sylva paper 1662.jpg
The first book edition of Sylva

Forestry literature is the books, journals and other publications about forestry.

The first major works about forestry in the English language included Roger Taverner's Booke of Survey (1565), John Manwood's A Brefe Collection of the Lawes of the Forrest (1592) and John Evelyn's Sylva (1662). [36]

Noted silvologists

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Forest</span> Dense collection of trees covering a relatively large area

A forest is an ecosystem characterized by a dense community of trees. Hundreds of definitions of forest are used throughout the world, incorporating factors such as tree density, tree height, land use, legal standing, and ecological function. The United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) defines a forest as, "Land spanning more than 0.5 hectares with trees higher than 5 meters and a canopy cover of more than 10 percent, or trees able to reach these thresholds in situ. It does not include land that is predominantly under agricultural or urban use." Using this definition, Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 found that forests covered 4.06 billion hectares, or approximately 31 percent of the world's land area in 2020.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Reforestation</span> Land regeneration method (replacement of trees)

Reforestation is the practice of restoring previously existing forests and woodlands that have been destroyed or damaged. The prior forest destruction might have happened through deforestation, clearcutting or wildfires. Two important purposes of reforestation programs are for harvesting of wood or for climate change mitigation purposes. Reforestation can also help with ecosystem restoration. One method for reforestation is to establish tree plantations, also called plantation forests. They cover about 131 million ha worldwide, which is 3% of the global forest area and 45% of the total area of planted forests.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Logging</span> Process of cutting, processing, and moving trees

Logging is the process of cutting, processing, and moving trees to a location for transport. It may include skidding, on-site processing, and loading of trees or logs onto trucks or skeleton cars. In forestry, the term logging is sometimes used narrowly to describe the logistics of moving wood from the stump to somewhere outside the forest, usually a sawmill or a lumber yard. In common usage, however, the term may cover a range of forestry or silviculture activities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dendrology</span> Science and study of woody plants

Dendrology or xylology is the science and study of woody plants, specifically, their taxonomic classifications. There is no sharp boundary between plant taxonomy and dendrology; woody plants not only belong to many different plant families, but these families may be made up of both woody and non-woody members. Some families include only a few woody species. Dendrology, as a discipline of industrial forestry, tends to focus on identification of economically useful woody plants and their taxonomic interrelationships. As an academic course of study, dendrology will include all woody plants, native and non-native, that occur in a region. A related discipline is the study of sylvics, which focuses on the autecology of genera and species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Illegal logging</span> Harvest, transportation, purchase, or sale of timber in violation of laws

Illegal logging is the harvest, transportation, purchase, or sale of timber in violation of laws. The harvesting procedure itself may be illegal, including using corrupt means to gain access to forests; extraction without permission, or from a protected area; the cutting down of protected species; or the extraction of timber in excess of agreed limits. Illegal logging is a driving force for a number of environmental issues such as deforestation, soil erosion and biodiversity loss which can drive larger-scale environmental crises such as climate change and other forms of environmental degradation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Old-growth forest</span> Forest that has developed over a long period of time without disturbance

An old-growth forest a forest that has developed over a long period of time without disturbance. Due to this, old-growth forests exhibit unique ecological features. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations defines primary forests as naturally regenerated forests of native tree species where there are no clearly visible indications of human activity and the ecological processes are not significantly disturbed. One-third of the world's forests are primary forests. Old-growth features include diverse tree-related structures that provide diverse wildlife habitats that increases the biodiversity of the forested ecosystem. Virgin or first-growth forests are old-growth forests that have never been logged. The concept of diverse tree structure includes multi-layered canopies and canopy gaps, greatly varying tree heights and diameters, and diverse tree species and classes and sizes of woody debris.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Clearcutting</span> Forestry/logging practice in which most or all trees in an area are uniformly cut down

Clearcutting, clearfelling or clearcut logging is a forestry/logging practice in which most or all trees in an area are uniformly cut down. Along with shelterwood and seed tree harvests, it is used by foresters to create certain types of forest ecosystems and to promote select species that require an abundance of sunlight or grow in large, even-age stands. Logging companies and forest-worker unions in some countries support the practice for scientific, safety and economic reasons, while detractors consider it a form of deforestation that destroys natural habitats and contributes to climate change. Environmentalists, traditional owners, local residents and others have regularly campaigned against clearcutting, including through the use of blockades and nonviolent direct action.

Articles on forestry topics include:.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Forest ecology</span> Study of interactions between the biota and environment in forests.

Forest ecology is the scientific study of the interrelated patterns, processes, flora, fauna and ecosystems in forests. The management of forests is known as forestry, silviculture, and forest management. A forest ecosystem is a natural woodland unit consisting of all plants, animals, and micro-organisms in that area functioning together with all of the non-living physical (abiotic) factors of the environment.

Ecoforestry has been defined as selection forestry or restoration forestry. The main idea of ecoforestry is to maintain or restore the forest to standards where the forest may still be harvested for products on a sustainable basis. Ecoforestry is forestry that emphasizes holistic practices which strive to protect and restore ecosystems rather than maximize economic productivity. Sustainability of the forest also comes with uncertainties. There are other factors that may affect the forest furthermore than that of the harvesting. There are internal conditions such as effects of soil compaction, tree damage, disease, fire, and blow down that also directly affect the ecosystem. These factors have to be taken into account when determining the sustainability of a forest. If these factors are added to the harvesting and production that comes out of the forest, then the forest will become less likely to survive, and will then become less sustainable.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Non-timber forest product</span> Commodities obtained from forests other than timber

Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) are useful foods, substances, materials and/or commodities obtained from forests other than timber. Harvest ranges from wild collection to farming. They typically include game animals, fur-bearers, nuts, seeds, berries, mushrooms, oils, sap, foliage, pollarding, medicinal plants, peat, mast, fuelwood, fish, insects, spices, and forage. Overlapping concepts include non-wood forest products (NWFPs), wild forest products, minor forest produce, special, minor, alternative and secondary forest products – for further distinctions see the definition section below

Forest management is a branch of forestry concerned with overall administrative, legal, economic, and social aspects, as well as scientific and technical aspects, such as silviculture, forest protection, and forest regulation. This includes management for timber, aesthetics, recreation, urban values, water, wildlife, inland and nearshore fisheries, wood products, plant genetic resources, and other forest resource values. Management objectives can be for conservation, utilisation, or a mixture of the two. Techniques include timber extraction, planting and replanting of different species, building and maintenance of roads and pathways through forests, and preventing fire.

The following outline is provided as an overview of and guide to forestry:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Forest product</span> Material derived from forestry

A forest product is any material derived from forestry for direct consumption or commercial use, such as lumber, paper, or fodder for livestock. Wood, by far the dominant product of forests, is used for many purposes, such as wood fuel or the finished structural materials used for the construction of buildings, or as a raw material, in the form of wood pulp, that is used in the production of paper. All other non-wood products derived from forest resources, comprising a broad variety of other forest products, are collectively described as non-timber forest products (NTFP). Non-timber forest products are viewed to have fewer negative effects on forest ecosystem when providing income sources for local community.

Variable retention is a relatively new silvicultural system that retains forest structural elements for at least one rotation in order to preserve environmental values associated with structurally complex forests.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deforestation in Nigeria</span>

The extensive and rapid clearing of forests (deforestation) within the borders of Nigeria has significant impacts on both local and global scales.

The World Forestry Congress (WFC) is the largest and most significant gathering of the world's forestry sector and it has been held every six years since 1926 under the auspices of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, organized by the government of the host country. It is a forum for the sharing of knowledge and experience regarding the conservation, management and use of the world's forests, and covers such issues as international dialogue, socio-economic and institutional aspects, and forest policies.

Forest genetic resources or foresttree genetic resources are genetic resources of forest shrub and tree species. Forest genetic resources are essential for forest-depending communities who rely for a substantial part of their livelihoods on timber and non-timber forest products for food security, domestic use and income generation. These resources are also the basis for large-scale wood production in planted forests to satisfy the worldwide need for timber and paper. Genetic resources of several important timber, fruit and other non-timber tree species are conserved ex situ in genebanks or maintained in field collections. Nevertheless, in situ conservation in forests and on farms is in the case of most tree species the most important measure to protect their genetic resources.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Global Forest Resources Assessment</span>

The Global Forest Resources Assessment (FRA) reports on the status and trends of the world's forest resources. It is led by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tree plantation</span>

A tree plantation, forest plantation, plantation forest, timber plantation or tree farm is a forest planted for high volume production of wood, usually by planting one type of tree as a monoculture forest. The term tree farm also is used to refer to tree nurseries and Christmas tree farms.

References

  1. ↑ "SAFnet Dictionary | Definition For [forestry]". Dictionaryofforestry.org. 2008-10-22. Archived from the original on 2013-10-19. Retrieved 2014-03-15.
  2. ↑ "Seed Origin -pinga Forestry Focus". Forestry Focus. Retrieved April 5, 2018.
  3. ↑ Young, Raymond A. (1982). Introduction to Forest Science. John Wiley & Sons. p. ix. ISBN   978-0-471-06438-1.
  4. ↑ Frouz, Jan; Frouzová, Jaroslava (2022). Applied Ecology. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-83225-4. ISBN   978-3-030-83224-7. S2CID   245009867.
  5. ↑ "ecosystem part of biosphere". Tutorvista.com. Archived from the original on 2013-11-11. Retrieved 2014-03-15.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 The State of the World's Forests 2020. Forests, biodiversity and people – In brief. Rome: FAO & UNEP. 2020. doi:10.4060/ca8985en. ISBN   978-92-5-132707-4. S2CID   241416114.
  7. ↑ "How does the forest industry contribute to the economy?". www.nrcan.gc.ca. 26 August 2014. Retrieved April 5, 2018.
  8. ↑ Bundeswaldinventur 2002 Archived 2014-10-06 at the Wayback Machine , Bundesministerium für Ernährung, Landwirtschaft und Verbraucherschutz (BMELV), retrieved, 17 January 2010
  9. ↑ Unternehmen Wald, forests as an enterprise, German private forestry association website Archived 2016-09-18 at the Wayback Machine
  10. ↑ Wojtkowski, Paul A. (2002) Agroecological Perspectives in Agronomy, Forestry and Agroforestry. Science Publishers Inc., Enfield, NH, 356p.
  11. ↑ Wojtkowski, Paul A. (2006) Undoing the Damage: Silviculture for Ecologists and Environmental Scientists. Science Publishers Inc., Enfield, NH, 313p.
  12. ↑ Fishes and forestry : worldwide watershed interactions and management. Northcote, T. G., Hartman, G. F. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Science. 2004. ISBN   978-0-470-99524-2. OCLC   184983506.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  13. ↑ Hemery, G.; Skovsgaard, J. P. (April 2018). "Silvology: Redefining the Biological Science for the Study of Forests". Quarterly Journal of Forestry. 112 (2): 128–31.
  14. ↑ Oldeman, R. A. A. (1990). Forests: elements of silvology. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. p. 624. ISBN   0-387-51883-5.
  15. 1 2 "Dendrology | Definition & Description | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2024-04-08.
  16. 1 2 3 de Vries, S.M.G., Alan, M., Bozzano, M., Burianek, V., Collin, E., Cottrell, J., Ivankovic, M., Kelleher, C.T., Koskela, J., Rotach, P., Vietto, L. and Yrjänä, L. (2015). "Pan-European strategy for genetic conservation of forest trees and establishment of a core network of dynamic conservation units" (PDF). European Forest Genetic Resources Programme, Bioversity International, Rome, Italy.: xii + 40 p. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-01-31. Retrieved 2017-01-20.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  17. 1 2 Konnert, M., Fady, B., Gömöry, D., A’Hara, S., Wolter, F., Ducci, F., Koskela, J., Bozzano, M., Maaten, T. and Kowalczyk, J. (2015). "Use and transfer of forest reproductive material in Europe in the context of climate change" (PDF). European Forest Genetic Resources Programme, Bioversity International, Rome, Italy.: xvi and 75 p. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-08-04. Retrieved 2017-01-20.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  18. ↑ Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 – Key findings. Rome: FAO. 2020. doi:10.4060/ca8753en. ISBN   978-92-5-132581-0. S2CID   130116768.
  19. ↑ "Glossary of Forestry Terms in British Columbia" (PDF). Ministry of Forests and Range (Canada). March 2008. Retrieved 2009-04-06.
  20. ↑ I. Balenovich, A. Seletkovich, et al. Comparison of Classical Terrestrial and Photogrammetric Method in Creating Management Division. FORMEC. Croatia 2012. pp. 1-13.
  21. ↑ I. Balenović, D. Vuletić, et al. Digital Photogrammetry – State of the Art and Potential for Application in Forest Management in Croatia. SEEFOR. South-East European Forestry. #2, 2011. pp. 81–93.
  22. ↑ Mozgeris, G. (2008) “The continuous field view of representing forest geographically: from cartographic representation towards improved management planning”. S.A.P.I.EN.S. 1 (2)
  23. 1 2 Anderegg, William R. L.; Wu, Chao; Acil, Nezha; Carvalhais, Nuno; Pugh, Thomas A. M.; Sadler, Jon P.; Seidl, Rupert (2 September 2022). "A climate risk analysis of Earth's forests in the 21st century" (PDF). Science. 377 (6610): 1099–1103. Bibcode:2022Sci...377.1099A. doi:10.1126/science.abp9723. PMID   36048937. S2CID   252010508.
  24. 1 2 Windisch, Michael G.; Davin, Edouard L.; Seneviratne, Sonia I. (October 2021). "Prioritizing forestation based on biogeochemical and local biogeophysical impacts". Nature Climate Change. 11 (10): 867–871. Bibcode:2021NatCC..11..867W. doi:10.1038/s41558-021-01161-z. S2CID   237947801. ProQuest   2578272675.
  25. 1 2 Benedek, Zsófia; Fertő, Imre (2013). "Development and application of a new Forestation Index: global forestation patterns and drivers" (Document). IEHAS Discussion Papers. hdl:10419/108304. ProQuest   1698449297.
  26. 1 2 Zhang, Mingfang; Wei, Xiaohua (5 March 2021). "Deforestation, forestation, and water supply". Science. 371 (6533): 990–991. Bibcode:2021Sci...371..990Z. doi:10.1126/science.abe7821. PMID   33674479. S2CID   232124649.
  27. 1 2 Prevedello, Jayme A.; Winck, Gisele R.; Weber, Marcelo M.; Nichols, Elizabeth; Sinervo, Barry (20 March 2019). "Impacts of forestation and deforestation on local temperature across the globe". PLOS ONE. 14 (3): e0213368. Bibcode:2019PLoSO..1413368P. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0213368 . PMC   6426338 . PMID   30893352. Gale   A579457448.
  28. ↑ Portmann, Raphael; Beyerle, Urs; Davin, Edouard; Fischer, Erich M.; De Hertog, Steven; Schemm, Sebastian (4 October 2022). "Global forestation and deforestation affect remote climate via adjusted atmosphere and ocean circulation". Nature Communications. 13 (1): 5569. Bibcode:2022NatCo..13.5569P. doi:10.1038/s41467-022-33279-9. PMC   9532392 . PMID   36195588.
  29. ↑ AbdulBaqi, Faten Khalid (June 2022). "The effect of afforestation and green roofs techniques on thermal reduction in Duhok city". Trees, Forests and People. 8: 100267. doi: 10.1016/j.tfp.2022.100267 . S2CID   248646593.
  30. ↑ Caves, R. W. (2004). Encyclopedia of the City. Routledge. p. 695. ISBN   978-0415862875.
  31. ↑ "News of the world". Unasylva. 23 (3). FAO. 1969. Archived from the original on 2010-04-27. Retrieved 2010-10-12.
  32. ↑ Sample, V. A.; Bixler, R. P.; McDonough, M. H.; Bullard, S. H.; Snieckus, M. M. (July 16, 2015). "The Promise and Performance of Forestry Education in the United States: Results of a Survey of Forestry Employers, Graduates, and Educators". Journal of Forestry. 113 (6): 528–537. doi: 10.5849/jof.14-122 .
  33. ↑ "SAF Accredited and Candidate Forestry Degree Programs" (PDF) (Press release). Society of American Foresters. 2008-05-19. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-02-26. The Society of American Foresters grants accreditation only to specific educational curricula that lead to a first professional degree in forestry at the bachelor's or master's level.
  34. ↑ "Canadian Institute of Forestry - Silver Ring Program". Cif-ifc.org. Archived from the original on 2014-02-01. Retrieved 2014-03-15.
  35. ↑ "Discover IUFRO:The Organization". IUFRO. Archived from the original on 2010-07-08. Retrieved 2010-10-12.
  36. ↑ N.D.G. James (1996), "A History of Forestry and Monographic Forestry Literature in Germany, France, and the United Kingdom", The Literature of Forestry and Agroforestry, Cornell University Press, pp. 34–35, ISBN   9780801431814

Sources

Definition of Free Cultural Works logo notext.svg  This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0( license statement/permission ). Text taken from Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 Key findings​ , FAO, FAO.

Definition of Free Cultural Works logo notext.svg  This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO( license statement/permission ). Text taken from The State of the World's Forests 2020. Forests, biodiversity and people – In brief​ , FAO & UNEP, FAO & UNEP.

Definition of Free Cultural Works logo notext.svg  This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA IGO 3.0( license statement/permission ). Text taken from World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023​ , FAO, FAO.

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.