Climate change litigation

Last updated
In 2019, the Supreme Court of the Netherlands confirmed that the government must cut carbon dioxide emissions, as climate change threatens human health. Supreme Court of the Netherlands, large courtroom (cropped).jpg
In 2019, the Supreme Court of the Netherlands confirmed that the government must cut carbon dioxide emissions, as climate change threatens human health.

Climate change litigation, also known as climate litigation, is an emerging body of environmental law using legal practice to set case law precedent to further climate change mitigation efforts from public institutions, such as governments and companies. Finding that climate change politics provides insufficient climate change mitigation for their tastes, activists and lawyers have increased efforts to use national and international judiciary systems to advance the effort. Climate litigation typically engages in one of five types of legal claims: [2] Constitutional law (focused on breaches of constitutional rights by the state), [3] administrative law (challenging the merits of administrative decision making), private law (challenging corporations or other organizations for negligence, nuisance, etc.), fraud or consumer protection (challenging companies for misrepresenting information about climate impacts), or human rights (claiming that failure to act on climate change is a failure to protect human rights). [4]

Contents

Since the early 2000s, the legal frameworks for combating climate change have increasingly been available through legislation, and an increasing body of court cases have developed an international body of law connecting climate action to legal challenges, related to constitutional law, administrative law, private law, consumer protection law or human rights. [2] Many of the successful cases and approaches have focused on advancing the needs of climate justice and the youth climate movement.[ citation needed ] Since 2015, there has been a trend in the use of human rights arguments in climate lawsuits, [5] in part due to the recognition of the right to a healthy environment in more jurisdictions and at the United Nations. [6]

Climate litigation cases brought against states include Leghari v. Pakistan , [7] Juliana v. United States (both 2015), Urgenda v. The Netherlands (2019), and Neubauer v. Germany (2021), [8] [9] [10] [11] and Milieudefensie v Royal Dutch Shell (2021). [12] Litigations are often carried out via collective pooling of effort and resources such as via organizations such as Greenpeace, such as Greenpeace Poland which sued a coal utility [13] and Greenpeace Germany which sued a car manufacturer. [14]

There is a growing number of cases, and international decisions can influence domestic courts. However some cases challenge climate action. [15]

Types of action

Climate litigation typically falls into one of five broad areas of law: [2]

These areas are not static. For instance, Smith v Fonterra Co-operative Group Ltd argues for the new tort of climate change damage and the New Zealand Supreme Court duly ruled in 2024 that this novel civil wrong can be asserted in future proceedings. [16]

The 2017 UN Litigation Report identified 884 cases in 24 countries, including 654 cases in the United States and 230 cases in all other countries combined. As of July 1, 2020, the number of cases has almost doubled to at least 1,550 climate change cases filed in 38 countries (39 including the courts of the European Union), with approximately 1,200 cases filed in the US and over 350 filed in all other countries combined. [17] By December 2022, the number had grown to 2,180, including 1,522 in the U.S. [18]

By type of action

Between governments and companies

In the United States, Friends of the Earth, Greenpeace together with the cities of Boulder, Arcata and Oakland filed against the Export-Import Bank of the United States and the Overseas Private Investment Corporation (state-owned enterprises of the United States government), which were accused of financing fossil-fuel projects detrimental to a stable climate, in violation of the National Environmental Policy Act (case filed in 2002 and settled in 2009). [19] [20] [21] [22]

In 2017, San Francisco, Oakland and other California coastal communities sued multiple fossil-fuel companies for rising sea levels; [23] they lost.

In 2018, the city of New York announced that it is taking five fossil fuel firms (BP, ExxonMobil, Chevron, ConocoPhillips and Shell) to federal court due to their contribution to climate change (from which the city is already suffering). [24]

In 2020, Charleston, South Carolina, followed a similar strategy. [25]

In June 2023, Multnomah County, Oregon sued several fossil fuel companies and industry trade groups, seeking at least $50 billion to help the county study and implement harm reduction strategies. The suit also asks for $50 million to cover past damages, and $1.5 billion in future damages. The lawsuit alleges that parties, including ExxonMobil, Chevron and the American Petroleum Institute, deceptively used "pseudo-science, fabricated doubt, and a well-funded, sustained public relations campaign" to subvert scientific consensus over the course of decades. [26]

By country and region

Australia

As of February 2020, Australia had the second most number of cases pending in the world, with almost 200 cases. [2] Cases in Australia include Torres Strait Islanders v. Australia (2019), [27] [28] in which the United Nations Human Rights Committee found that the Australian government had violated the Islanders' human rights by failure to act on climate change, Youth Verdict v. Waratah Coal (2020), [29] and Sharma v. Minister for the Environment (2020), [30] in which eight young people unsuccessfully argued for an injunction against the expansion of a Whitehaven coal mine.

Belgium

In June 2021, after a six year long legal battle, the Court of First Instance ruled that the climate targets of the government of Belgium are too low and therefore "breached the right to life (article 2) and the right to respect for private and family life (article 8)" of the European Convention on Human Rights. [31]

Canada

In October 2019, a group of 15 youths filed a lawsuit against the government of Canada, claiming that the government's lack of climate change action was a violation of their rights to life, liberty and equality. The lawsuit was dismissed in November 2020. [32]

Colombia

A group of children in Colombia sued the government to protect the Amazon rainforest from deforestation due to the deforestation's contribution to climate change. In 2018, the Supreme Court ruled that the Colombian rainforest was an "entity subject of rights" requiring protection and restoration. [33]

France

In 2020, an administrative court case in France, required the Macron administration to review their policies to address climate change to make sure they were significant enough to meet Paris Agreement commitments. [34] [35] [36]

Germany

In 2021, Germany's supreme constitutional court ruled in Neubauer v. Germany that the government's climate protection measures are insufficient to protect future generations and that the government had until the end of 2022 to improve its Climate Protection Act. [37]

In 2023, the Berlin-Brandenburg Higher Administrative Court said the government's action on transport and housing fell short under a law setting upper limits for carbon emissions for individual sectors. Under the ruling, Berlin must present emergency programmes to bring its policy on transport and housing back in line with the current Climate Protection Act from 2024 to 2030. [38]

Republic of Ireland

In July 2020, Friends of the Irish Environment won a landmark case against the Irish government for failing to take sufficient action to address the climate and ecological crisis. [39] The Supreme Court of Ireland ruled that the Irish government's 2017 National Mitigation Plan was inadequate, specifying that it did not provide enough detail on how it would reduce greenhouse gas emissions. [40]

Italy

Giudizio Universale lawsuit

On 5 June 2021, a group of 24 associations and 179 citizens (17 of whom were minor), led by non-profit association A Sud ('To South'), officially filed a lawsuit against the Italian government in the civil court in Rome, with the main goals of holding national institutions "accountable for the state of danger caused by [their] inertia in tackling the climate change emergency", as well as ruling that Italy must cut its greenhouse gas emissions from 1990 levels by 92% within 2030. [41] [42] This last target, which set more ambitious targets than the European Green Deal, [42] was based on independent researches on international climate politics made by Climate Analytics and the New Climate Institute. [41] [42]

The co-plaintiffs, which included Fridays For Future members [41] and meteorologist Luca Mercalli  [ it ], [41] [42] were assisted by three attorneys specialized in environmental law. [42] Other notable environmentalist organizations, including Legambiente and Greenpeace, opted not to support the lawsuit: president of Greenpeace Italy, Giuseppe Onufrio, justified the decision by stating that court cases should focus on influential companies, rather than institutions, to become more effective. [41] [42]

Eni lawsuit

On 9 May 2023, Greenpeace Italy and advocacy group ReCommon, together with 12 Italian plaintiffs from several areas directly affected by climate change, [43] [44] officially announced that they would file a lawsuit against national energy company Eni, as well as the Ministry of Economy and Finance and Cassa Depositi e Prestiti (both involved as co-owners), [43] [44] [45] requesting to set the beginning of the hearings in November of the same year. [44] [45] Also known as La Giusta Causa ('The Right Cause'), [46] [47] and based on the Milieudefensie et al v Royal Dutch Shell court case, [44] [45] it became the first climate lawsuit ever filed against a private-owned company in Italy. [43] [44]

The allegations focused on Eni's central role in increasing fossil fuel usage throughout the latest decades, despite being aware of the emissions' worst risks. [43] [45] A DeSmog inquiry revealed further evidence supporting the lawsuit's claims: firstly, a study commissioned by Eni itself from an affiliate research centre between 1969 and 1970, which had underlined the risk of a "catastrophic" climate crisis by 2000 posed by an unchecked rise in fossil fuel usage; [45] [46] [48] secondly, a 1978 report produced by Tecneco, another company owned by Eni, which had accurately estimated that the CO2 concentration would have reached 375-400 ppm by 2000, [45] [46] while noting that such changes to the thermal balance of the atmosphere could have had "serious consequences for the biosphere". [43] [45] [46] DeSmog's investigation also found that Eni's official magazine, Ecos  [ it ], had repeatedly included references to climate change in articles written throughout the late 1980s and 1990s, while hosting advertising campaigns wrongly claiming that natural gas was a "clean fuel". [45] [46] [48]

The plaintiffs asked the court to "acknowledge the damage and the violation of [their] human rights to life, health and an undisturbed personal life" and rule that Eni must cut their emissions from 2020 levels by 45% within 2030, [43] [44] in order to reach the goals set by the Paris Agreement. [44] In an official response, Eni's board said they would prove the lawsuit was "groundless". [44] [45]

The first hearing of the court case took place on 16 February 2024. [47] [49] [50]

Korea

On 29 August 2024, the Constitutional Court of Korea ruled that the absence of legally binding targets for greenhouse gas reductions for 2031-2049 violated the constitutional rights of future generations, saying that this lack of long-term targets shifted an excessive burden to the future. [51]

Netherlands

Scholarly article on climate litigation in the Netherlands, especially the Urgenda case Hans van Loon 2020 Strategic Climate Litigation in the Dutch Courts - a source of inspiration for NGOs elsewhere%3F.pdf
Scholarly article on climate litigation in the Netherlands, especially the Urgenda case

The Urgenda case is an important global precedent for climate litigation. In 2012, the Dutch lawyer Roger Cox gave the idea of judicial intervention to force action against climate change based on government targets for 2030 emissions reductions. [52] [53] In 2013, the Urgenda Foundation, with 900 co-plaintiffs, filed a lawsuit against the Government of the Netherlands "for not taking sufficient measures to reduce greenhouse gas emissions that cause dangerous climate change". [52]

In 2015, the District Court of The Hague ruled that the government of the Netherlands must do more to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to protect its citizens from climate change. [52] [54] [55] It was described as a "precedent-setting judgment" [54] and as the "world's first climate liability suit". [55]

In 2018, a court of appeal in The Hague has upheld the precedent-setting judgment that forces the Dutch government to step up its efforts to curb greenhouse-gas emissions in the Netherlands. [56] In December 2019, the Supreme Court of the Netherlands upheld the ruling on appeal. Thus, affirming that the government must cut carbon dioxide emissions by 25% from 1990 levels by the end of 2020, on the basis that climate change poses a risk to human health. [1] [57]

Additional cases in the Netherlands include Milieudefensie et al v Royal Dutch Shell. The case was decided in May 2021, the district court of The Hague ordered Royal Dutch Shell to cut its global carbon emissions by 45% by the end of 2030 compared to 2019 levels, [58] and affirmed the responsibility of the company for scope 3 emissions, e.g., emissions from suppliers and customers of its products. [59]

New Zealand

In 2024, the New Zealand Supreme Court gave leave for Māori climate activist Mike Smith to sue seven corporations for their roles in causing climate change and the common law harms that resulted. [16] [60] [61] Several aspects of Smith v Fonterra Co-operative Group Limited are notable. Smith argued that the principles of tikanga Māori  — a traditional system of obligations and recognitions of wrong — can be used to inform New Zealand common law. Smith argued that the activities of the seven defendants — by directly emitting greenhouse gasses or supplying fossil fuels  — fall under the established torts of public nuisance and negligence and a new tort of climate change damage. Smith further argued that these seven corporations are harming his tribe's land, coastal waters, and traditional culture. Smith belongs to the Northland tribes of Ngāpuhi and Ngāti Kahu. This judgment simply allows Smith to now pursue these matters in the High Court. The defendants have indicated that they will seek to convince the court that climate change responses are better left to government policy and not subject to civil litigation.

Pakistan

In Pakistan in 2015 Lahore High Court ruled in Asghar Leghari vs. Federation of Pakistan that the government was violating the National Climate Change Policy of 2012 and the Framework for Implementation of Climate Change Policy (2014–2030) by failing to meet goals set by the policies. In response, a Climate Change Commission was required to be formed in order to help Pakistan meet its climate goals. [62] The case is considered significant in the history of human rights-based climate litigation. [5]

Peru

In 2017, Saul Luciano Lliuya sued RWE to protect his hometown of Huaraz from a swollen glacier lake at risk of overflowing. [63]

South Africa

In December 2024 the Supreme Court in South Africa stopped the plans of the government to add 1,500 megawatts of coal-fired power. The court said it is “unlawful and invalid”, and required from the minister and the regulator to pay costs to the complainants. Before it environmentalists already had some victories in South Africa's courts about pollution and drillings. [64]

Turkey

Article 56 of the constitution says that, "Everyone has the right to live in a healthy and balanced environment. It is the duty of the State and citizens to improve the natural environment, to protect the environmental health and to prevent environmental pollution." Turkey has ratified the Paris Agreement and says that its greenhouse gas emissions will be net zero by 2053, but the government has no plan to phase out coal. [65] As of 2024 two cases have been rejected and one has been partly successful. [66]

In 2020 and 2021 sixteen non government organizations filed lawsuits requesting the president shutdown 37 large coal-fired power stations and over 600 mines. [67] [68] In addition to climate change arguments the plaintiffs alleged that cancer cases are increased and the COVID-19 pandemic was worsened by their air pollution. [69] The case was rejected by the 11th administrative court of Ankara for various reasons. [70]

In 2023 young climate activists opened a case alleging that the nationally determined contribution (NDC) was inadequate. [71] [72] The three youth climate activists filed a lawsuit against President Erdoğan and the Ministry of Environment, Urbanisation and Climate Change because Turkey’s Nationally Determined Contribution is not to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions. They alleged that there is no effective climate action plan for energy. They alleged that these violate their human rights stated in the constitution, such as the environmental clause in the constitution. [73] The Council of State rejected the case on the grounds that it was an ‘annulment of an administrative action’ case but the NDC is not an administrative action. [66]

In 2022 and 2023 cases were brought about Lake Marmara drying up. [74] [75] In 2024 a court decided to pause the process of reclassifying the land as not wetland, on the grounds that it could be rewetted: Doğa are calling for the court to annul the reclassification. [76]

United Kingdom

In December 2020, three British citizens, Marina Tricks, Adetola Onamade, Jerry Amokwandoh, and the climate litigation charity, Plan B, announced that they were taking legal action against the UK government for failing to take sufficient action to address the climate and ecological crisis. [77] [78] The plaintiffs announced that they will allege that the government's ongoing funding of fossil fuels both in the UK and other countries constitute a violation of their rights to life and to family life, as well as violating the Paris Agreement and the UK Climate Change Act of 2008. [79]

In 2022, it was claimed in McGaughey and Davies v Universities Superannuation Scheme Ltd that the directors of the UK's largest pension fund, USS Ltd had breached their duty to act for proper purposes under the Companies Act 2006 section 171, by failing to have a plan to divest fossil fuels from the fund's portfolio. The claim did not succeed in the High Court, [80] and the claimants appealed to the Court of Appeal, being granted permission for a June 2023 hearing. [81] The case alleges that the right to life must be used to interpret duties in company law, and that because fossil fuels must cease to exist, any investments using them pose a "risk of significant financial detriment". [82]

In February 2023, ClientEarth filed a derivative action claim against Shell's board of directors for putting the company at risk by not transitioning away from fossil fuels quickly enough. [83] ClientEarth said the lawsuit marked 'the first time ever that a company's board has been challenged on its failure to properly prepare for the energy transition.' [83]

United States

Xiuhtezcatl Martinez was a plaintiff in Juliana v. United States and in the Martinez v. Colorado Oil and Gas Conservation Commission case. Xiuhtezcatl Martinez for Standing Strong Project (cropped).jpg
Xiuhtezcatl Martinez was a plaintiff in Juliana v. United States and in the Martinez v. Colorado Oil and Gas Conservation Commission case.

As of February 2020, the U.S. had the most pending cases with over 1,000 in the court system. Examples include Connecticut v. ExxonMobil Corp. and Massachusetts v. Environmental Protection Agency . In the United States climate change litigation addresses existing principal laws to make their claim, most of them focusing on private and administrative law. The most popular principal laws to use are NEPA (the National Environmental Policy Act), with 322 cases filed under its jurisdiction, the Clean Air Act, with 215 cases filed under its jurisdiction, the Endangered Species Act, with 163 cases filed under its jurisdiction. As more efforts continue on the front of climate change, as of August 2022, the federal government continues to approve agreements and class actions in terms of additional climate change initiatives. In addition, since 2015, there are about two dozen liability and fraud cases brought against some of the world's largest oil companies by various states for their role in denying climate policy leading to increased risks and costs borne to state governments. These states include New Jersey, District of Columbia, Delaware, Connecticut, Minnesota, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, and Vermont. Like Minnesota and the District of Columbia before it, New Jersey has also included the industry's top US trade group, the American Petroleum Institute in addition to ExxonMobil, Shell Oil, Chevron, BP and ConocoPhillips. [84] [85] [86]

Actions using the Endangered Species Act

In the Endangered Species Act (ESA) case, Tennessee Valley Authority v. Hill, the Supreme Court stated that the ESA mandates federal agencies to insure their actions do not jeopardize any species that are listed as endangered in the ESA. [87] Climate change litigation cases that use the ESA primarily focus on articles 7 and 9 of the statue. Article 7 states that all actions carried out by federal agencies must be unlikely to jeopardize the continued existence or result in the destruction of endangered species. Article 9 focuses not just on federal agencies but everybody, banning the taking of any endangered species by any party, be it federal, state, or private. [87]

The first step for climate change activists is to make sure that species threatened by climate change are listed on the ESA by the Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS). Oftentimes this alone can be a lengthy process. In December 2005 the Center for Biological Diversity joined with two other US NGOs (Greenpeace and the Natural Resources Defense Council) to petition that the Arctic Polar Bear be listed on the ESA. The FWS under the Bush administration stretched the process out for years, missing many key deadlines and listing the species as "threatened" instead of endangered while the science was clearly in favor of an endangered listing. Facing mass public pressure and scientific consensus the FWS officially listed the species as endangered in May 2008. [87]

Actions using the National Environmental Policy Act

The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) recognizes that actions taken by the US government can have significant environmental impact and requires that all federal agencies consider these environmental implications when doing "major federal actions". This can be done either through an environmental assessment (EA) or a more thorough environmental impact statement (EIS), how thorough the analyzation has to be depends on the nature of the proposed action. [88] [89]

Actions using the Clear Air Act

The Clean Air Act (CAA) regulates air pollutants both from stationary and mobile sources. The Act was passed in the 1970s before there was widespread knowledge about greenhouse gases (GHGs) but in 2007 the Supreme Court decided the EPA did have to regulate GHGs under the CAA due to the famous Massachusetts vs. The EPA case. [90]

In 2009 the state of California was able to use the CAA to create stronger vehicle emission standards than the national standard, which quickly led to the Obama administration adopting these stricter emission standards on a national level. These standards were called the Corporate Average Fuel Efficiency (CAFE) standards and included regulations of GHGs. [90]

Massachusetts v. EPA

Massachusetts v. Environmental Protection Agency before the Supreme Court of the United States allowed the EPA to regulate greenhouse gases under the Clean Air Act. A similar approach was taken by California Attorney General Bill Lockyer who filed a lawsuit California v. General Motors Corp. to force car manufacturers to reduce vehicles' emissions of carbon dioxide. This lawsuit was found to lack legal merit and was tossed out. [91] [92] A third case, Comer v. Murphy Oil USA, Inc. , a class action lawsuit filed by Gerald Maples, a trial attorney in Mississippi, in an effort to force fossil fuel and chemical companies to pay for damages caused by global warming. Described as a nuisance lawsuit, it was dismissed by District Court. [93] However, the District Court's decision was overturned by the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit, which instructed the District Court to reinstate several of the plaintiffs' climate change-related claims on 22 October 2009. [94] The Sierra Club sued the U.S. government over failure to raise automobile fuel efficiency standards, and thereby decrease carbon dioxide emissions. [95] [96]

Juliana v. United States

In 2015, a number of American youth, represented by Our Children's Trust, filed a lawsuit against the United States government, contending that their future lives would be harmed due to the government's inactivity towards mitigating climate change. While similar suits had been filed and dismissed by the courts for numerous reasons, Juliana v. United States gained traction when a District Judge Ann Aiken ruled that the case had merit to continue, and that "a climate system capable of sustaining human life" was a fundamental right under the United States Constitution. [97] The suite was eventually dismissed.

Held v. Montana

Held v. Montana was the first constitutional law climate lawsuit to go to trial in the United States, on June 12, 2023. [98] The case was filed in March 2020 by sixteen youth residents of Montana, then aged 2 through 18, [99] who argued that the state's support of the fossil fuel industry had worsened the effects of climate change on their lives, thus denying their right to a "clean and healthful environment in Montana for present and future generations" [100] :Art. IX, § 1 as required by the Constitution of Montana. [101] On August 14, 2023, the trial court judge ruled in the youth plaintiffs' favor, although the state indicated it would appeal the decision. [102] Montana's Supreme Court heard oral arguments on July 10, 2024, its seven justices taking the case under advisement. [103]

Mayanna Berrin v. Delta Airlines Inc.

Mayanna Berrin v. Delta Airlines Inc. is a civil action lawsuit about Delta Air Lines' claim of carbon neutrality.

European Union

In 2018, ten families from European countries, Kenya and Fiji filed a suit against the European Union for the threats against their homes caused by the EU greenhouse emissions. [104] The European Union adopted an anti-slapp directive aiming to protect human right defenders and journalists from lawsuits intended to silence them. [105]

European Court of Human Rights

In 2024, the European Court of Human Rights ruled that States must protect the population from the serious adverse effects of climate change on lives, health and well-being. Courtroom European Court of Human Rights 01.JPG
In 2024, the European Court of Human Rights ruled that States must protect the population from the serious adverse effects of climate change on lives, health and well-being.

Verein KlimaSeniorinnen Schweiz v. Switzerland (2024) [106] was a landmark [107] case of the European Court of Human Rights in which the court ruled that Switzerland violated the European Convention on Human Rights by failing to adequately address climate change. It is the first case in which an international court has ruled that state inaction related to climate change violates human rights. [108]

United Nations

On 29 March 2023, the United Nations adopted a resolution calling for the International Court of Justice (ICJ) to "strengthen countries' obligations to curb warming and protect communities from climate disaster". [109] The ICJ is expected to issue a decision clarifying legal requirements on states to respond to the climate crisis and articulating consequences that countries should face for failure to meet those requirements. [110]

Others

After the landmark ruling of the Netherlands in 2015, groups in other countries tried the same judicial approach. [111] [112] [23] For instance, groups went to court in order to protect people from climate change in Brazil, [113] Belgium, [54] India, [114] New Zealand, [115] Norway, [116] South Africa, [115] Switzerland [117] and the United States. [111] [118] [23]

In Germany, a court case brought by German citizens against their government based on a newly minted human right to breathe clean and healthy air could pave the way for future legislation. [119]

See also

Related Research Articles

Strategic lawsuits against public participation, or strategic litigation against public participation, are lawsuits intended to censor, intimidate, and silence critics by burdening them with the cost of a legal defense until they abandon their criticism or opposition.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Resolute Forest Products</span> Pulp and paper company

Resolute Forest Products, formerly known as AbitibiBowater Inc., is a Canada-based pulp and paper company. Headquartered in Montreal, Quebec, the company was formed in 2007 by the merger of Bowater and Abitibi-Consolidated. At that time, the merged company was the third largest pulp and paper company in North America, and the eighth largest in the world.

Hagens Berman is a law firm headquartered in Seattle, Washington. As of 2022, it had about 80 lawyers. Hagens Berman is a plaintiff's law firm, especially known for large class-action lawsuits. The firm was founded in 1993 by Steve Berman and Carl Hagens in order to pursue a case against Jack in the Box that was turned down by the law firm at which they worked. A few years later the firm represented 13 out of 46 U.S. states involved in litigation against tobacco companies. Subsequently, Hagens Berman took on a number of class-action cases against large car manufacturers, oil businesses, and others. Hagens Berman has been involved in municipal climate change litigation, suing oil companies on behalf of cities. The firm has been subject to an ethics investigation and sanction over its handling of thalidomide litigation involving alleged birth defects.

Ecojustice Canada, is a Canadian non-profit environmental law organization that provides funding to lawyers to use litigation to defend and protect the environment. Ecojustice is Canada's largest environmental law charity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate justice</span> Concept for social justice in climate change context

Climate justice is a type of environmental justice that focuses on the unequal impacts of climate change on marginalized or otherwise vulnerable populations. Climate justice seeks to achieve an equitable distribution of both the burdens of climate change and the efforts to mitigate climate change. The economic burden of climate change mitigation is estimated by some at around 1% to 2% of GDP. Climate justice examines concepts such as equality, human rights, collective rights, justice and the historical responsibilities for climate change.

American Electric Power Company v. Connecticut, 564 U.S. 410 (2011), was a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court, in an 8–0 decision, held that corporations cannot be sued for greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs) under federal common law, primarily because the Clean Air Act (CAA) delegates the management of carbon dioxide and other GHG emissions to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Brought to court in July 2004 in the Southern District of New York, this was the first global warming case based on a public nuisance claim.

ClientEarth is an environmental law charity, with offices in London, Brussels, Warsaw, Berlin, Beijing, Madrid and Los Angeles. It was founded in 2008 by James Thornton and the organisation's CEO is Laura Clarke. As lawyers and environmental experts, they use the law to hold governments and other companies to account over climate change, nature loss, and pollution.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate movement</span> Nongovernmental organizations engaged in climate activism

The climate movement is a global social movement focused on pressuring governments and industry to take action addressing the causes and impacts of climate change. Environmental non-profit organizations have engaged in significant climate activism since the late 1980s and early 1990s, as they sought to influence the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Climate activism has become increasingly prominent over time, gaining significant momentum during the 2009 Copenhagen Summit and particularly following the signing of the Paris Agreement in 2016.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Turkey</span> Impact of global warming on Turkey and adaptation to it

Droughts and heatwaves are the main hazards due to the climate of Turkey getting hotter. The temperature has risen by more than 1.5 °C (2.7 °F), and there is more extreme weather.

<i>Juliana v. United States</i> 2015 lawsuit

Juliana, et al. v. United States of America, et al. was a climate-related lawsuit filed in 2015 and dismissed in 2020. Filed by 21 youth plaintiffs against the United States and several executive branch officials. Filing their case in the United States District Court for the District of Oregon, the plaintiffs, represented by the non-profit organization Our Children's Trust, include Xiuhtezcatl Martinez, the members of Martinez's organization Earth Guardians, and climatologist James Hansen as a "guardian for future generations". Some fossil fuel and industry groups initially intervened as defendants but later requested to be dropped following the 2016 presidential election, stating that the case would be well defended under the new administration.

Our Children's Trust is an American nonprofit public interest law firm based in Oregon that has filed several lawsuits on behalf of youth plaintiffs against state and federal governments, arguing that they are infringing on the youths' rights to a safe climate system.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Italy</span> Impact of climate change in Italy

Italy is experiencing widespread impacts of climate change, with an increase in extreme events such as heatwaves, droughts and more frequent flooding; for example, Venice is facing increasing issues due to sea level rise. Italy faces many challenges adapting to climate change including the economic, social, and environmental impacts that climate change creates, and an increasingly problematic death toll from the health risks that come with climate change.

<i>Urgenda Foundation v State of the Netherlands</i> Dutch court case about carbon dioxide emissions

Urgenda FoundationvState of the Netherlands (2019) is climate change litigation heard by the Supreme Court of the Netherlands related to government efforts to curtail carbon dioxide emissions. The case was brought against the Dutch government in 2013, arguing the government, by not meeting a minimum carbon dioxide emission-reduction goal established by scientists to avert harmful climate change, was endangering the human rights of Dutch citizens as set by national and European Union laws.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Right to a healthy environment</span> Human right proposed by environmental groups

The right to a healthy environment or the right to a sustainable and healthy environment is a human right advocated by human rights organizations and environmental organizations to protect the ecological systems that provide human health. The right was acknowledged by the United Nations Human Rights Council during its 48th session in October 2021 in HRC/RES/48/13 and subsequently by the United Nations General Assembly on July 28, 2022 in A/RES/76/300. The right is often the basis for human rights defense by environmental defenders, such as land defenders, water protectors and indigenous rights activists.

Tessa Khan is an environmental lawyer who lives in the United Kingdom. She co-founded and is co-director of the Climate Litigation Network, which supports legal cases related to climate change mitigation and climate justice.

<i>Milieudefensie v Royal Dutch Shell</i> Dutch legal case (2021)

Milieudefensie v Royal Dutch Shell (2021) is a human rights law and tort law case heard by the district court of The Hague in the Netherlands in 2021 related to efforts by several NGO's to curtail carbon dioxide emissions by multinational corporations. It was brought by the Dutch branch of Friends of the Earth and a group of other NGO's against the oil corporation, Shell plc. In May 2021, the court ordered Shell to reduce its global carbon emissions from its 2019 levels by 45% by 2030, relating not only to the emissions from its operations, but also those from the products it sells. It is considered to be the first major climate change litigation ruling against a corporation.

Neubauer v. Germany was a 2020 court case in which a group of activists sued over the vagueness present in 2019's Climate Protection Act.

<i>Greenpeace v. Eni</i> 2024 Italian court case

Greenpeace v. Eni is a 2024 human rights law and tort law suit heard by the Civil Court of Rome, Italy related to efforts by several NGOs to reduce carbon dioxide emissions by multinational corporations. The lawsuit was brought by the Italian branch of Greenpeace, the advocacy group ReCommon, and twelve civil plaintiffs. The suit was filed against energy company Eni and two of its co-owners, the Italian Ministry of Economy and Finance and the investment bank Cassa Depositi e Prestiti.

<i>Verein KlimaSeniorinnen Schweiz v. Switzerland</i> European Court of Human Rights case

Verein KlimaSeniorinnen Schweiz v. Switzerland (2024) is a landmark European Court of Human Rights case in which the court ruled that Switzerland violated the European Convention on Human Rights by failing to adequately address climate change. It is the first climate change litigation in which an international court has ruled that state inaction violates human rights.

References

  1. 1 2 Isabella Kaminski (20 December 2019). "Dutch supreme court upholds landmark ruling demanding climate action". The Guardian . Archived from the original on 20 December 2019. Retrieved 20 December 2019.
  2. 1 2 3 4 King; Mallett, Wood Mallesons-Daisy; Nagra, Sati (27 February 2020). "Climate change litigation - what is it and what to expect? | Lexology". www.lexology.com. Archived from the original on 2021-04-14. Retrieved 2020-09-20.
  3. ↑ Pasquale Viola (29 March 2022). Climate Constitutionalism Momentum: Adaptive Legal Systems. Springer Nature. ISBN   978-3-03-097336-0. Archived from the original on 16 March 2024. Retrieved 5 May 2022.
  4. 1 2 Orangias, Joseph (1 December 2021). "Towards global public trust doctrines: an analysis of the transnationalisation of state stewardship duties". Transnational Legal Theory. 12 (4): 550–586. doi: 10.1080/20414005.2021.2006030 . S2CID   244864136.
  5. 1 2 Peel, Jacqueline; Osofsky, Hari M. (March 2018). "A Rights Turn in Climate Change Litigation?". Transnational Environmental Law. 7 (1): 37–67. doi: 10.1017/S2047102517000292 . S2CID   158786536.
  6. ↑ de Vilchez, Pau; Savaresi, Annalisa (2023-04-20). "The Right to a Healthy Environment and Climate Litigation: A Game Changer?". Yearbook of International Environmental Law. 32 (1): 3–19. doi:10.1093/yiel/yvac064. hdl: 1893/34872 . ISSN   0965-1721. Archived from the original on 2023-07-04. Retrieved 2023-07-04.
  7. ↑ "Leghari v. Federation of Pakistan". Climate Case Chart. Sabin Centre for Climate Change Law. Archived from the original on 2023-02-03. Retrieved 2023-02-03.
  8. ↑ Beauregard, Charles; Carlson, D'Arcy; Robinson, Stacy-ann; Cobb, Charles; Patton, Mykela (28 May 2021). "Climate justice and rights-based litigation in a post-Paris world". Climate Policy. 21 (5): 652–665. Bibcode:2021CliPo..21..652B. doi:10.1080/14693062.2020.1867047. ISSN   1469-3062. S2CID   233731449.
  9. ↑ Marris, Emma (3 November 2018). "US Supreme Court allows historic kids' climate lawsuit to go forward". Nature. 563 (7730): 163–164. Bibcode:2018Natur.563..163M. doi:10.1038/d41586-018-07214-2. PMID   30401851. S2CID   53234042. Archived from the original on 9 November 2021. Retrieved 7 November 2021.
  10. ↑ Viglione, Giuliana (28 February 2020). "Climate lawsuits are breaking new legal ground to protect the planet". Nature. 579 (7798): 184–185. Bibcode:2020Natur.579..184V. doi:10.1038/d41586-020-00175-5. PMID   32157222. S2CID   212654628. Archived from the original on 8 November 2021. Retrieved 7 November 2021.
  11. ↑ "Constitutional complaints against the Federal Climate Change Act partially successful". www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de. Bundesverfassungsgericht. Archived from the original on 2023-02-03. Retrieved 2023-02-03.
  12. ↑ "Shell: Netherlands court orders oil giant to cut emissions". BBC News. 26 May 2021. Archived from the original on 19 September 2023. Retrieved 3 February 2023.
  13. ↑ "Greenpeace threatens to sue coal utility in Poland". Climate Home News. 29 November 2018. Archived from the original on 7 November 2021. Retrieved 7 November 2021.
  14. ↑ "Greenpeace Germany sues Volkswagen over carbon emissions targets". Reuters. 2021-11-09. Archived from the original on 2022-08-22. Retrieved 2022-08-22.
  15. ↑ "Global trends in climate change litigation: 2024 snapshot". Grantham Research Institute on climate change and the environment. Retrieved 2024-09-25.
  16. 1 2 Corlett, Eva (6 March 2024). "The Māori climate activist breaking legal barriers to bring corporate giants to court". The Guardian. London, United Kingdom. Archived from the original on 2024-03-06. Retrieved 2024-03-06.
  17. ↑ "Global Climate Litigation Report: 2020 Status Review" (PDF). UN environment programme. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-01-26.
  18. ↑ United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the Sabin Center for Climate Change Law (2023). "Global Climate Litigation Report / 2023 Status Review" (PDF). p. XIV. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 July 2023.
  19. ↑ Douglas Starr, "The carbon accountant. Richard Heede pins much of the responsibility for climate change on just 90 companies. Others say that's a cop-out" Archived 11 November 2016 at the Wayback Machine , Science , volume 353, issue 6302, 26 August 2016, pages 858-861.
  20. ↑ Litigation related to climate change Archived 4 November 2018 at the Wayback Machine , IPCC Fourth Assessment Report: Climate Change 2007, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (page visited on 30 November 2016).
  21. ↑ Order Denying Defendants' Motion for Summary Judgment, in the case of Friends of the earth, Greenpeace, Inc. and City of Boulder Colorado versus Peter Watson (Overseas Private Investment Corporation) and Phillip Lerrill (Export-Import Bank of the United States), No. C 02-4106 JSW Archived 1 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine , United States District Court for the Northern District of California, 2005 (page visited on 30 November 2016).
  22. ↑ Carlarne, Cinnamon Piñon (2010). Climate Change Law and Policy: EU and US Approaches. Oxford University Press. pp. 99–101. ISBN   9780199553419.
  23. 1 2 3 Center for Public Integrity, "Venue of last resort: the climate lawsuits threatening the future of big oil " Archived 17 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine , The Guardian , 17 December 2017 (page visited on 17 December 2017).
  24. ↑ Oliver Milman, "New York City plans to divest $5bn from fossil fuels and sue oil companies" Archived 17 January 2018 at the Wayback Machine , The Guardian , 10 January 2018 (page visited on 12 January 2018).
  25. ↑ "Charleston, SC Becomes First City in U.S. South to Sue Big Oil for Climate Costs". EcoWatch. 2020-09-11. Archived from the original on 2020-10-26. Retrieved 2020-09-22.
  26. ↑ Mindock, Clark (June 23, 2023). "US climate change lawsuit seeks $50 billion, citing 2021 heat wave". Reuters . Retrieved June 23, 2023.
  27. ↑ "Daniel Billy and others v Australia (Torres Strait Islanders Petition)". Climate Case Chart. Sabin Centre for Climate Change Law. Archived from the original on 2023-02-03. Retrieved 2023-02-03.
  28. ↑ Marjanac, Sophie; Jones, Sam Hunter (2022). "Staying within Atmospheric and Judicial Limits: Core Principles for Assessing Whether State Action on Climate Change Complies with Human Rights". Litigating the Climate Emergency: How Human Rights, Courts, and Legal Mobilization Can Bolster Climate Action: 157–176. doi: 10.1017/9781009106214.010 .
  29. ↑ "Youth Verdict v. Waratah Coal". Climate Case Chart. Sabin Centre for Climate Change Law. Archived from the original on 2023-02-03. Retrieved 2023-02-03.
  30. ↑ "Sharma and others v. Minister for the Environment". Climate Case Chart. Sabin Centre for Climate Change Law. Archived from the original on 2023-02-03. Retrieved 2023-02-03.
  31. ↑ Germanos, Andrea (19 June 2021). "Belgium Court Deems Inadequate Climate Policy a Human Rights Violation". Ecowatch. Archived from the original on 28 June 2021. Retrieved 28 June 2021.
  32. ↑ MacLean, Jason (2020-11-03). "Why the youth climate court case failed, and what's next for Canadian climate policy". The Conversation. Archived from the original on 2023-01-22. Retrieved 2023-01-22.
  33. ↑ "In historic ruling, Colombian Court protects youth suing the national government for failing to curb deforestation". Dejusticia. 2018-04-05. Archived from the original on 2021-04-20. Retrieved 2020-07-29.
  34. ↑ "Court gives France three-month deadline to justify its actions on climate change". www.thelocal.fr. 2020-11-19. Archived from the original on 2020-11-19. Retrieved 2020-11-22.
  35. ↑ "Une avancée historique pour la justice climatique !". L'Affaire du Siècle. 2020-11-19. Archived from the original on 2021-04-21. Retrieved 2020-11-22.
  36. ↑ "France's top court gives government three months to honour climate commitments". RFI. 2020-11-19. Archived from the original on 2021-04-20. Retrieved 2020-11-22.
  37. ↑ Connolly, Kate (2021-04-29). "'Historic' German ruling says climate goals not tough enough". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 2021-04-29. Retrieved 2021-05-01.
  38. ↑ "German court finds govt climate policy unlawful, orders emergency action". Reuters. 2023-11-30.
  39. ↑ "Climate change: 'Huge' implications to Irish climate case across Europe". BBC News. 2020-08-01. Archived from the original on 2021-06-11. Retrieved 2021-01-08.
  40. ↑ Frost, Rosie (2020-07-31). "Irish citizens win case to force government action on climate change". living. Archived from the original on 2021-02-03. Retrieved 2021-01-08.
  41. 1 2 3 4 5 Cotugno, Ferdinando (6 June 2021). "Una causa ambientale allo stato per costringere la politica ad agire" . Domani (in Italian). Archived from the original on 5 July 2023. Retrieved 5 July 2023.
  42. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Anche in Italia c'è una causa allo stato per il clima". Il Post (in Italian). 6 June 2021. Archived from the original on 5 July 2023. Retrieved 5 July 2023.
  43. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Due organizzazioni ambientaliste e 12 persone italiane hanno fatto causa a Eni e al ministero dell'Economia per i danni del cambiamento climatico". Il Post (in Italian). 9 May 2023. Archived from the original on 5 July 2023. Retrieved 5 July 2023.
  44. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Talignani, Giacomo (9 May 2023). "Greenpeace, ReCommon e 12 cittadini fanno causa ad Eni per le sue emissioni". la Repubblica (in Italian). Archived from the original on 5 July 2023. Retrieved 5 July 2023.
  45. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Levantesi, Stella (9 May 2023). "Italian oil firm Eni faces lawsuit alleging early knowledge of climate crisis". The Guardian. ISSN   0261-3077. Archived from the original on 8 July 2023. Retrieved 5 July 2023.
  46. 1 2 3 4 5 Romano, Angelo (12 May 2023). "L'ENI citata in giudizio da Greenpeace e ReCommon: "Sapeva delle cause del cambiamento climatico ma ha continuato a bruciare combustibili fossili". La prima causa 'climatica' in Italia". Valigia Blu (in Italian). Archived from the original on 5 July 2023. Retrieved 5 July 2023.
  47. 1 2 Sclippa, Natalie (16 February 2024). "Processo contro Eni. Greenpeace e Recommon portano in tribunale il colosso energetico". lavialibera (in Italian). Archived from the original on 22 February 2024. Retrieved 22 February 2024.
  48. 1 2 Levantesi, Stella (9 May 2023). "Italy's Eni Faces Lawsuit Alleging Early Knowledge Of Climate Change". DeSmog . Archived from the original on 5 July 2023. Retrieved 5 July 2023.
  49. ↑ Cotugno, Ferdinando (15 February 2024). "Eni alla sbarra. Al via in Italia il primo processo climatico contro l'azienda". Domani (in Italian). Archived from the original on 22 February 2024. Retrieved 22 February 2024.
  50. ↑ Levantesi, Stella (19 February 2024). "Climate Trial Against Oil Giant Eni Opens in Italy". DeSmog . Archived from the original on 22 February 2024. Retrieved 22 February 2024.
  51. ↑ Rashid, Raphael (29 August 2024). "South Korea's climate law violates rights of future generations, court rules". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 7 September 2024.
  52. 1 2 3 Urgenda climate case Archived 21 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine , Urgenda Foundation (page visited on 6 November 2016).
  53. ↑ Roger Cox, "It is time for the judiciary to step in and avert climate catastrophe" Archived 6 November 2016 at the Wayback Machine , The Guardian , 14 November 2012 (page visited on 6 November 2016).
  54. 1 2 3 Quirin Schiermeier, "Landmark court ruling tells Dutch government to do more on climate change" Archived 4 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine , Nature , 24 June 2015 (page visited on 5 November 2016).
  55. 1 2 Arthur Neslen, "Dutch government ordered to cut carbon emissions in landmark ruling" Archived 23 December 2019 at the Wayback Machine , The Guardian , 24 June 2015 (page visited on 5 November 2016).
  56. ↑ Schiermeier, Quirin (2018-10-10). "Dutch court rules that government must help stop climate change". Nature. doi:10.1038/d41586-018-07007-7. S2CID   158314143. Archived from the original on 1 April 2019. Retrieved 1 April 2019.
  57. ↑ Akkermans, Joost; Proper, Ellen (20 December 2019). "Dutch Supreme Court orders 25% cut in CO2 starting next year". Bloomberg Businessweek . Archived from the original on 20 December 2019. Retrieved 20 December 2019.
  58. ↑ Boffey, Daniel (26 May 2021). "Court orders Royal Dutch Shell to cut carbon emissions by 45% by 2030". The Guardian . Archived from the original on 26 May 2021. Retrieved 26 May 2021.
  59. ↑ Peel, Jacqueline; Neville, Ben; Markey-Towler, Rebekkah (31 May 2021). "Four seismic climate wins show Big Oil, Gas and Coal are running out of places to hide". The Conversation. Archived from the original on 29 June 2021. Retrieved 29 June 2021.
  60. ↑ New Zealand Supreme Court (7 February 2024). Michael John Smith v Fonterra Co-operative Group Limited [2024]NZSC 5 — Judgment for case SC 149/2021 (PDF). Wellington, New Zealand: Supreme Court of New Zealand / Kōti Mana Nui o Aotearoa. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2024-03-14. Retrieved 2024-03-06. All respondents in order: Fonterra Co-operative Group Limited, Genesis Energy Limited, Dairy Holdings Limited, New Zealand Steel Limited, Z Energy Limited, Channel Infrastructure NZ Limited, and BT Mining Limited.
  61. ↑ UNEP (2020). Global Climate Litigation Report: 2020 Status Review (PDF). Nairobi, Kenya: UN Environment Programme. ISBN   978-92-807-3835-3. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2024-01-12. Retrieved 2024-03-06. Job no: DEL/2333/NA. See pages 22, 38, 42, 44. Note document misspells "Fronterra".
  62. ↑ Gill, Anam (2015-11-13). "Farmer sues Pakistan's government to demand action on climate change". Reuters. Archived from the original on 2021-04-21. Retrieved 2021-04-21.
  63. ↑ "Peruvian farmer sues German energy giant for contributing to climate change". The Guardian. Agence France-Presse. 14 November 2017. Archived from the original on 16 August 2019. Retrieved 4 July 2019– via www.theguardian.com.
  64. ↑ Sguazzin, Antony. "South African Court Says State Can't Order New Coal Plants". BNN Bloomberg. Retrieved 10 December 2024.
  65. ↑ "37 termik santrali kapatma davası görüldü: Avukatları 'Cumhurbaşkanının yetkisi yok' dedi". Yeşil Gazete (in Turkish). 2022-03-17. Archived from the original on 2022-06-18. Retrieved 2022-05-10.
  66. 1 2 "Turkey Archives". Climate Change Litigation. Archived from the original on 2023-12-19. Retrieved 2023-12-19.
  67. ↑ "Ekoloji Örgütleri, 37 Termik Santralın Kapatılması İçin Cumhurbaşkanı'na Dava Açtı". K2 Haber (in Turkish). 2022-03-17. Archived from the original on 2022-07-01. Retrieved 2022-05-10.
  68. ↑ "16 NGOs file a lawsuit, request shutdown of 37 thermal plants". Bianet . Archived from the original on 2024-03-16. Retrieved 2023-06-08.
  69. ↑ "34 termik santral ve 606 madene karşı açılan dava için Guinness başvurusu". Cumhuriyet (in Turkish). Archived from the original on 2022-05-09. Retrieved 2022-05-10.
  70. ↑ "Yeşil Artvin Derneği and others v. Presidency of the Republic of Türkiye, Ministry of Environment, Urbanization and Climate Change and Energy Market Regulatory Authority". Climate Change Litigation. Archived from the original on 2023-12-19. Retrieved 2023-12-19.
  71. ↑ "Young climate activists file lawsuit against Erdoğan over 'inadequate emission goals'". Bianet . Archived from the original on 2023-12-05. Retrieved 2023-12-05.
  72. ↑ "A.S. & S.A. & E.N.B v. Presidency of Türkiye & The Ministry of Environment, Urbanization and Climate Change". Climate Change Litigation. Archived from the original on 2023-12-19. Retrieved 2023-12-19.
  73. ↑ "Young climate activists file lawsuit against Erdoğan over 'inadequate emission goals'". Bianet . 10 May 2023. Archived from the original on 10 May 2023. Retrieved 1 January 2024.
  74. ↑ "S.S. Gölmarmara ve Çevresi Su Ürünleri Kooperatifi v. Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Manisa Directorate of Provincial Agriculture and Forestry". Climate Change Litigation. Archived from the original on 2023-12-19. Retrieved 2023-12-19.
  75. ↑ Merkezi, Haber (2024-03-26). "Marmara Gölü Tarım Alanına Dönüştürülemez!". İklim Haber (in Turkish). Retrieved 2024-09-25.
  76. ↑ "Doğa Derneği | Doğa Biziz!" (in Turkish). 2024-08-02. Retrieved 2024-09-25.
  77. ↑ "New Youth Climate Lawsuit Launched Against UK Government on Five Year Anniversary of Paris Agreement". DeSmog. 12 December 2020. Archived from the original on 2020-12-24. Retrieved 2021-01-08.
  78. ↑ "Young People v UK Government: Safeguard our Lives and our Families!". Plan B. Archived from the original on 2021-04-16. Retrieved 2021-04-14.
  79. ↑ Keating, Cecilia (2020-12-11). "'A quantum leap for climate action': UK pledges to end support for overseas oil and gas projects" . BusinessGreen. Archived from the original on 2021-04-20. Retrieved 2021-01-08.
  80. ↑ [2022] EWHC 1233 (Ch) and B Mercer, 'Lecturers' USS lawsuit frustrated by centuries-old precedent' (24 May 2022) Pensions Expert Archived 2023-02-06 at the Wayback Machine
  81. ↑ T Williams, 'Commit to restoring '£7,000' pension losses now, say USS members' Times Higher Ed Archived 2023-03-02 at the Wayback Machine
  82. ↑ E McGaughey, 'Holding USS Directors Accountable, and the Start of the End for Foss v Harbottle?' (18 July 2022) Oxford Business Law Blog Archived 2023-02-06 at the Wayback Machine
  83. 1 2 "We're taking Shell's Board of Directors to court". ClientEarth. 9 February 2023. Archived from the original on 10 February 2023. Retrieved 10 February 2023.
  84. ↑ "August 2022 Updates to the Climate Case Charts | Sabin Center for Climate Change Law". Sabin Centre for Climate Change Law. Archived from the original on 2022-10-24. Retrieved 2022-10-24.
  85. ↑ "U.S. Climate Change Litigation". Climate Change Litigation. Archived from the original on 2021-11-23. Retrieved 2021-11-18.
  86. ↑ "New Jersey latest state to sue oil companies over climate misinformation". the Guardian. 2022-10-18. Archived from the original on 2023-01-28. Retrieved 2023-01-28.
  87. 1 2 3 Burns, William C. G.; Osofsky, Hari M., eds. (2009). Adjudicating Climate Change: State, National, and International Approaches. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/cbo9780511596766. ISBN   978-0-521-87970-5. Archived from the original on 2021-11-23. Retrieved 2021-11-23.
  88. ↑ "A Citizens Guide to NEPA" (PDF). Council on Environmental Quality Executive Office of the President: 1–28. January 2021. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-12-02. Retrieved 2021-11-23.
  89. ↑ "NEPA - Introduction to Incorporating Climate Change | Climate Change Resource Center". www.fs.usda.gov. Archived from the original on 2021-11-23. Retrieved 2021-11-23.
  90. 1 2 US EPA, OP (2013-02-22). "Summary of the Clean Air Act". www.epa.gov. Archived from the original on 2013-04-24. Retrieved 2021-11-23.
  91. ↑ Lifsher, Marc (18 September 2007). "Global warming lawsuit dismissed". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 4 October 2009.
  92. ↑ Tanner, Adam (18 September 2007). "Calif. suit on car greenhouse gases dismissed". Reuters. Archived from the original on 15 February 2013.
  93. ↑ Pidot, Justin R. (2006). "Global Warming in the Courts – An Overview of Current Litigation and Common Legal Issues" (PDF). Georgetown University Law Center. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 June 2007. Retrieved 13 April 2007.
  94. ↑ http://www.ca5.uscourts.gov/opinions/pub/07/07-60756-CV0.wpd.pdf Archived 2023-12-11 at the Wayback Machine [ full citation needed ]
  95. ↑ "Proposed Settlement Agreement, Clean Air Act Citizen Suit". United States Environmental Protection Agency. 12 August 2005. Archived from the original on 2 July 2009. Retrieved 13 April 2007.
  96. ↑ The Sierra Club vs. Stephen L. Johnson (United States Environmental Protection Agency), 03-10262 ( United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit 20 January 2006).
  97. ↑ Sutter, John (9 March 2016). "Climate kids take on the feds". CNN . Archived from the original on 23 December 2019. Retrieved 23 October 2018.
  98. ↑ Noor, Dharna (12 June 2023). "Young Montana residents bring climate change case to court for first time ever". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 12 June 2023.
  99. ↑ Uyeda, Ray Levy (April 13, 2022). "Fossil fuels v our future: young Montanans wage historic climate fight". The Guardian. Archived from the original on March 10, 2023.
  100. ↑ "The Constitution of the State of Montana" (PDF). courts.mt.gov. Montana Judicial Branch. March 22, 1972. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 28, 2023.
  101. ↑ Gelles, David (March 24, 2023). "In Montana, It's Youth vs. the State in a Landmark Climate Case". The New York Times . ISSN   0362-4331. Archived from the original on June 14, 2023.
  102. ↑ Hanson, Amy Beth; Brown, Matthew (August 14, 2023). "Young environmental activists prevail in first-of-its-kind climate change trial in Montana". AP News. Archived from the original on August 17, 2023.
  103. ↑ Brown, Matthew; Hanson, Amy Beth (July 10, 2024). "Republicans urge reversal of landmark ruling in Montana climate change lawsuit by young plaintiffs". AP News. Archived from the original on July 11, 2024.
  104. ↑ "Families from 8 countries sue EU over climate change". France 24. AFP. 24 May 2018. Archived from the original on 29 May 2018. Retrieved 28 May 2018.
  105. ↑ "Anti-SLAPP: Final green light for EU law protecting journalists and human rights defenders". European Council Council of the European Union. European Union. Retrieved 8 August 2024.
  106. ↑ ECLI:CE:ECHR:2024:0409JUD005360020
  107. ↑ Kwai, Isabella; Bubola, Emma (9 April 2024). "In Landmark Climate Ruling, European Court Faults Switzerland". The New York Times . Archived from the original on 9 April 2024. Retrieved 9 April 2024.
  108. ↑ Francis, Ellen; Harlan, Chico (9 April 2024). "European court rules Switzerland climate inaction violated human rights". Washington Post. Retrieved 10 April 2024.
  109. ↑ O'Malley, Isabella; Beltaji, Dana (29 March 2023). "UN seeks court opinion on climate in win for island states". AP News. Archived from the original on 17 April 2023. Retrieved 17 April 2023.
  110. ↑ The Guardian, 29 Mar. 2023 "United Nations Adopts Landmark Resolution on Climate Justice, Resolution Hailed as 'Win for Climate Justice of Epic Proportions' Should Make It Easier to Hold Countries Accountable for Failures" Archived 2023-04-29 at the Wayback Machine
  111. 1 2 "The Climate Justice movement across the globe" Archived 6 November 2016 at the Wayback Machine , Greenpeace, 19 August 2015 (page visited on 6 November 2016).
  112. ↑ Jonathan Watts, "'We should be on the offensive' – James Hansen calls for wave of climate lawsuits" Archived 17 November 2017 at the Wayback Machine , The Guardian , 17 November 2017 (page visited on 17 November 2017).
  113. ↑ "First climate case reaches Brazil's Supreme Court". Grantham Research Institute on climate change and the environment. Archived from the original on 2021-08-31. Retrieved 2021-08-31.
  114. ↑ Reuters, "Nine-year-old sues Indian government over climate change inaction" Archived 9 April 2017 at the Wayback Machine , The Guardian , 7 April 2017 (page visited on 9 April 2017).
  115. 1 2 Tessa Khan, "How climate change battles are increasingly being fought, and won, in court" Archived 9 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine , The Guardian , 8 March 2017 (page visited on 9 March 2017).
  116. ↑ Tone Sutterud and Elisabeth Ulven, "Norway sued over Arctic oil exploration plans" Archived 17 November 2017 at the Wayback Machine , The Guardian , 14 November 2017 (page visited on 17 November 2017).
  117. ↑ Ainées pour la protection du climat Archived 6 November 2016 at the Wayback Machine , 2016 (page visited on 5 November 2016).
  118. ↑ John Vidal, "World's largest carbon producers face landmark human rights case" Archived 6 November 2016 at the Wayback Machine , The Guardian , 27 July 2016 (page visited on 6 November 2016).
  119. ↑ "Air pollution: The lawsuits that are holding governments to account". World Economic Forum. 2022-10-04. Archived from the original on 2023-12-21. Retrieved 2023-12-21.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.