Climate-smart agriculture

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A local farmer in Myanmar poses in front of a mango field that is a part of a Climate Smart Village. Climate Smart Village Mango Field in Myanmar.jpg
A local farmer in Myanmar poses in front of a mango field that is a part of a Climate Smart Village.

Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) (or climate resilient agriculture) is a set of farming methods that has three main objectives with regards to climate change. [1] [2] Firstly, they use adaptation methods to respond to the effects of climate change on agriculture (this also builds resilience to climate change). Secondly, they aim to increase agricultural productivity and to ensure food security for a growing world population. Thirdly, they try to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture as much as possible (for example by following carbon farming approaches). Climate-smart agriculture works as an integrated approach to managing land. This approach helps farmers to adapt their agricultural methods (for raising livestock and crops) to the effects of climate change. [2]

Contents

The most effective approach to enhancing climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is to involve the relevant organizations and government. This will demonstrate the duties and responsibilities of the government and the supporting institutions in facilitating the advancement of CSA practices. Assessing risks necessitates contemplating climate-smart agriculture. The CSA can assist in the research of the introduction of new crop varieties to address the changing climate. [3]

There are different actions to adapt to the future challenges for crops and livestock. For example, with regard to rising temperatures and heat stress, CSA can include the planting of heat tolerant crop varieties, mulching, boundary trees, and appropriate housing and spacing for cattle. [4]

There are attempts to mainstream CSA into core government policies and planning frameworks. In order for CSA policies to be effective, they must contribute to broader economic growth and poverty reduction. [5]

The term climate-smart agriculture has been criticized as a form of greenwashing for big businesses. [6] [7]

Definition

The World Bank described climate-smart agriculture (CSA) as follows: "CSA is a set of agricultural practices and technologies which simultaneously boost productivity, enhance resilience and reduce GHG emissions." [2] and "CSA is an integrated approach to managing landscapes—cropland, livestock, forests and fisheries--that address the interlinked challenges of food security and climate change." [2]

FAO's definition is: "CSA is an approach that helps guide actions to transform agri-food systems towards green and climate resilient practices." [1]

Objectives

CSA has the following three objectives: "sustainably increasing agricultural productivity and incomes; adapting and building resilience to climate change; and reducing and/or removing greenhouse gas emissions". [1]

Others describe the objectives as follows: mitigate the adverse impacts of climate change on agriculture, stabilize crop production, maximize food security. [8] [9]

Increasing climate resilience

This section is an excerpt from Climate change adaptation § Changed rainfall patterns in agriculture.[ edit ]

Climate change is altering global rainfall patterns. This affects agriculture. [10] Rainfed agriculture accounts for 80% of global agriculture. [11] Many of the 852 million poor people in the world live in parts of Asia and Africa that depend on rainfall to cultivate food crops. Climate change will modify rainfall, evaporation, runoff, and soil moisture storage. Extended drought can cause the failure of small and marginal farms. This results in increased economic, political and social disruption.

Water availability strongly influences all kinds of agriculture. Changes in total seasonal precipitation or its pattern of variability are both important. Moisture stress during flowering, pollination, and grain-filling harms most crops. It is particularly harmful to corn, soybeans, and wheat. Increased evaporation from the soil and accelerated transpiration in the plants themselves will cause moisture stress.

There are many adaptation options. One is to develop crop varieties with greater drought tolerance [12] and another is to build local rainwater storage. Using small planting basins to harvest water in Zimbabwe has boosted maize yields. This happens whether rainfall is abundant or scarce. And in Niger they have led to three or fourfold increases in millet yields. [13]

Climate change can threaten food security and water security. It is possible to adapt food systems to improve food security and prevent negative impacts from climate change in the future. [14]

Reducing greenhouse gas emissions

This section is an excerpt from Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture.[ edit ]
One quarter of the world's greenhouse gas emissions result from food and agriculture (data from 2019). Global greenhouse gas emissions from food production.png
One quarter of the world's greenhouse gas emissions result from food and agriculture (data from 2019).

Farm animals' digestive systems can be put into two categories: monogastric and ruminant. Ruminant cattle for beef and dairy rank high in greenhouse gas emissions. In comparison, monogastric, or pigs and poultry-related foods, are lower. The consumption of the monogastric types may yield less emissions. Monogastric animals have a higher feed-conversion efficiency and also do not produce as much methane. [16] Non-ruminant livestock, such as poultry, emit far fewer greenhouse gases. [17]

There are many strategies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture (this is one of the goals of climate-smart agriculture). Mitigation measures in the food system can be divided into four categories. These are demand-side changes, ecosystem protections, mitigation on farms, and mitigation in supply chains. On the demand side, limiting food waste is an effective way to reduce food emissions. Changes to a diet less reliant on animal products such as plant-based diets are also effective. [18] : XXV  This could include milk substitutes and meat alternatives. Several methods are also under investigation to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions from livestock farming. These include genetic selection, [19] [20] introduction of methanotrophic bacteria into the rumen, [21] [22] vaccines, feeds, [23] diet modification and grazing management. [24] [25] [26]

Strategies

Strategies and methods for CSA should be specific to the local contexts where they are employed. They should include capacity-building for participants in order to offset the higher costs of implementation. [27]

Carbon farming

Carbon farming is one of the components of climate-smart agriculture and aims at reducing or removing greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture.

This section is an excerpt from Carbon farming.[ edit ]

Carbon farming is a set of agricultural methods that aim to store carbon in the soil, crop roots, wood and leaves. The technical term for this is carbon sequestration . The overall goal of carbon farming is to create a net loss of carbon from the atmosphere. [28] This is done by increasing the rate at which carbon is sequestered into soil and plant material. One option is to increase the soil's organic matter content. This can also aid plant growth, improve soil water retention capacity [29] and reduce fertilizer use. [30] Sustainable forest management is another tool that is used in carbon farming. [31] Carbon farming is one component of climate-smart agriculture. It is also one way to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.

Agricultural methods for carbon farming include adjusting how tillage and livestock grazing is done, using organic mulch or compost, working with biochar and terra preta, and changing the crop types. Methods used in forestry include reforestation and bamboo farming.

Gender-responsive approach

Woman picking peas in the Mount Kenya region, for the Two Degrees Up project, to look at the effects of climate change on agriculture 2DU Kenya 84 (5367322092).jpg
Woman picking peas in the Mount Kenya region, for the Two Degrees Up project, to look at the effects of climate change on agriculture

To increase the effectiveness and sustainability of CSA interventions, they must be designed to address gender inequalities and discriminations against people at risk. [33] : 1  Women farmers are more prone to climate risk than men are. In developing countries, women have less access compared to men to productive resources, financial capital, and advisory services. They often tend to be excluded from decision making which may impact on their adoption of technologies and practices that could help them adapt to climatic conditions. A gender-responsive approach to CSA tries to identify and address the diverse constraints faced by men and women and recognizes their specific capabilities. [33]

Climate-smart agriculture presents opportunities for women in agriculture to engage in sustainable production. [34]

Monitoring tools

FAO has identified several tools for countries and individuals to assess, monitor and evaluate integral parts of CSA planning and implementation: [35]

  1. Modelling System for Agricultural Impacts of Climate Change (MOSAICC)
  2. Global Livestock Environmental Assessment Model (GLEAM)
  3. Sustainability Assessment of Food and Agriculture (SAFA) system [36]
  4. Economics and Policy Innovations for Climate-Smart Agriculture (EPIC)
  5. Ex-Ante Carbon-balance Tool (EX-ACT)
  6. Climate Risk Management (CRM)
  7. Gender mainstreaming
  8. Monitoring and Assessment of Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Mitigation Potential in Agriculture (MAGHG) project


Climate-Resilient Agriculture Index

The Climate-Resilient Agriculture (CRA) Index is a tool designed to assess and improve the resilience of agricultural systems to climate change. Two distinct versions of this index exist, each with a unique purpose and scope:

CRA Index

The CRA Index is aimed at benchmarking national agricultural resilience across countries. It uses nine indicators grouped into three dimensions: agricultural productivity and resource use efficiency, environmental sustainability and climate impact, and socio-economic resilience. It helps categorise nations into four resilience levels: Highly Resilient, Moderately Resilient, Low Resilience, and Very Low Resilience. This index provides policymakers with insights to prioritise interventions and enhance national-level climate adaptation strategies. [37]

CRA Index for India

The CRA Index for India evaluates climate resilience within the country's diverse agro-climatic zones. It employs 26 indicators spanning environmental, technological, socio-economic, and infrastructural dimensions to assess inter- and intra-zone resilience variations. This region-specific framework supports the development of tailored strategies to address local challenges and improve agricultural adaptability to climate change. [38]

Both indices offer valuable insights for addressing the impacts of climate change on agriculture. While the global CRA Index focuses on international benchmarking and national-level strategies, the CRA Index for India targets regional disparities to guide localised interventions.

Major initiatives

European Green Deal

The EU has promoted the development of climate-smart agriculture and forestry practices [39] as part of the European Green Deal Policy. [40] A critical assessment of progress was carried out using different multi-criteria indices covering socio-economic, technical and environmental factors. [41] The results indicated that the most advanced CSA countries within the EU are Austria, Denmark and the Netherlands. The countries with the lowest levels of CSA penetration are Cyprus, Greece and Portugal. Key factors included labor productivity, female ownership of farmland, level of education, degree of poverty and social exclusion, energy consumption/efficiency and biomass/crop productivity. [41] The Horizon Europe research programme has created a focus on CSA and climate-smart farming within the EU. [42] [43] Projects deal with co-creation among stakeholders to change behavior and understanding within agricultural value chains. Investigative CSA studies on pig, dairy, fruit, vegetable and grain farms have been carried out in Denmark, Germany, Spain, Netherlands and Lithuania, respectively. [44]

Agriculture Innovation Mission for Climate

The Agriculture Innovation Mission for Climate (AIM for Climate/AIM4C) is a 5-year initiative to 2025, organized jointly by the UN, US and UAE. [45] The objective is to rally around climate-smart agriculture and food system innovations. It has attracted some 500 government and non-government organizations around the world and about US$10 billion from governments and US$3 billion from other sources. [46] The initiative was introduced during COP-26 in Glasgow. [47]

The CGIAR as part of the AIM4C summit in May 2023 called for a number of actions: [48] Integration of initiatives from the partner organizations, enabling innovative financing, production of radical policy and governance reform based on evidence. And lastly, promotion of project monitoring, evaluation, and learning

Global Roadmap to 2050 for Food and Agriculture

Global food systems GHG emissions in 2020 for different agriculture sectors in terms of gigatons of CO2 equivalents Global food systems GHG emissions in 2020.png
Global food systems GHG emissions in 2020 for different agriculture sectors in terms of gigatons of CO2 equivalents

Several actors are involved in creating pathways towards net-zero emissions in global food systems. [49]

Four areas of focus relate to:

Livestock production (beef, pork, chicken, sheep and milk) alone accounts for 60% of total global food system GHG emissions. [49] Rice, maize and wheat stand for 25% of the global emissions from food systems.

Criticism

The greatest concern with CSA is that no universally acceptable standard exists against which those who call themselves climate-smart are actually acting smart. Until those certifications are created and met, skeptics are concerned that big businesses will just continue to use the name to greenwash their organizations—or provide a false sense of environmental stewardship. [7] CSA can be seen as a meaningless label that is applicable to virtually anything, and this is deliberate as it is meant to conceal the social, political and environmental implications of the different technology choices.

In 2014 The Guardian reported that climate-smart agriculture had been criticized as a form of greenwashing. [6]

Contradictions surrounding practical value of CSA among consumers and suppliers may be the reason why the European Union is lagging with CSA implementation compared to other areas of the world. [50]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change mitigation</span> Actions to reduce net greenhouse gas emissions to limit climate change

Climate change mitigation (or decarbonisation) is action to limit the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere that cause climate change. Climate change mitigation actions include conserving energy and replacing fossil fuels with clean energy sources. Secondary mitigation strategies include changes to land use and removing carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere. Current climate change mitigation policies are insufficient as they would still result in global warming of about 2.7 °C by 2100, significantly above the 2015 Paris Agreement's goal of limiting global warming to below 2 °C.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental vegetarianism</span> Type of practice of vegetarianism

Environmental vegetarianism is the practice of vegetarianism that is motivated by the desire to create a sustainable diet, which avoids the negative environmental impact of meat production. Livestock as a whole is estimated to be responsible for around 15% of global greenhouse gas emissions. As a result, significant reduction in meat consumption has been advocated by, among others, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change in their 2019 special report and as part of the 2017 World Scientists' Warning to Humanity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Enteric fermentation</span> Digestive process that emits methane

Enteric fermentation is a digestive process by which carbohydrates are broken down by microorganisms into simple molecules for absorption into the bloodstream of an animal. Because of human agricultural reliance in many parts of the world on animals which digest by enteric fermentation, it is the second largest anthropogenic factor for the increase in methane emissions directly after fossil fuel use.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Greenhouse gas emissions</span> Greenhouse gases emitted from human activities

Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from human activities intensify the greenhouse effect. This contributes to climate change. Carbon dioxide, from burning fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas, is one of the most important factors in causing climate change. The largest emitters are China followed by the United States. The United States has higher emissions per capita. The main producers fueling the emissions globally are large oil and gas companies. Emissions from human activities have increased atmospheric carbon dioxide by about 50% over pre-industrial levels. The growing levels of emissions have varied, but have been consistent among all greenhouse gases. Emissions in the 2010s averaged 56 billion tons a year, higher than any decade before. Total cumulative emissions from 1870 to 2022 were 703 GtC, of which 484±20 GtC from fossil fuels and industry, and 219±60 GtC from land use change. Land-use change, such as deforestation, caused about 31% of cumulative emissions over 1870–2022, coal 32%, oil 24%, and gas 10%.

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<i>Livestocks Long Shadow</i> United Nations report

Livestock's Long Shadow: Environmental Issues and Options is a United Nations report, released by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations on 29 November 2006, that "aims to assess the full impact of the livestock sector on environmental problems, along with potential technical and policy approaches to mitigation". It stated that livestock accounts for 18% of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions, a figure which FAO changed to 14.5% in its 2013 study Tackling climate change through livestock.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Low-carbon diet</span> Diet to reduce greenhouse gas emissions

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Climate resilience is a concept to describe how well people or ecosystems are prepared to bounce back from certain climate hazard events. The formal definition of the term is the "capacity of social, economic and ecosystems to cope with a hazardous event or trend or disturbance". For example, climate resilience can be the ability to recover from climate-related shocks such as floods and droughts. Different actions can increase climate resilience of communities and ecosystems to help them cope. They can help to keep systems working in the face of external forces. For example, building a seawall to protect a coastal community from flooding might help maintain existing ways of life there.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Regenerative agriculture</span> Conservation and rehabilitation approach to food and farming systems

Regenerative agriculture is a conservation and rehabilitation approach to food and farming systems. It focuses on topsoil regeneration, increasing biodiversity, improving the water cycle, enhancing ecosystem services, supporting biosequestration, increasing resilience to climate change, and strengthening the health and vitality of farm soil.

A meat tax is a tax levied on meat and/or other animal products to help cover the health and environmental costs that result from using animals for food. Livestock is known to significantly contribute to global warming, and to negatively impact global nitrogen cycles and biodiversity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carbon farming</span> Agricultural methods that capture carbon

Carbon farming is a set of agricultural methods that aim to store carbon in the soil, crop roots, wood and leaves. The technical term for this is carbon sequestration. The overall goal of carbon farming is to create a net loss of carbon from the atmosphere. This is done by increasing the rate at which carbon is sequestered into soil and plant material. One option is to increase the soil's organic matter content. This can also aid plant growth, improve soil water retention capacity and reduce fertilizer use. Sustainable forest management is another tool that is used in carbon farming. Carbon farming is one component of climate-smart agriculture. It is also one way to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Special Report on Climate Change and Land</span> IPCC report

The United Nations' Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's (IPCC) Special Report on Climate Change and Land (SRCCL), also known as the "Special Report on climate change, desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems", is a landmark study from 2019 by 107 experts from 52 countries. The SRCCL provides a comprehensive overview of the entire land-climate system for the first time and decided to enlist land as a "critical resource". The IPCC's 50th session (IPCC-50) formally adopted the SRCCL's Summary for policymakers (SPM) and approved the underlying report. The SPM and the full text of Special Report on Climate Change and Land—in an unedited form—were released on 8 August 2019. The report is over 1,300 pages long and includes the work of 107 experts from 52 countries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture</span>

The amount of greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture is significant: The agriculture, forestry and land use sectors contribute between 13% and 21% of global greenhouse gas emissions. Emissions come from direct greenhouse gas emissions. And from indirect emissions. With regards to direct emissions, nitrous oxide and methane makeup over half of total greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture. Indirect emissions on the other hand come from the conversion of non-agricultural land such as forests into agricultural land. Furthermore, there is also fossil fuel consumption for transport and fertilizer production. For example, the manufacture and use of nitrogen fertilizer contributes around 5% of all global greenhouse gas emissions. Livestock farming is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions. At the same time, livestock farming is affected by climate change.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fruit production and deforestation</span>

Fruit production is a major driver of deforestation around the world. In tropical countries, forests are often cleared to plant fruit trees, such as bananas, pineapples, and mangos. This deforestation is having a number of negative environmental impacts, including biodiversity loss, ecosystem disruption, and land degradation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Malawi</span>

Malawi is a land-locked country in southeastern Africa situated along the southernmost arm of the East African Rift-Valley System between latitudes 9°22’ and 17°03’ south of the equator, and longitudes 33°40’ and 35°55’ east of the Greenwich meridian. It shares borders with Tanzania in the north and northeast, Mozambique in the southwest, south, and east, and Zambia in the west. Malawi is highly vulnerable to the effects of climate change as the vast majority of Malawians rely on small-scale, rain-fed agriculture, making them highly dependent on weather patterns. Climate change increasingly exacerbates droughts, flooding, and inconsistent rainfall—contributing to food insecurity and threatening to derail progress toward Malawi's goal of self-reliance.

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  41. 1 2 Morkunas, Mangirdas; Volkov, Artiom (2023-06-01). "The Progress of the Development of a Climate-smart Agriculture in Europe: Is there Cohesion in the European Union?". Environmental Management. 71 (6): 1111–1127. Bibcode:2023EnMan..71.1111M. doi:10.1007/s00267-022-01782-w. ISSN   1432-1009. PMID   36648532. S2CID   255941160.
  42. ↑ "Climate Action (Horizon Europe) - European Commission". cinea.ec.europa.eu. 2024-04-03. Retrieved 2024-06-10.
  43. ↑ "Demonstration network on climate-smart farming – linking research stations". Horizon-europe.gouv.fr (in French). Retrieved 2024-06-18.
  44. ↑ "Beatles • Beatles". Beatles. Retrieved 2024-06-10.
  45. ↑ "AIM for Climate". www.aimforclimate.org. Retrieved 2023-08-13.
  46. ↑ National, The (2023-05-11). "Biden hails UAE partnership for advancing agricultural innovation and improving lives". The National. Retrieved 2023-08-13.
  47. ↑ Service, SME News (2023-07-18). "Insight: AIM4C – Revolutionising Agriculture for Climate Resilience and Food Security". Sustainability Middle East News. Retrieved 2023-08-13.
  48. ↑ "Enabling innovation for breakthroughs in agriculture: Key recommendations as the AIM for Climate Summit kicks off". CGIAR. Retrieved 2023-08-13.
  49. 1 2 Costa, Ciniro; Wollenberg, Eva; Benitez, Mauricio; Newman, Richard; Gardner, Nick; Bellone, Federico (2022-09-05). "Roadmap for achieving net-zero emissions in global food systems by 2050". Scientific Reports. 12 (1): 15064. Bibcode:2022NatSR..1215064C. doi:10.1038/s41598-022-18601-1. ISSN   2045-2322. PMC   9442557 . PMID   36065006.
  50. ↑ Long, Thomas B.; Blok, Vincent; Coninx, Ingrid (2016-01-20). "Barriers to the adoption and diffusion of technological innovations for climate-smart agriculture in Europe: evidence from the Netherlands, France, Switzerland and Italy". Journal of Cleaner Production. 112: 9–21. Bibcode:2016JCPro.112....9L. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.06.044. ISSN   0959-6526.
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