Marine heatwave

Last updated
World map showing several marine heatwaves at different locations in August and September 2023. The marine heatwave west of South America is a prominent example. Recent marine heatwaves.png
World map showing several marine heatwaves at different locations in August and September 2023. The marine heatwave west of South America is a prominent example.

A marine heatwave is a period of abnormally high sea surface temperatures compared to the typical temperatures in the past for a particular season and region. [1] Marine heatwaves are caused by a variety of drivers. These include shorter term weather events such as fronts, intraseasonal events (30 to 90 days) , annual, and decadal (10-year) modes like El Niño events, and human-caused climate change. [2] [3] [4] Marine heatwaves affect ecosystems in the oceans. [5] [6] For example, marine heatwaves can lead to severe biodiversity changes such as coral bleaching, sea star wasting disease, [7] [8] harmful algal blooms, [9] and mass mortality of benthic communities. [10] Unlike heatwaves on land, marine heatwaves can extend over vast areas, persist for weeks to months or even years, and occur at subsurface levels. [11] [12] [13] [14]

Contents

Major marine heatwaves have occurred for example in the Great Barrier Reef in 2002, [15] in the Mediterranean Sea in 2003, [10] in the Northwest Atlantic in 2012, [2] [16] and in the Northeast Pacific during 2013–2016. [17] [18] These events have had drastic and long-term impacts on the oceanographic and biological conditions in those areas. [10] [19] [9]

Scientists predict that the frequency, duration, scale (or area) and intensity of marine heatwaves will continue to increase. [20] : 1227  This is because sea surface temperatures will continue to increase with global warming. The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report in 2022 has summarized research findings to date and stated that "marine heatwaves are more frequent [...], more intense and longer [...] since the 1980s, and since at least 2006 very likely attributable to anthropogenic climate change". [21] : 381  This confirms earlier findings in a report by the IPCC in 2019 which had found that "marine heatwaves [...] have doubled in frequency and have become longer lasting, more intense and more extensive (very likely).". [22] : 67  The extent of ocean warming depends on greenhouse gas emission scenarios, and thus humans' climate change mitigation efforts. Scientists predict that marine heatwaves will become "four times more frequent in 2081–2100 compared to 1995–2014" under the lower greenhouse gas emissions scenario, or eight times more frequent under the higher emissions scenario. [20] : 1214 

Definition

Global marine heatwave characteristics and case-study regions: 34-year (1982-2015) average properties of marine heatwaves based on daily sea surface temperatures datasets. 41467 2019 10206 Fig1 HTML.webp
Global marine heatwave characteristics and case-study regions: 34-year (1982–2015) average properties of marine heatwaves based on daily sea surface temperatures datasets.

The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report defines marine heatwave as follows: "A period during which water temperature is abnormally warm for the time of the year relative to historical temperatures, with that extreme warmth persisting for days to months. The phenomenon can manifest in any place in the ocean and at scales of up to thousands of kilometres." [1]

Another publication defined it as follows: an anomalously warm event is a marine heatwave "if it lasts for five or more days, with temperatures warmer than the 90th percentile based on a 30-year historical baseline period". [23]

The term marine heatwave was coined following an unprecedented warming event off the west coast of Australia in the austral summer of 2011, which led to a rapid dieback of kelp forests and associated ecosystem shifts along hundreds of kilometers of coastline. [24]

Categories

Categories of marine heatwaves Marine Heatwave Categories-en.svg
Categories of marine heatwaves

The quantitative and qualitative categorization of marine heatwaves establishes a naming system, typology, and characteristics for marine heatwave events. [23] [25] The naming system is applied by location and year: for example Mediterranean 2003. [25] [10] This allows researchers to compare the drivers and characteristics of each event, geographical and historical trends of marine heatwaves, and easily communicate marine heatwave events as they occur in real-time. [25]

The categorization system is on a scale from 1 to 4. [25] Category 1 is a moderate event, Category 2 is a strong event, Category 3 is a severe event, and Category 4 is an extreme event. The category applied to each event in real-time is defined primarily by sea surface temperature anomalies (SSTA), but over time it comes to include typology and characteristics. [25]

The types of marine heatwaves are symmetric, slow onset, fast onset, low intensity, and high intensity. [23] Marine heatwave events may have multiple categories such as slow onset, high intensity. The characteristics of marine heatwave events include duration, intensity (max, average, cumulative), onset rate, decline rate, region, and frequency. [23]

While marine heatwaves have been studied at the sea surface for more than a decade, they can also occur at the sea floor. [26]

Drivers

Space and time scales of characteristic MHW drivers. Schematic identifying the characteristic marine heatwave drivers and their relevant space and time scales, 41467 2019 10206 Fig2 HTML.webp
Space and time scales of characteristic MHW drivers. Schematic identifying the characteristic marine heatwave drivers and their relevant space and time scales,

Local processes and regional climate patterns

The drivers for marine heatwave events can be broken into local processes, teleconnection processes, and regional climate patterns. [2] [3] [4] Two quantitative measurements of these drivers have been proposed to identify marine heatwave, mean sea surface temperature and sea surface temperature variability. [25] [2] [4]

At the local level marine heatwave events are dominated by ocean advection, air-sea fluxes, thermocline stability, and wind stress. [2] Teleconnection processes refer to climate and weather patterns that connect geographically distant areas. [27] For marine heatwave, the teleconnection process that play a dominant role are atmospheric blocking/subsidence, jet-stream position, oceanic kelvin waves, regional wind stress, warm surface air temperature, and seasonal climate oscillations. These processes contribute to regional warming trends that disproportionately effect Western boundary currents. [2]

Regional climate patterns such as interdecadal oscillations like El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) have contributed to marine heatwave events such as "The Blob" in the Northeastern Pacific. [28]

Drivers that operate on the scale of biogeographical realms or the Earth as a whole are decadal oscillations, like Pacific decadal oscillations (PDO), and anthropogenic ocean warming due to climate change. [2] [4] [29] : 607 

Ocean areas of carbon sinks in the mid-latitudes of both hemispheres and carbon outgassing areas in upwelling regions of the tropical Pacific have been identified as places where persistent marine heatwaves occur; the air-sea gas exchange is being studied in these areas. [30]

Climate change

Sea surface temperature since 1979 in the extrapolar region (between 60 degrees south and 60 degrees north latitude) 1979- Daily sea surface temperatures 60S-60N latitudes.png
Sea surface temperature since 1979 in the extrapolar region (between 60 degrees south and 60 degrees north latitude)

Scientists predict that the frequency, duration, scale (or area) and intensity of marine heatwaves will continue to increase. [20] : 1227  This is because sea surface temperatures will continue to increase with global warming, and therefore the frequency and intensity of marine heatwaves will also increase. The extent of ocean warming depends on emission scenarios, and thus humans' climate change mitigation efforts. Simply put, the more greenhouse gas emissions (or the less mitigation), the more the sea surface temperature will rise. Scientists have calculated this as follows: there would be a relatively small (but still significant) increase of 0.86 °C in the average sea surface temperature for the low emissions scenario (called SSP1-2.6). But for the high emissions scenario (called SSP5-8.5) the temperature increase would be as high as 2.89 °C. [20] : 393 

The prediction for marine heatwaves is that they may become "four times more frequent in 2081–2100 compared to 1995–2014" under the lower emissions scenario, or eight times more frequent under the higher emissions scenario. [20] : 1214  The emissions scenarios are called SSP for Shared Socioeconomic Pathways. A mathematical model called CMIP6 is used for these predictions. The predictions are for the average of the future period (years 2081 to 2100) compared to the average of the past period (years 1995 to 2014). [20] : 1227 

Global warming is projected to push the tropical Indian Ocean into a basin-wide near-permanent heatwave state by the end of the 21st century, where marine heatwaves are projected to increase from 20 days per year (during 1970–2000) to 220–250 days per year. [31]

Many species already experience these temperature shifts during the course of marine heatwave events. [23] [25] There are many increased risk factors and health impacts to coastal and inland communities as global average temperature and extreme heat events increase. [32]

List of events

Sea surface temperatures have been recorded since 1904 in Port Erin, Isle of Man, [4] and measurements continue through global organizations such as NOAA, NASA, and many more. Events can be identified from 1925 till present day. [4] The list below is not a complete representation of all marine heatwave events that have ever been recorded.

List of some marine heatwaves 1999–2023
Region and dateCategoryDuration
(days)		Intensity
(°C)		Area
(millions of
km2)		Ref.
Mediterranean 1999181.9NA [25] [2] [10]
Mediterranean 20032105.50.5 [25] [2] [10]
Mediterranean 20032284.61.2 [25] [2] [10]
Mediterranean 20062334.0NA [25] [2] [10]
Western Australia 199931322.1NA [25] [2] [33]
Western Australia 20114664.90.95 [25] [2] [33]
Great Barrier Reef 20162554.02.6 [25] [2] [15]
Tasman Sea 201522522.7NA [25] [2]
Northwest Atlantic 201231324.30.1–0.3 [25] [2] [16] [34]
Northeast Pacific 2015 ("The Blob")37112.64.5–11.7 [5] [17] [18]
Santa Barbara 20153935.1NA
Southern California Bight 20183443.9NA [35]
Northeastern Atlantic 20235304.0–5.0NA [36]

Impacts

Bleachedcoral.jpg
Bleached coral
Lodestone Reef Valentines Day 2016, Green Chromis on Coral.jpg
Healthy coral

On marine ecosystems

Changes in the thermal environment of terrestrial and marine organisms can have drastic effects on their health and well-being. [19] [32] Marine heatwave events have been shown to increase habitat degradation, [37] [38] change species range dispersion, [19] complicate management of environmentally and economically important fisheries, [17] contribute to mass mortality of species, [10] [9] [7] and in general reshape ecosystems. [5] [15] [39]

Habitat degradation occurs through alterations of the thermal environment and subsequent restructuring and sometimes complete loss of biogenic habitats such as seagrass beds, corals, and kelp forests. [37] [38] These habitats contain a significant proportion of the oceans' biodiversity. [19] Changes in ocean current systems and local thermal environments have shifted many tropical species' ranges northward, while temperate species have lost[ clarification needed ] their southern limits. Large range shifts, along with outbreaks of toxic algal blooms, have impacted many species across taxa. [9] Management of these affected species becomes increasingly difficult as they migrate across management boundaries and the food web dynamics shift.

Increases in sea surface temperature have been linked to a decline in species abundance such as the mass mortality of 25 benthic species in the Mediterranean in 2003, sea star wasting disease, and coral bleaching events. [10] [19] [7] Climate change-related exceptional marine heatwaves in the Mediterranean Sea during 2015–2019 resulted in widespread mass sealife die-offs in five consecutive years. [40] Repeated marine heatwaves in the Northest[ clarification needed ] Pacific led to dramatic changes in animal abundances, predator-prey relationships, and energy flux throughout the ecosystem. [5] The impact of more frequent and prolonged marine heatwave events will have drastic implications for the distribution of species. [29] : 610 

Coral bleaching

This section is an excerpt from Coral bleaching § Trends due to climate change.[ edit ]

Extreme bleaching events are directly linked with climate-induced phenomena that increase ocean temperature, such as El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO). [41] The warming ocean surface waters can lead to bleaching of corals which can cause serious damage and coral death. The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report in 2022 found that: "Since the early 1980s, the frequency and severity of mass coral bleaching events have increased sharply worldwide". [42] : 416  Coral reefs, as well as other shelf-sea ecosystems, such as rocky shores, kelp forests, seagrasses, and mangroves, have recently undergone mass mortalities from marine heatwaves. [42] : 381  It is expected that many coral reefs will "undergo irreversible phase shifts due to marine heatwaves with global warming levels >1.5°C". [42] : 382 

This problem was already identified in 2007 by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) as the greatest threat to the world's reef systems. [43] [44]

The Great Barrier Reef experienced its first major bleaching event in 1998. Since then, bleaching events have increased in frequency, with three events occurring in the years 2016–2020. [45] Bleaching is predicted to occur three times a decade on the Great Barrier Reef if warming is kept to 1.5 °C, increasing every other year to 2 °C. [46]

With the increase of coral bleaching events worldwide, National Geographic noted in 2017, "In the past three years, 25 reefs—which comprise three-fourths of the world's reef systems—experienced severe bleaching events in what scientists concluded was the worst-ever sequence of bleachings to date." [47]

In a study conducted on the Hawaiian mushroom coral Lobactis scutaria , researchers discovered that higher temperatures and elevated levels of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) had a detrimental impact on its reproductive physiology. The purpose of this study was to investigate the survival of reef-building corals in their natural habitat, as coral reproduction is being hindered by the effects of climate change. [48]

On weather patterns

The marine heatwave termed "The Blob" that occurred in the Northeastern Pacific from 2013 to 2016. Podaac blob colordata sst2015.jpg
The marine heatwave termed "The Blob" that occurred in the Northeastern Pacific from 2013 to 2016.

Research on how marine heatwaves influence atmospheric conditions is emerging. Marine heatwaves in the tropical Indian Ocean are found to result in dry conditions over the central Indian subcontinent. [50] At the same time, there is an increase in rainfall over south peninsular India in response to marine heatwaves in the northern Bay of Bengal. These changes are in response to the modulation of the monsoon winds by the marine heatwaves.

Options for reducing impacts

To address the root cause of more frequent and more intense marine heatwaves, [21] : 416  climate change mitigation methods are needed to curb the increase in global temperature and in ocean temperatures.

Better forecasts of marine heatwaves and improved monitoring can also help to reduce impacts of these heatwaves. [21] : 417 

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coral reef</span> Outcrop of rock in the sea formed by the growth and deposit of stony coral skeletons

A coral reef is an underwater ecosystem characterized by reef-building corals. Reefs are formed of colonies of coral polyps held together by calcium carbonate. Most coral reefs are built from stony corals, whose polyps cluster in groups.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coral bleaching</span> Phenomenon where coral expel algae tissue

Coral bleaching is the process when corals become white due to loss of symbiotic algae and photosynthetic pigments. This loss of pigment can be caused by various stressors, such as changes in temperature, light, or nutrients. Bleaching occurs when coral polyps expel the zooxanthellae that live inside their tissue, causing the coral to turn white. The zooxanthellae are photosynthetic, and as the water temperature rises, they begin to produce reactive oxygen species. This is toxic to the coral, so the coral expels the zooxanthellae. Since the zooxanthellae produce the majority of coral colouration, the coral tissue becomes transparent, revealing the coral skeleton made of calcium carbonate. Most bleached corals appear bright white, but some are blue, yellow, or pink due to pigment proteins in the coral.

An ecological or environmental crisis occurs when changes to the environment of a species or population destabilizes its continued survival. Some of the important causes include:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Southeast Asian coral reefs</span> Marine ecosystem

Southeast Asian coral reefs have the highest levels of biodiversity for the world's marine ecosystems. They serve many functions, such as forming the livelihood for subsistence fishermen and even function as jewelry and construction materials. Corals inhabit coastal waters off of every continent except Antarctica, with an abundance of reefs residing along Southeast Asian coastline in several countries including Indonesia, the Philippines, and Thailand. Coral reefs are developed by the carbonate-based skeletons of a variety of animals and algae. Slowly and over time, the reefs build up to the surface in oceans. Coral reefs are found in shallow, warm salt water. The sunlight filters through clear water and allows microscopic organisms to live and reproduce. Coral reefs are actually composed of tiny, fragile animals known as coral polyps. Coral reefs are significantly important because of the biodiversity. Although the number of fish are decreasing, the remaining coral reefs contain more unique sea creatures. The variety of species living on a coral reef is greater than anywhere else in the world. An estimation of 70-90% of fish caught are dependent on coral reefs in Southeast Asia and reefs support over 25% of all known marine species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Effects of climate change</span>

Effects of climate change are well documented and growing for Earth's natural environment and human societies. Changes to the climate system include an overall warming trend, changes to precipitation patterns, and more extreme weather. As the climate changes it impacts the natural environment with effects such as more intense forest fires, thawing permafrost, and desertification. These changes impact ecosystems and societies, and can become irreversible once tipping points are crossed. Climate activists are engaged in a range of activities around the world that seek to ameliorate these issues or prevent them from happening.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ocean acidification</span> Decrease of pH levels in the ocean

Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth's ocean. Between 1950 and 2020, the average pH of the ocean surface fell from approximately 8.15 to 8.05. Carbon dioxide emissions from human activities are the primary cause of ocean acidification, with atmospheric carbon dioxide levels exceeding 422 ppm. CO2 from the atmosphere is absorbed by the oceans. This chemical reaction produces carbonic acid which dissociates into a bicarbonate ion and a hydrogen ion. The presence of free hydrogen ions lowers the pH of the ocean, increasing acidity. Marine calcifying organisms, such as mollusks and corals, are especially vulnerable because they rely on calcium carbonate to build shells and skeletons.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marine ecosystem</span> Ecosystem in saltwater environment

Marine ecosystems are the largest of Earth's aquatic ecosystems and exist in waters that have a high salt content. These systems contrast with freshwater ecosystems, which have a lower salt content. Marine waters cover more than 70% of the surface of the Earth and account for more than 97% of Earth's water supply and 90% of habitable space on Earth. Seawater has an average salinity of 35 parts per thousand of water. Actual salinity varies among different marine ecosystems. Marine ecosystems can be divided into many zones depending upon water depth and shoreline features. The oceanic zone is the vast open part of the ocean where animals such as whales, sharks, and tuna live. The benthic zone consists of substrates below water where many invertebrates live. The intertidal zone is the area between high and low tides. Other near-shore (neritic) zones can include mudflats, seagrass meadows, mangroves, rocky intertidal systems, salt marshes, coral reefs, lagoons. In the deep water, hydrothermal vents may occur where chemosynthetic sulfur bacteria form the base of the food web.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">National Marine Sanctuary of American Samoa</span>

The National Marine Sanctuary of American Samoa is a federally-designated underwater area protected by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA) Office of National Marine Sanctuaries. This sanctuary is the largest and most remote in the National Marine Sanctuary system. Spanning 13,581 sq mi, it is thought to be home to the greatest biodiversity of aquatic species of all the marine sanctuaries. Among them are expansive coral reefs, including some of the oldest Porites coral heads on earth, deep-water reefs, hydrothermal vent communities, and rare archeological resources. It was established as Fagatele Bay National Marine Sanctuary on April 29, 1986, it is thought to be home to the greatest biodiversity of aquatic species of all the marine sanctuaries. and then expanded and renamed in 2012.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change and fisheries</span>

Fisheries are affected by climate change in many ways: marine aquatic ecosystems are being affected by rising ocean temperatures, ocean acidification and ocean deoxygenation, while freshwater ecosystems are being impacted by changes in water temperature, water flow, and fish habitat loss. These effects vary in the context of each fishery. Climate change is modifying fish distributions and the productivity of marine and freshwater species. Climate change is expected to lead to significant changes in the availability and trade of fish products. The geopolitical and economic consequences will be significant, especially for the countries most dependent on the sector. The biggest decreases in maximum catch potential can be expected in the tropics, mostly in the South Pacific regions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental issues with coral reefs</span> Factors which adversely affect tropical coral reefs

Human activities have substantial impact on coral reefs, contributing to their worldwide decline. Damaging activities encompass coral mining, pollution, overfishing, blast fishing, as well as the excavation of canals and access points to islands and bays. Additional threats comprise disease, destructive fishing practices, and the warming of oceans. Furthermore, the ocean's function as a carbon dioxide sink, alterations in the atmosphere, ultraviolet light, ocean acidification, viral infections, the repercussions of dust storms transporting agents to distant reefs, pollutants, and algal blooms represent some of the factors exerting influence on coral reefs. Importantly, the jeopardy faced by coral reefs extends far beyond coastal regions. The ramifications of climate change, notably global warming, induce an elevation in ocean temperatures that triggers coral bleaching—a potentially lethal phenomenon for coral ecosystems.

The resilience of coral reefs is the biological ability of coral reefs to recover from natural and anthropogenic disturbances such as storms and bleaching episodes. Resilience refers to the ability of biological or social systems to overcome pressures and stresses by maintaining key functions through resisting or adapting to change. Reef resistance measures how well coral reefs tolerate changes in ocean chemistry, sea level, and sea surface temperature. Reef resistance and resilience are important factors in coral reef recovery from the effects of ocean acidification. Natural reef resilience can be used as a recovery model for coral reefs and an opportunity for management in marine protected areas (MPAs).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Effects of climate change on oceans</span>

There are many effects of climate change on oceans. One of the most important is an increase in ocean temperatures. More frequent marine heatwaves are linked to this. The rising temperature contributes to a rise in sea levels due to the expansion of water as it warms and the melting of ice sheets on land. Other effects on oceans include sea ice decline, reducing pH values and oxygen levels, as well as increased ocean stratification. All this can lead to changes of ocean currents, for example a weakening of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC). The main cause of these changes are the emissions of greenhouse gases from human activities, mainly burning of fossil fuels and deforestation. Carbon dioxide and methane are examples of greenhouse gases. The additional greenhouse effect leads to ocean warming because the ocean takes up most of the additional heat in the climate system. The ocean also absorbs some of the extra carbon dioxide that is in the atmosphere. This causes the pH value of the seawater to drop. Scientists estimate that the ocean absorbs about 25% of all human-caused CO2 emissions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mesophotic coral reef</span> Marine ecosystem

A mesophotic coral reef or mesophotic coral ecosystem (MCE), originally from the Latin word meso (meaning middle) and photic (meaning light), is characterized by the presence of both light-dependent coral and algae, and organisms that can be found in water with low light penetration. Mesophotic coral ecosystems occur at depths beyond those typically associated with coral reefs as the mesophotic ranges from brightly lit to some areas where light does not reach. Mesophotic coral ecosystem (MCEs) is a new, widely-adopted term used to refer to mesophotic coral reefs, as opposed to other similar terms like "deep coral reef communities" and "twilight zone", since those terms sometimes are confused due to their unclear, interchangeable nature. Many species of fish and corals are endemic to the MCEs making these ecosystems a crucial component in maintaining global diversity. Recently, there has been increased focus on the MCEs as these reefs are a crucial part of the coral reef systems serving as a potential refuge area for shallow coral reef taxa such as coral and sponges. Advances in recent technologies such as remotely operated underwater vehicles (ROVs) and autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) have enabled humans to conduct further research on these ecosystems and monitor these marine environments.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Effects of climate change on small island countries</span>

The effects of climate change on small island countries are affecting people in coastal areas through sea level rise, increasing heavy rain events, tropical cyclones and storm surges. These effects of climate change threaten the existence of many island countries, their peoples and cultures. They also alter ecosystems and natural environments in those countries. Small island developing states (SIDS) are a heterogenous group of countries but many of them are particularly at risk to climate change. Those countries have been quite vocal in calling attention to the challenges they face from climate change. For example, the Maldives and nations of the Caribbean and Pacific Islands are already experiencing considerable impacts of climate change. It is critical for them to implement climate change adaptation measures fast.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ocean acidification in the Great Barrier Reef</span> Threat to the reef which reduces the viability and strength of reef-building corals

Ocean acidification threatens the Great Barrier Reef by reducing the viability and strength of coral reefs. The Great Barrier Reef, considered one of the seven natural wonders of the world and a biodiversity hotspot, is located in Australia. Similar to other coral reefs, it is experiencing degradation due to ocean acidification. Ocean acidification results from a rise in atmospheric carbon dioxide, which is taken up by the ocean. This process can increase sea surface temperature, decrease aragonite, and lower the pH of the ocean. The more humanity consumes fossil fuels, the more the ocean absorbs released CO₂, furthering ocean acidification.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in the Caribbean</span> Emissions, impacts and responses of the Caribbean region related to climate change

Climate changein the Caribbean poses major risks to the islands in the Caribbean. The main environmental changes expected to affect the Caribbean are a rise in sea level, stronger hurricanes, longer dry seasons and shorter wet seasons. As a result, climate change is expected to lead to changes in the economy, environment and population of the Caribbean. Temperature rise of 2°C above preindustrial levels can increase the likelihood of extreme hurricane rainfall by four to five times in the Bahamas and three times in Cuba and the Dominican Republic. A rise in sea level could impact coastal communities of the Caribbean if they are less than 3 metres (10 ft) above the sea. In Latin America and the Caribbean, it is expected that 29–32 million people may be affected by the sea level rise because they live below this threshold. The Bahamas is expected to be the most affected because at least 80% of the total land is below 10 meters elevation.

The poleward migration of coral species refers to the phenomenon brought on by rising sea temperatures, wherein corals are colonising cooler climates in an attempt to circumvent coral bleaching, rising sea levels and ocean acidification. In the age of Anthropocene, the changing global climate has disrupted fundamental natural processes and brought about observable changes in the submarine sphere. Whilst coral reefs are bleaching in tropical areas like the Great Barrier Reef, even more striking, and perhaps more alarming; is the growth of tropical coral species in temperate regions, which has taken place over the past decade. Coral reefs are frequently compared to the "canaries in the coal mine," who were used by miners as an indicator of air quality. In much the same way, "coral reefs are sensitive to environmental changes that could damage other habitats in the future," meaning they will be the first to visually exhibit the true implications of global warming on the natural world.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human impact on marine life</span>

Human activities affect marine life and marine habitats through overfishing, habitat loss, the introduction of invasive species, ocean pollution, ocean acidification and ocean warming. These impact marine ecosystems and food webs and may result in consequences as yet unrecognised for the biodiversity and continuation of marine life forms.

Joan Ann ("Joanie") Kleypas is a marine scientist known for her work on the impact of ocean acidification and climate change on coral reefs, and for advancing solutions to environmental problems caused by climate change.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Effects of climate change on the tropics</span>

Climate change effects on tropical regions includes changes in marine ecosystems, human livelihoods, biodiversity, degradation of tropical rainforests and effects the environmental stability in these areas. Climate change is characterized by alterations in temperature, precipitation patterns, and extreme weather events. Tropical areas, located between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn, are known for their warm temperatures, high biodiversity, and distinct ecosystems, including rainforests, coral reefs, and mangroves.

References

  1. 1 2 IPCC, 2021: Annex VII: Glossary [Matthews, J.B.R., V. Möller, R. van Diemen, J.S. Fuglestvedt, V. Masson-Delmotte, C.  Méndez, S. Semenov, A. Reisinger (eds.)]. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 2215–2256, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.022.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Holbrook, Neil J.; Scannell, Hillary A.; Sen Gupta, Alexander; Benthuysen, Jessica A.; Feng, Ming; Oliver, Eric C. J.; Alexander, Lisa V.; Burrows, Michael T.; Donat, Markus G.; Hobday, Alistair J.; Moore, Pippa J. (2019-06-14). "A global assessment of marine heatwaves and their drivers". Nature Communications. 10 (1): 2624. Bibcode:2019NatCo..10.2624H. doi: 10.1038/s41467-019-10206-z . ISSN   2041-1723. PMC   6570771 . PMID   31201309. CC-BY icon.svg Text was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
  3. 1 2 Oliver, Eric C. J. (2019-08-01). "Mean warming not variability drives marine heatwave trends". Climate Dynamics. 53 (3): 1653–1659. Bibcode:2019ClDy...53.1653O. doi:10.1007/s00382-019-04707-2. ISSN   1432-0894. S2CID   135167065.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Oliver, Eric C. J.; Donat, Markus G.; Burrows, Michael T.; Moore, Pippa J.; Smale, Dan A.; Alexander, Lisa V.; Benthuysen, Jessica A.; Feng, Ming; Sen Gupta, Alex; Hobday, Alistair J.; Holbrook, Neil J. (2018-04-10). "Longer and more frequent marine heatwaves over the past century". Nature Communications. 9 (1): 1324. Bibcode:2018NatCo...9.1324O. doi:10.1038/s41467-018-03732-9. ISSN   2041-1723. PMC   5893591 . PMID   29636482.
  5. 1 2 3 4 Gomes, Dylan G. E.; Ruzicka, James J.; Crozier, Lisa G.; Huff, David D.; Brodeur, Richard D.; Stewart, Joshua D. (13 March 2024). "Marine heatwaves disrupt ecosystem structure and function via altered food webs and energy flux". Nature Communications. 15 (1): 1988. Bibcode:2024NatCo..15.1988G. doi: 10.1038/s41467-024-46263-2 . PMC   10937662 . PMID   38480718.
  6. ↑ Smith, Kathryn E.; Burrows, Michael T.; Hobday, Alistair J.; King, Nathan G.; Moore, Pippa J.; Sen Gupta, Alex; Thomsen, Mads S.; Wernberg, Thomas; Smale, Dan A. (16 January 2023). "Biological Impacts of Marine Heatwaves". Annual Review of Marine Science. 15 (1): 119–145. Bibcode:2023ARMS...15..119S. doi: 10.1146/annurev-marine-032122-121437 . hdl: 11250/3095845 . PMID   35977411.
  7. 1 2 3 Bates, AE; Hilton, BJ; Harley, CDG (2009-11-09). "Effects of temperature, season and locality on wasting disease in the keystone predatory sea star Pisaster ochraceus". Diseases of Aquatic Organisms. 86 (3): 245–251. doi: 10.3354/dao02125 . ISSN   0177-5103. PMID   20066959.
  8. ↑ Eisenlord, Morgan E.; Groner, Maya L.; Yoshioka, Reyn M.; Elliott, Joel; Maynard, Jeffrey; Fradkin, Steven; Turner, Margaret; Pyne, Katie; Rivlin, Natalie; van Hooidonk, Ruben; Harvell, C. Drew (2016-03-05). "Ochre star mortality during the 2014 wasting disease epizootic: role of population size structure and temperature". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 371 (1689): 20150212. doi:10.1098/rstb.2015.0212. PMC   4760142 . PMID   26880844.
  9. 1 2 3 4 McCabe, Ryan M.; Hickey, Barbara M.; Kudela, Raphael M.; Lefebvre, Kathi A.; Adams, Nicolaus G.; Bill, Brian D.; Gulland, Frances M. D.; Thomson, Richard E.; Cochlan, William P.; Trainer, Vera L. (2016-10-16). "An unprecedented coastwide toxic algal bloom linked to anomalous ocean conditions". Geophysical Research Letters. 43 (19): 10366–10376. Bibcode:2016GeoRL..4310366M. doi:10.1002/2016GL070023. ISSN   0094-8276. PMC   5129552 . PMID   27917011.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Garrabou, J.; Coma, R.; Bensoussan, N.; Bally, M.; Chevaldonné, P.; Cigliano, M.; Diaz, D.; Harmelin, J. G.; Gambi, M. C.; Kersting, D. K.; Ledoux, J. B. (May 2009). "Mass mortality in Northwestern Mediterranean rocky benthic communities: effects of the 2003 heat wave". Global Change Biology. 15 (5): 1090–1103. Bibcode:2009GCBio..15.1090G. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2008.01823.x. S2CID   55566218.
  11. ↑ Bond, Nicholas A.; Cronin, Meghan F.; Freeland, Howard; Mantua, Nathan (2015-05-16). "Causes and impacts of the 2014 warm anomaly in the NE Pacific: 2014 WARM ANOMALY IN THE NE PACIFIC". Geophysical Research Letters. 42 (9): 3414–3420. doi: 10.1002/2015GL063306 . S2CID   129149984.
  12. ↑ Schaeffer, A.; Roughan, M. (2017-05-28). "Subsurface intensification of marine heatwaves off southeastern Australia: The role of stratification and local winds: SUBSURFACE MARINE HEAT WAVES". Geophysical Research Letters. 44 (10): 5025–5033. doi:10.1002/2017GL073714. S2CID   134464357.
  13. ↑ Perkins-Kirkpatrick, S. E.; King, A. D.; Cougnon, E. A.; Holbrook, N. J.; Grose, M. R.; Oliver, E. C. J.; Lewis, S. C.; Pourasghar, F. (2019-01-01). "The Role of Natural Variability and Anthropogenic Climate Change in the 2017/18 Tasman Sea Marine Heatwave". Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. 100 (1): S105–S110. Bibcode:2019BAMS..100S.105P. doi:10.1175/BAMS-D-18-0116.1. hdl: 1885/237324 . ISSN   0003-0007. S2CID   127347944.
  14. ↑ Laufkötter, Charlotte; Zscheischler, Jakob; Frölicher, Thomas L. (2020-09-25). "High-impact marine heatwaves attributable to human-induced global warming". Science. 369 (6511): 1621–1625. Bibcode:2020Sci...369.1621L. doi:10.1126/science.aba0690. ISSN   0036-8075. PMID   32973027. S2CID   221881814.
  15. 1 2 3 Frölicher, Thomas L.; Laufkötter, Charlotte (December 2018). "Emerging risks from marine heat waves". Nature Communications. 9 (1): 650. Bibcode:2018NatCo...9..650F. doi:10.1038/s41467-018-03163-6. ISSN   2041-1723. PMC   5811532 . PMID   29440658.
  16. 1 2 Gulf of Maine Research Institute; Pershing, Andrew; Mills, Katherine; Dayton, Alexa; Franklin, Bradley; Kennedy, Brian (2018-06-01). "Evidence for Adaptation from the 2016 Marine Heatwave in the Northwest Atlantic Ocean". Oceanography. 31 (2). doi: 10.5670/oceanog.2018.213 .
  17. 1 2 3 Scripps Institution of Oceanography; Cavole, Leticia; Demko, Alyssa; Diner, Rachel; Giddings, Ashlyn; Koester, Irina; Pagniello, Camille; Paulsen, May-Linn; Ramirez-Valdez, Arturo; Schwenck, Sarah; Yen, Nicole (2016). "Biological Impacts of the 2013–2015 Warm-Water Anomaly in the Northeast Pacific: Winners, Losers, and the Future". Oceanography. 29 (2). doi: 10.5670/oceanog.2016.32 .
  18. 1 2 Gentemann, Chelle L.; Fewings, Melanie R.; García-Reyes, Marisol (2017-01-16). "Satellite sea surface temperatures along the West Coast of the United States during the 2014–2016 northeast Pacific marine heat wave: Coastal SSTs During "the Blob"". Geophysical Research Letters. 44 (1): 312–319. doi: 10.1002/2016GL071039 .
  19. 1 2 3 4 5 Smale, Dan A.; Wernberg, Thomas; Oliver, Eric C. J.; Thomsen, Mads; Harvey, Ben P.; Straub, Sandra C.; Burrows, Michael T.; Alexander, Lisa V.; Benthuysen, Jessica A.; Donat, Markus G.; Feng, Ming (April 2019). "Marine heatwaves threaten global biodiversity and the provision of ecosystem services". Nature Climate Change. 9 (4): 306–312. Bibcode:2019NatCC...9..306S. doi:10.1038/s41558-019-0412-1. hdl: 2160/3a9b534b-03ab-4619-9637-2ab06054fe70 . ISSN   1758-6798. S2CID   91471054.
  20. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Fox-Kemper, B., H.T. Hewitt, C. Xiao, G. Aðalgeirsdóttir, S.S. Drijfhout, T.L. Edwards, N.R. Golledge, M. Hemer, R.E. Kopp, G.  Krinner, A. Mix, D. Notz, S. Nowicki, I.S. Nurhati, L. Ruiz, J.-B. Sallée, A.B.A. Slangen, and Y. Yu, 2021: Chapter 9: Ocean, Cryosphere and Sea Level Change. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L.  Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1211–1362, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.011.
  21. 1 2 3 Cooley, S., D. Schoeman, L. Bopp, P. Boyd, S. Donner, D.Y. Ghebrehiwet, S.-I. Ito, W. Kiessling, P. Martinetto, E. Ojea, M.-F. Racault, B. Rost, and M. Skern-Mauritzen, 2022: Chapter 3: Oceans and Coastal Ecosystems and Their Services. In: Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 379–550, doi:10.1017/9781009325844.005.
  22. ↑ IPCC, 2019: Technical Summary [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, V. Masson-Delmotte, P. Zhai, E. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, M. Tignor, A. Alegría, M. Nicolai, A. Okem, J. Petzold, B. Rama, N.M. Weyer (eds.)]. In: IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate [H.- O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, V. Masson-Delmotte, P. Zhai, M. Tignor, E. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Nicolai, A. Okem, J. Petzold, B. Rama, N.M. Weyer (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 39–69. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157964.002
  23. 1 2 3 4 5 Hobday, Alistair J.; Alexander, Lisa V.; Perkins, Sarah E.; Smale, Dan A.; Straub, Sandra C.; Oliver, Eric C. J.; Benthuysen, Jessica A.; Burrows, Michael T.; Donat, Markus G.; Feng, Ming; Holbrook, Neil J.; Moore, Pippa J.; Scannell, Hillary A.; Sen Gupta, Alex; Wernberg, Thomas (2016-02-01). "A hierarchical approach to defining marine heatwaves". Progress in Oceanography. 141: 227–238. Bibcode:2016PrOce.141..227H. doi: 10.1016/j.pocean.2015.12.014 . hdl: 2160/36448 . ISSN   0079-6611. S2CID   49583270.
  24. ↑ Smith, Kathryn E.; Burrows, Michael T.; Hobday, Alistair J.; King, Nathan G.; Moore, Pippa J.; Sen Gupta, Alex; Thomsen, Mads S.; Wernberg, Thomas; Smale, Dan A. (2023). "Biological Impacts of Marine Heatwaves". Annual Review of Marine Science. 15: 119–145. Bibcode:2023ARMS...15..119S. doi: 10.1146/annurev-marine-032122-121437 . hdl: 11250/3095845 . PMID   35977411. CC-BY icon.svg Text was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
  25. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 CSIRO; Hobday, Alistair; Oliver, Eric; Sen Gupta, Alex; Benthuysen, Jessica; Burrows, Michael; Donat, Markus; Holbrook, Neil; Moore, Pippa; Thomsen, Mads; Wernberg, Thomas (2018-06-01). "Categorizing and Naming Marine Heatwaves". Oceanography. 31 (2). doi: 10.5670/oceanog.2018.205 . hdl: 2160/c18751bf-af03-41dd-916e-c5e1bdf648a5 . CC-BY icon.svg Text was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
  26. ↑ National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) & University Corporation for Atmospheric Research (UCAR) (17 Mar 2023). "Scientists identify heat wave at bottom of ocean". Phys.org.
  27. ↑ Gu, D. (1997-02-07). "Interdecadal Climate Fluctuations That Depend on Exchanges Between the Tropics and Extratropics". Science. 275 (5301): 805–807. doi:10.1126/science.275.5301.805. PMID   9012341. S2CID   2595302.
  28. ↑ Schwing, Franklin B.; Mendelssohn, Roy; Bograd, Steven J.; Overland, James E.; Wang, Muyin; Ito, Shin-ichi (2010-02-10). "Climate change, teleconnection patterns, and regional processes forcing marine populations in the Pacific". Journal of Marine Systems. Impact of climate variability on marine ecosystems: A comparative approach. 79 (3): 245–257. Bibcode:2010JMS....79..245S. doi:10.1016/j.jmarsys.2008.11.027. ISSN   0924-7963.
  29. 1 2 Collins M., M. Sutherland, L. Bouwer, S.-M. Cheong, T. Frölicher, H. Jacot Des Combes, M. Koll Roxy, I. Losada, K. McInnes, B. Ratter, E. Rivera-Arriaga, R.D. Susanto, D. Swingedouw, and L. Tibig, 2019: Chapter 6: Extremes, Abrupt Changes and Managing Risk. In: IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C.  Roberts, V. Masson-Delmotte, P. Zhai, M. Tignor, E. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Nicolai, A. Okem, J. Petzold, B. Rama, N.M. Weyer (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 589–655. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157964.008.
  30. ↑ Mignot, A., von Schuckmann, K., Landschützer, P. et al. Decrease in air-sea CO2 fluxes caused by persistent marine heatwaves. Nature Communications 13, 4300 (2022). Nature website Retrieved 21 September 2022.
  31. ↑ Roxy, M.K. (April 26, 2024). "Future projections for the tropical Indian Ocean". The Indian Ocean and its Role in the Global Climate System. Elsevier. pp. 469–482. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-822698-8.00004-4. ISBN   978-0-12-822698-8.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  32. 1 2 Greene, Scott; Kalkstein, Laurence S.; Mills, David M.; Samenow, Jason (October 2011). "An Examination of Climate Change on Extreme Heat Events and Climate–Mortality Relationships in Large U.S. Cities". Weather, Climate, and Society. 3 (4): 281–292. doi: 10.1175/WCAS-D-11-00055.1 . ISSN   1948-8327. S2CID   49322487.
  33. 1 2 Pearce, Alan F.; Feng, Ming (2013-02-01). "The rise and fall of the "marine heat wave" off Western Australia during the summer of 2010/2011". Journal of Marine Systems. 111–112: 139–156. Bibcode:2013JMS...111..139P. doi:10.1016/j.jmarsys.2012.10.009. ISSN   0924-7963.
  34. ↑ Herring, Stephanie C.; Hoell, Andrew; Hoerling, Martin P.; Kossin, James P.; Schreck, Carl J.; Stott, Peter A. (December 2016). "Introduction to Explaining Extreme Events of 2015 from a Climate Perspective". Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. 97 (12): S1–S3. Bibcode:2016BAMS...97S...1H. doi: 10.1175/BAMS-D-16-0313.1 . ISSN   0003-0007.
  35. ↑ Fumo, James T.; Carter, Melissa L.; Flick, Reinhard E.; Rasmussen, Linda L.; Rudnick, Daniel L.; Iacobellis, Sam F. (May 2020). "Contextualizing Marine Heatwaves in the Southern California Bight Under Anthropogenic Climate Change". Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans. 125 (5). Bibcode:2020JGRC..12515674F. doi: 10.1029/2019JC015674 . ISSN   2169-9275. S2CID   218992543.
  36. ↑ "Record-breaking North Atlantic Ocean temperatures contribute to extreme marine heatwaves". Copernicus Climate Change Service. European Commission. Retrieved 13 August 2023.
  37. 1 2 Salinger, M James; Renwick, James; Behrens, Erik; Mullan, A Brett; Diamond, Howard J; Sirguey, Pascal; Smith, Robert O; Trought, Michael C T; Alexander, Lisa; Cullen, Nicolas J; Fitzharris, B Blair (2019-04-12). "The unprecedented coupled ocean-atmosphere summer heatwave in the New Zealand region 2017/18: drivers, mechanisms and impacts". Environmental Research Letters. 14 (4): 044023. Bibcode:2019ERL....14d4023S. doi: 10.1088/1748-9326/ab012a . hdl: 10182/12205 . ISSN   1748-9326.
  38. 1 2 Galli, Giovanni; Solidoro, Cosimo; Lovato, Tomas (2017-05-11). "Marine Heat Waves Hazard 3D Maps and the Risk for Low Motility Organisms in a Warming Mediterranean Sea". Frontiers in Marine Science. 4: 136. doi: 10.3389/fmars.2017.00136 . ISSN   2296-7745.
  39. ↑ Wernberg, T.; Bennett, S.; Babcock, R. C.; de Bettignies, T.; Cure, K.; Depczynski, M.; Dufois, F.; Fromont, J.; Fulton, C. J.; Hovey, R. K.; Harvey, E. S. (2016-07-08). "Climate-driven regime shift of a temperate marine ecosystem". Science. 353 (6295): 169–172. Bibcode:2016Sci...353..169W. doi: 10.1126/science.aad8745 . hdl: 20.500.11937/31133 . ISSN   0036-8075. PMID   27387951.
  40. ↑ Garrabou, Joaquim; Gómez-Gras, Daniel; Medrano, Alba; Cerrano, Carlo; Ponti, Massimo; Schlegel, Robert; Bensoussan, Nathaniel; Turicchia, Eva; Sini, Maria; Gerovasileiou, Vasilis; et al. (18 July 2022). "Marine heatwaves drive recurrent mass mortalities in the Mediterranean Sea". Global Change Biology. 28 (19): 5708–5725. doi:10.1111/gcb.16301. ISSN   1354-1013. PMC   9543131 . PMID   35848527. S2CID   250622761.
  41. ↑ Baker, Andrew C.; Glynn, Peter W.; Riegl, Bernhard (December 2008). "Climate change and coral reef bleaching: An ecological assessment of long-term impacts, recovery trends and future outlook". Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science. 80 (4): 435–471. Bibcode:2008ECSS...80..435B. doi:10.1016/j.ecss.2008.09.003. ISSN   0272-7714.
  42. 1 2 3 Cooley, S., D. Schoeman, L. Bopp, P. Boyd, S. Donner, D.Y. Ghebrehiwet, S.-I. Ito, W. Kiessling, P. Martinetto, E. Ojea, M.-F. Racault, B. Rost, and M. Skern-Mauritzen, 2022: Chapter 3: Oceans and Coastal Ecosystems and Their Services. In: Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 379–550, doi:10.1017/9781009325844.005.
  43. ↑ IPCC (2007). "Summary for policymakers" (PDF). In Parry ML, Canziani OF, Palutikof JP, van der Linden PJ, Hanson CE (eds.). Climate Change 2007: impacts, adaptation and vulnerability: contribution of Working Group II to the fourth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 7–22. ISBN   978-0-521-70597-4. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 January 2018. Retrieved 8 July 2009.
  44. ↑ Fischlin A, Midgley GF, Price JT, Leemans R, Gopal B, Turley C, Rounsevell MD, Dube OP, Tarazona J, Velichko AA (2007). "Ch 4. Ecosystems, their properties, goods and services" (PDF). In Parry ML, Canziani OF, Palutikof JP, van der Linden PJ, Hanson CE (eds.). Climate Change 2007: impacts, adaptation and vulnerability: contribution of Working Group II to the fourth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 211–72. ISBN   978-0-521-70597-4. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 October 2017. Retrieved 8 July 2009.
  45. ↑ Davidson, Jordan (25 March 2020). "Great Barrier Reef Has Third Major Bleaching Event in Five Years". Ecowatch. Retrieved 27 March 2020.
  46. ↑ McWhorter, Jennifer K.; Halloran, Paul R.; Roff, George; Skirving, William J.; Perry, Chris T.; Mumby, Peter J. (February 2022). "The importance of 1.5°C warming for the Great Barrier Reef". Global Change Biology. 28 (4): 1332–1341. doi:10.1111/gcb.15994. hdl: 10871/127948 . PMID   34783126. S2CID   244131267.
  47. ↑ "Coral Reefs Could Be Gone in 30 Years". National Geographic News. 2017-06-23. Archived from the original on 7 May 2019. Retrieved 2019-05-07.
  48. ↑ Bouwmeester, Jessica; Daly, Jonathan; Zuchowicz, Nikolas; Lager, Claire; Henley, E. Michael; Quinn, Mariko; Hagedorn, Mary (2023-01-05). "Solar radiation, temperature and the reproductive biology of the coral Lobactis scutaria in a changing climate". Scientific Reports. 13 (1): 246. Bibcode:2023NatSR..13..246B. doi:10.1038/s41598-022-27207-6. ISSN   2045-2322. PMC   9816315 . PMID   36604569.
  49. ↑ Naranjo, Laura (2 November 2018). "The blob | Earthdata". earthdata.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2019-09-30.
  50. ↑ Saranya, J. S.; Roxy, M. K.; Dasgupta, Panini; Anand, Ajay (February 2022). "Genesis and Trends in Marine Heatwaves Over the Tropical Indian Ocean and Their Interaction With the Indian Summer Monsoon". Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans. 127 (2). Bibcode:2022JGRC..12717427S. doi:10.1029/2021JC017427. ISSN   2169-9275.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.