Nature-based solutions

Last updated
Example for a nature-based solution in the area of water resource management: this riparian buffer protects a creek in Iowa, United States from the impact of adjacent land uses NRCSIA00041 - Iowa (2285)(NRCS Photo Gallery).jpg
Example for a nature-based solution in the area of water resource management: this riparian buffer protects a creek in Iowa, United States from the impact of adjacent land uses

Nature-based solutions (or nature-based systems, and abbreviated as NBS or NbS) describe the development and use of nature (biodiversity) and natural processes to address diverse socio-environmental issues. [1] These issues include climate change mitigation and adaptation, human security issues such as water security and food security, and disaster risk reduction. [2] The aim is that resilient ecosystems (whether natural, managed, or newly created) provide solutions for the benefit of both societies and biodiversity. [3] The 2019 UN Climate Action Summit highlighted nature-based solutions as an effective method to combat climate change. [4] For example, nature-based systems for climate change adaptation can include natural flood management, restoring natural coastal defences, and providing local cooling. [5] : 310 

Contents

The concept of NBS is related to the concept of ecological engineering [6] and ecosystem-based adaptation. [5] : 284  NBS are also related, conceptually to the practice of ecological restoration. The sustainable management approach is a key aspect of NBS development and implementation.

Mangrove restoration efforts along coastlines provide an example of a nature-based solution that can achieve multiple goals. Mangroves moderate the impact of waves and wind on coastal settlements or cities, [7] and they sequester carbon. [8] They also provide nursery zones for marine life which is important for sustaining fisheries. Additionally, mangrove forests can help to control coastal erosion resulting from sea level rise.

Green roofs, blue roofs and green walls (as part of green infrastructure) are also nature-based solutions that can be implemented in urban areas. They can reduce the effects of urban heat islands, capture stormwater, abate pollution, and act as carbon sinks. At the same time, they can enhance local biodiversity.

NBS systems and solutions are forming an increasing part of national and international policies on climate change. They are included in climate change policy, infrastructure investment, and climate finance mechanisms. The European Commission has paid increasing attention to NBS since 2013. [9] This is reflected in the majority of global NBS case studies reviewed by Debele et al (2023) being located in Europe. [2] While there is much scope for scaling-up nature-based systems and solutions globally, they frequently encounter numerous challenges during planning and implementation. [2] [10] [11]

The IPCC pointed out that the term is "the subject of ongoing debate, with concerns that it may lead to the misunderstanding that NbS on its own can provide a global solution to climate change". [12] : 24  To clarify this point further, the IPCC also stated that "nature-based systems cannot be regarded as an alternative to, or a reason to delay, deep cuts in GHG emissions". [5] : 203 

Definition

Mangroves protect coastlines against erosion (Cape Coral, Florida, United States) ISS047-E-84351 Cape Coral, Florida (annotated).jpg
Mangroves protect coastlines against erosion (Cape Coral, Florida, United States)

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) defines NBS as "actions to protect, sustainably manage, and restore natural or modified ecosystems, that address societal challenges effectively and adaptively, simultaneously providing human well-being and biodiversity benefits". [13] Societal challenges of relevance here include climate change, food security, disaster risk reduction, water security.

In other words: "Nature-based solutions are interventions that use the natural functions of healthy ecosystems to protect the environment but also provide numerous economic and social benefits." [14] : 1403  They are used both in the context of climate change mitigation as well as adaptation. [15] : 469 

The European Commission's definition of NBS states that these solutions are "inspired and supported by nature, which are cost-effective, simultaneously provide environmental, social and economic benefits and help build resilience. Such solutions bring more, and more diverse, nature and natural features and processes into cities, landscapes, and seascapes, through locally adapted, resource-efficient and systemic interventions". [16] In 2020, the EC definition was updated to further emphasise that "Nature-based solutions must benefit biodiversity and support the delivery of a range of ecosystem services." [17]

The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report pointed out that the term nature-based solutions is "widely but not universally used in the scientific literature". [12] : 24  As of 2017, the term NBS was still regarded as "poorly defined and vague". [18]

The term ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA) is a subset of nature-based solutions and "aims to maintain and increase the resilience and reduce the vulnerability of ecosystems and people in the face of the adverse effects of climate change". [5] : 284 

History of the term

The term nature-based solutions was put forward by practitioners in the late 2000s. At that time it was used by international organisations such as the International Union for Conservation of Nature and the World Bank in the context of finding new solutions to mitigate and adapt to climate change effects by working with natural ecosystems rather than relying purely on engineering interventions. [9] [19] [13] : 3 

Many indigenous peoples have recognised the natural environment as playing an important role in human well-being as part of their traditional knowledge systems, but this idea did not enter into modern scientific literature until the 1970's with the concept of ecosystem services. [13] : 2 

The IUCN referred to NBS in a position paper for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. [20] The term was also adopted by European policymakers, in particular by the European Commission, in a report [21] stressing that NBS can offer innovative means to create jobs and growth as part of a green economy. The term started to make appearances in the mainstream media around the time of the Global Climate Action Summit in California in September 2018. [22]

Objectives and framing

Coastal habitat protection at Morro Strand State Beach in San Luis Obispo County, California Morro Strand State Beach (1).jpg
Coastal habitat protection at Morro Strand State Beach in San Luis Obispo County, California

Nature-based solutions stress the sustainable use of nature in solving coupled environmental-social-economic challenges. [9] NBS go beyond traditional biodiversity conservation and management principles by "re-focusing" the debate on humans and specifically integrating societal factors such as human well-being and poverty reduction, socio-economic development, and governance principles.

The general objective of NBS is clear, namely the sustainable management and use of Nature for tackling societal challenges. [23] However, different stakeholders view NBS from a variety of perspectives. [6] For instance, the IUCN puts the need for well-managed and restored ecosystems at the heart of NBS, with the overarching goal of "Supporting the achievement of society's development goals and safeguard human well-being in ways that reflect cultural and societal values and enhance the resilience of ecosystems, their capacity for renewal and the provision of services". [24]

The European Commission underlines that NBS can transform environmental and societal challenges into innovation opportunities, by turning natural capital into a source for green growth and sustainable development. [21] Within this viewpoint, nature-based solutions to societal challenges "bring more, and more diverse, nature and natural features and processes into cities, landscapes and seascapes, through locally adapted, resource-efficient and systemic interventions". [25] As a result, NBS has been suggested as a means of implementing the nature-positive goal to halt and reverse nature loss by 2030, and achieve full nature recovery by 2050. [26]

Categories

The IUCN proposes to consider NBS as an umbrella concept. [13] Categories and examples of NBS approaches according to the IUCN include: [13]

Category of NBS approachesExamples
Ecosystem restoration approachesEcological restoration, ecological engineering, forest landscape restoration
Issue-specific ecosystem-related approaches Ecosystem-based adaptation, ecosystem-based mitigation, climate adaptation services, ecosystem-based disaster risk reduction
Infrastructure-related approachesNatural infrastructure, green infrastructure
Ecosystem-based management approaches Integrated coastal zone management, integrated water resources management
Ecosystem protection approachesArea-based conservation approaches including protected area management

Types

Schematic presentation of the NBS typology. Fig 2 NbS.jpg
Schematic presentation of the NBS typology.

Scientists have proposed a typology to characterise NBS along two gradients: [6]

  1. "How much engineering of biodiversity and ecosystems is involved in NBS", and
  2. "How many ecosystem services and stakeholder groups are targeted by a given NBS".

The typology highlights that NBS can involve very different actions on ecosystems (from protection, to management, or even the creation of new ecosystems) and is based on the assumption that the higher the number of services and stakeholder groups targeted, the lower the capacity to maximise the delivery of each service and simultaneously fulfil the specific needs of all stakeholder groups.

As such, three types of NBS are distinguished (hybrid solutions exist along this gradient both in space and time. For instance, at a landscape scale, mixing protected and managed areas could be required to fulfill multi-functionality and sustainability goals):

Type 1 – Minimal intervention in ecosystems

Type 1 consists of no or minimal intervention in ecosystems, with the objectives of maintaining or improving the delivery of a range of ecosystem services both inside and outside of these conserved ecosystems. Examples include the protection of mangroves in coastal areas to limit risks associated with extreme weather conditions; and the establishment of marine protected areas to conserve biodiversity within these areas while exporting fish and other biomass into fishing grounds. This type of NBS is connected to, for example, the concept of biosphere reserves.

Type 2 – Some interventions in ecosystems and landscapes

Type 2 corresponds to management approaches that develop sustainable and multifunctional ecosystems and landscapes (extensively or intensively managed). These types improve the delivery of selected ecosystem services compared to what would be obtained through a more conventional intervention. Examples include innovative planning of agricultural landscapes to increase their multi-functionality; using existing agrobiodiversity to increase biodiversity, connectivity, and resilience in landscapes; and approaches for enhancing tree species and genetic diversity to increase forest resilience to extreme events. This type of NBS is strongly connected to concepts like agroforestry.

Type 3 – Managing ecosystems in extensive ways

Type 3 consists of managing ecosystems in very extensive ways or even creating new ecosystems (e.g., artificial ecosystems with new assemblages of organisms for green roofs and walls to mitigate city warming and clean polluted air). Type 3 is linked to concepts like green and blue infrastructures and objectives like restoration of heavily degraded or polluted areas and greening cities. Constructed wetlands are one example for a Type 3 NBS.

Applications

Climate change mitigation and adaptation

The 2019 UN Climate Action Summit highlighted nature-based solutions as an effective method to combat climate change. [4] For example, NBS in the context of climate action can include natural flood management, restoring natural coastal defences, providing local cooling, restoring natural fire regimes. [5] : 310 

The Paris Agreement calls on all Parties to recognise the role of natural ecosystems in providing services such as that of carbon sinks. [27] Article 5.2 encourages Parties to adopt conservation and management as a tool for increasing carbon stocks and Article 7.1 encourages Parties to build the resilience of socioeconomic and ecological systems through economic diversification and sustainable management of natural resources. [28] The Agreement refers to nature (ecosystems, natural resources, forests) in 13 distinct places. An in-depth analysis [29] of all Nationally Determined Contributions [30] submitted to UNFCCC, revealed that around 130 NDCs or 65% of signatories commit to nature-based solutions in their climate pledges. This suggests a broad consensus for the role of nature in helping to meet climate change goals. However, high-level commitments rarely translate into robust, measurable actions on-the-ground. [31]

A global systemic map of evidence was produced to determine and illustrate the effectiveness of NBS for climate change adaptation. [11] After sorting through 386 case studies with computer programs, the study found that NBS were just as, if not more, effective than traditional or alternative flood management strategies. [11] 66% of cases evaluated reported positive ecological outcomes, 24% did not identify a change in ecological conditions and less than 1% reported negative impacts. Furthermore, NBS always had better social and climate change mitigation impacts. [11]

In the 2019 UN Climate Action Summit, nature-based solutions were one of the main topics covered, and were discussed as an effective method to combat climate change. A "Nature-Based Solution Coalition" was created, including dozens of countries, led by China and New Zealand. [4]

Urban areas

Example of nature-based solution for an urban area: Chicago City Hall green roof. One of the benefits is that it mitigates the urban heat island effect, Chicago City Hall green roof edit.jpg
Example of nature-based solution for an urban area: Chicago City Hall green roof. One of the benefits is that it mitigates the urban heat island effect,

Since around 2017, many studies have proposed ways of planning and implementing nature-based solutions in urban areas. [32] [33] [34]

It is crucial that grey infrastructures continue to be used with green infrastructure. [35] Multiple studies recognise that while NBS is very effective and improves flood resilience, it is unable to act alone and must be in coordination with grey infrastructure. [35] [36] Using green infrastructure alone or grey infrastructure alone are less effective than when the two are used together. [35] When NBS is used alongside grey infrastructure the benefits transcend flood management and improve social conditions, increase carbon sequestration and prepare cities for planning for resilience. [37]

In the 1970s a popular approach in the U.S. was that of Best Management Practices (BMP) for using nature as a model for infrastructure and development while the UK had a model for flood management called "sustainable drainage systems". [38] Another framework called "Water Sensitive Urban Design" (WSUD) came out of Australia in the 1990s while Low Impact Development (LID) came out of the U.S. [38]   Eventually New Zealand reframed LID to create "Low Impact Urban Design and Development" (LIUDD) with a focus on using diverse stakeholders as a foundation. Then in the 2000s the western hemisphere largely adopted "Green Infrastructure" for stormwater management as well as enhancing social, economic and environmental conditions for sustainability. [38]

In a Chinese National Government program, the Sponge Cities Program, planners are using green grey infrastructure in 30 Chinese cities as a way to manage pluvial flooding and climate change risk after rapid urbanization. [38]

Water management aspects

Example of a Type 3 nature-based solution: Constructed wetland for wastewater treatment at an ecological housing estate in Flintenbreite, Germany Flintenbreite constructed wetland.jpg
Example of a Type 3 nature-based solution: Constructed wetland for wastewater treatment at an ecological housing estate in Flintenbreite, Germany

With respect to water issues, NBS can achieve the following: [39]

The UN has also tried to promote a shift in perspective towards NBS: the theme for World Water Day 2018 was "Nature for Water", while UN-Water's accompanying UN World Water Development Report was titled "Nature-based Solutions for Water". [40]

For example, the Lancaster Environment Centre has implemented catchments at different scales on flood basins in conjunction with modelling software that allows observers to calculate the factor by which the floodplain expanded during two storm events. The idea is to divert higher floods flows into expandable areas of storage in the landscape. [37]

Forest restoration for multiple benefits

Forest restoration can benefit both biodiversity and human livelihoods (eg. providing food, timber and medicinal products). Diverse, native tree species are also more likely to be resilient to climate change than plantation forests. Agricultural expansion has been the main driver of deforestation globally. [41] Forest loss has been estimated at around 4.7 million ha per year in 2010–2020. Over the same period, Asia had the highest net gain of forest area followed by Oceania and Europe. [42] Forest restoration, as part of national development strategies, can help countries achieve sustainable development goals. [43] For example, in Rwanda, the Rwanda Natural Resources Authority, World Resources Institute and IUCN began a program in 2015 for forest landscape restoration as a national priority. NBS approaches used were ecological restoration and ecosystem-based mitigation and the program was meant to address the following societal issues: food security, water security, disaster risk reduction. [13] : 50  The Great Green Wall, a joint campaign among African countries to combat desertification launched in 2007.

Implementation

Example of a city that uses nature-based solutions: Tallinn, the capital of Estonia, has been designated as the European Green Capital 2023 in recognition of its efforts to promote sustainable transport, green economy and environmental conservation. Tallinn, European Green Capital 2023.jpg
Example of a city that uses nature-based solutions: Tallinn, the capital of Estonia, has been designated as the European Green Capital 2023 in recognition of its efforts to promote sustainable transport, green economy and environmental conservation.

Guidance for effective implementation

A number of studies and reports have proposed principles and frameworks to guide effective and appropriate implementation. [32] [34] [13] : 5  One primary principle, for example, is that NBS seek to embrace, rather than replace, nature conservation norms. [44] [45] NBS can be implemented alone or in an integrated manner along with other solutions to societal challenges (e.g. technological and engineering solutions) and are applied at the landscape scale.

Researchers have pointed out that "instead of framing NBS as an alternative to engineered approaches, we should focus on finding synergies among different solutions". [46]

The concept of NBS is gaining acceptance outside the conservation community (e.g. urban planning) and is now on its way to be mainstreamed into policies and programmes (climate change policy, law, infrastructure investment, and financing mechanisms), [17] [9] [47] although NBS still face many implementation barriers and challenges. [10] [11]

Multiple case studies have demonstrated that NBS can be more economically viable than traditional technological infrastructures. [37] [48]

Implementation of NBS requires measures like adaptation of economic subsidy schemes, and the creation of opportunities for conservation finance, to name a few. [45]

Using geographic information systems (GIS)

NBS are also determined by site-specific natural and cultural contexts that include traditional, local and scientific knowledge. Geographic information systems (GIS) can be used as an analysis tool to determine sites that may succeed as NBS. [49]  GIS can function in such a way that site conditions including slope gradients, water bodies, land use and soils are taken into account in analyzing for suitability. [49] The resulting maps are often used in conjunction with historic flood maps to determine the potential of floodwater storage capacity on specific sites using 3D modeling tools. [49]

Projects supported by the European Union

Since 2016, the EU has supported a multi-stakeholder dialogue platform (ThinkNature [50] ) to promote the co-design, testing, and deployment of improved and innovative NBS in an integrated way. [16] The creation of such science-policy-business-society interfaces could promote market uptake of NBS. [51] The project was part of the EU’s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation programme, and ran for 3 years.

In 2017, as part of the Presidency of the Estonian Republic of the Council of the European Union, a conference called "Nature-based Solutions: From Innovation to Common-use" was organised by the Ministry of the Environment of Estonia and the University of Tallinn. [52] This conference aimed to strengthen synergies among various recent initiatives and programs related to NBS, focusing on policy and governance of NBS, research, and innovation.

Concerns

The Indigenous Environmental Network has stated that "Nature-based solutions (NBS) is a greenwashing tool that does not address the root causes of climate change." and "The legacy of colonial power continues through nature-based solutions." [53] For example, NBS activities can involve converting non-forest land into forest plantations (for climate change mitigation) but this carries risks of climate injustice through taking land away from smallholders and pastoralists. [54] : 163 

However, the IPCC pointed out that the term is "the subject of ongoing debate, with concerns that it may lead to the misunderstanding that NbS on its own can provide a global solution to climate change". [12] : 24  To clarify this point further, the IPCC also stated that "nature-based systems cannot be regarded as an alternative to, or a reason to delay, deep cuts in GHG emissions". [5] : 203 

The majority of case studies and examples of NBS are from the Global North, resulting in a lack of data for many medium- and low-income nations. [11] Consequently, many ecosystems and climates are excluded from existing studies as well as cost analyses in these locations. Further research needs to be conducted in the Global South to determine the efficacy of NBS on climate, social and ecological standards.

NBS is closely related to concepts like ecosystem approaches and ecological engineering. [6] This includes concepts such as ecosystem-based adaptation [5] : 284  and green infrastructure. [55]

For instance, ecosystem-based approaches are increasingly promoted for climate change adaptation and mitigation by organisations like the United Nations Environment Programme and non-governmental organisations such as The Nature Conservancy. These organisations refer to "policies and measures that take into account the role of ecosystem services in reducing the vulnerability of society to climate change, in a multi-sectoral and multi-scale approach". [56]

Examples

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">International Union for Conservation of Nature</span> International organization

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is an international organization working in the field of nature conservation and sustainable use of natural resources. Founded in 1948, IUCN has become the global authority on the status of the natural world and the measures needed to safeguard it. It is involved in data gathering and analysis, research, field projects, advocacy, and education. IUCN's mission is to "influence, encourage and assist societies throughout the world to conserve nature and to ensure that any use of natural resources is equitable and ecologically sustainable".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wetland</span> Type of land area that is flooded or saturated with water

A wetland is a distinct semi-aquatic ecosystem whose groundcovers are flooded or saturated in water, either permanently, for years or decades, or only seasonally. Flooding results in oxygen-poor (anoxic) processes taking place, especially in the soils. Wetlands form a transitional zone between waterbodies and dry lands, and are different from other terrestrial or aquatic ecosystems due to their vegetation's roots having adapted to oxygen-poor waterlogged soils. They are considered among the most biologically diverse of all ecosystems, serving as habitats to a wide range of aquatic and semi-aquatic plants and animals, with often improved water quality due to plant removal of excess nutrients such as nitrates and phosphorus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ecological restoration</span> Scientific study of renewing and restoring ecosystems

Ecological restoration, or ecosystem restoration, is the process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged, or destroyed. It is distinct from conservation in that it attempts to retroactively repair already damaged ecosystems rather than take preventative measures. Ecological restoration can reverse biodiversity loss, combat climate change, and support local economies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ecosystem service</span> Benefits provided by intact ecosystems

Ecosystem services are the various benefits that humans derive from healthy ecosystems. These ecosystems, when functioning well, offer such things as provision of food, natural pollination of crops, clean air and water, decomposition of wastes, or flood control. Ecosystem services are grouped into four broad categories of services. There are provisioning services, such as the production of food and water. Regulating services, such as the control of climate and disease. Supporting services, such as nutrient cycles and oxygen production. And finally there are cultural services, such as spiritual and recreational benefits. Evaluations of ecosystem services may include assigning an economic value to them.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change adaptation</span> Process of adjusting to effects of climate change

Climate change adaptation is the process of adjusting to the effects of climate change. These can be both current or expected impacts. Adaptation aims to moderate or avoid harm for people, and is usually done alongside climate change mitigation. It also aims to exploit opportunities. Humans may also intervene to help adjust for natural systems. There are many adaptation strategies or options. For instance, building hospitals that can withstand natural disasters, roads that don't get washed away in the face of rains and floods. They can help manage impacts and risks to people and nature. The four types of adaptation actions are infrastructural, institutional, behavioural and nature-based options. Some examples of these are building seawalls or inland flood defenses, providing new insurance schemes, changing crop planting times or varieties, and installing green roofs or green spaces. Adaptation can be reactive or proactive.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Green infrastructure</span> Sustainable and resilient infrastructure

Green infrastructure or blue-green infrastructure refers to a network that provides the “ingredients” for solving urban and climatic challenges by building with nature. The main components of this approach include stormwater management, climate adaptation, the reduction of heat stress, increasing biodiversity, food production, better air quality, sustainable energy production, clean water, and healthy soils, as well as more anthropocentric functions, such as increased quality of life through recreation and the provision of shade and shelter in and around towns and cities. Green infrastructure also serves to provide an ecological framework for social, economic, and environmental health of the surroundings. More recently scholars and activists have also called for green infrastructure that promotes social inclusion and equity rather than reinforcing pre-existing structures of unequal access to nature-based services.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ecological resilience</span> Capacity of ecosystems to resist and recover from change

In ecology, resilience is the capacity of an ecosystem to respond to a perturbation or disturbance by resisting damage and subsequently recovering. Such perturbations and disturbances can include stochastic events such as fires, flooding, windstorms, insect population explosions, and human activities such as deforestation, fracking of the ground for oil extraction, pesticide sprayed in soil, and the introduction of exotic plant or animal species. Disturbances of sufficient magnitude or duration can profoundly affect an ecosystem and may force an ecosystem to reach a threshold beyond which a different regime of processes and structures predominates. When such thresholds are associated with a critical or bifurcation point, these regime shifts may also be referred to as critical transitions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deforestation in Nigeria</span>

The extensive and rapid clearing of forests (deforestation) within the borders of Nigeria has significant impacts on both local and global scales.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wetland conservation</span> Conservation of wet areas

Wetland conservation is aimed at protecting and preserving areas of land including marshes, swamps, bogs, and fens that are covered by water seasonally or permanently due to a variety of threats from both natural and anthropogenic hazards. Some examples of these hazards include habitat loss, pollution, and invasive species. Wetland vary widely in their salinity levels, climate zones, and surrounding geography and play a crucial role in maintaining biodiversity, ecosystem services, and support human communities. Wetlands cover at least six percent of the Earth and have become a focal issue for conservation due to the ecosystem services they provide. More than three billion people, around half the world's population, obtain their basic water needs from inland freshwater wetlands. They provide essential habitats for fish and various wildlife species, playing a vital role in purifying polluted waters and mitigating the damaging effects of floods and storms. Furthermore, they offer a diverse range of recreational activities, including fishing, hunting, photography, and wildlife observation.

Earth Economics is a 501(c)(3) non-profit formally established in 2004 and headquartered in Tacoma, Washington, United States. The organisation uses natural capital valuation to help decision makers and local stakeholders to understand the value of natural capital assets. By identifying, monetising, and valuing natural capital and ecosystem services.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Sri Lanka</span> Emissions, impacts and responses of Sri Lanka related to climate change

Climate change is an important issue in Sri Lanka, and its effects threaten to impact both human and natural systems. Roughly 50 percent of its 22 million citizens live in low-lying coastal areas in the west, south, and south-west of the island, and are at risk of future sea level rise. Climate change also threatens the island's biodiversity, including its marine ecosystem and coastal coral reef environments. Sea-level rise due to climate change has the potential to affect the overall abundance of endemic species. Sri Lanka's coastal regions, such as the Northern Province and the Northern Western Province, are considered major hotspots and extremely vulnerable to climate change. These maritime provinces are the most densely populated. In addition to being a threat to Sri Lanka's biodiversity, climate change may cause disastrous consequences on various levels in such areas. Such consequences include: Affecting agricultural productivity, causing natural disasters like floods and droughts, increasing the spread of infectious illnesses, and finally undermining the living standards.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Bangladesh</span> Emissions, effects and responses of Bangladesh related to climate change

Climate change is a critical issue in Bangladesh. as the country is one of the most vulnerable to the effects of climate change. In the 2020 edition of Germanwatch's Climate Risk Index, it ranked seventh in the list of countries most affected by climate calamities during the period 1999–2018. Bangladesh's vulnerability to the effects of climate change is due to a combination of geographical factors, such as its flat, low-lying, and delta-exposed topography. and socio-economic factors, including its high population density, levels of poverty, and dependence on agriculture. The impacts and potential threats include sea level rise, temperature rise, food crisis, droughts, floods, and cyclones.

Climate resilience is a concept to describe how well people or ecosystems are prepared to bounce back from certain climate hazard events. The formal definition of the term is the "capacity of social, economic and ecosystems to cope with a hazardous event or trend or disturbance". For example, climate resilience can be the ability to recover from climate-related shocks such as floods and droughts. Different actions can increase climate resilience of communities and ecosystems to help them cope. They can help to keep systems working in the face of external forces. For example, building a seawall to protect a coastal community from flooding might help maintain existing ways of life there.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Colin Thorne</span> English academic

Colin Reginald Thorne is Chair of Physical Geography at the University of Nottingham. A fluvial geomorphologist with an educational background in environmental sciences, civil engineering and physical geography; he has published 9 books and over 120 journal papers and book chapters.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Indonesia</span> Emissions, impacts and responses of Indonesia

Due to its geographical and natural diversity, Indonesia is one of the countries most susceptible to the impacts of climate change. This is supported by the fact that Jakarta has been listed as the world's most vulnerable city, regarding climate change. It is also a major contributor as of the countries that has contributed most to greenhouse gas emissions due to its high rate of deforestation and reliance on coal power.

Ecosystem-based adaptation encompasses a broad set of approaches to adapt to climate change. They all involve the management of ecosystems and their services to reduce the vulnerability of human communities to the impacts of climate change. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) defines EBA as "the use of biodiversity and ecosystem services as part of an overall adaptation strategy to help people to adapt to the adverse effects of climate change".

A sponge city is a new urban planning model in China that emphasizes flood management via strengthening green infrastructures instead of purely relying on drainage systems, proposed by Chinese researchers in early 2000 and accepted by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the State Council as nationwide urban construction policy in 2014. The concept of sponge cities is that urban flooding, water shortage, and heat island effect can be alleviated by having more urban parks, gardens, green spaces, wetlands, nature strips, and permeable pavings, which will both improve ecological biodiversity for urban wildlife and reduce flash floods by serving as reservoirs for capturing, retaining, and absorbing excess storm water. Harvested rainwater can be repurposed for irrigation and treated for home use if needed. It is a form of a sustainable drainage system on an urban scale and beyond.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Nigeria</span> Emissions, impacts and response of Nigeria related to climate change

Climate Change in Nigeria is evident from temperature increase, rainfall variability. It is also reflected in drought, desertification, rising sea levels, erosion, floods, thunderstorms, bush fires, landslides, land degradation, more frequent, extreme weather conditions and loss of biodiversity. All of which continue to negatively affect human and animal life and also the ecosystems in Nigeria. Although, depending on the location, regions experience climate change with significant higher temperatures during the dry seasons while rainfalls during rainy seasons help keep the temperature at milder levels. The Effects of Climate Change prompted the World Meteorological Organization, in its 40th Executive Council 1988, to establish a new international scientific assessment panel to be called the International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). The 2007 IPCC's fourth and final Assessment Report (AR4) revealed that there is a considerable threat of Climate Change that requires urgent global attention. The report further attributed the present global warming to largely anthropogenic practices. The Earth is almost at a point of no return as it faces environmental threats which include atmospheric and marine pollution, global warming, ozone depletion, the dangers of pollution by nuclear and other hazardous substances, and the extinction of various wildlife species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Urban flooding</span> Type of flood event in cities

Urban flooding is the inundation of land or property in cities or other built environment, caused by rainfall or coastal storm surges overwhelming the capacity of drainage systems, such as storm sewers. Urban flooding can occur regardless of whether or not affected communities are located within designated floodplains or near any body of water. It is triggered for example by an overflow of rivers and lakes, flash flooding or snowmelt. During the flood, stormwater or water released from damaged water mains may accumulate on property and in public rights-of-way. It can seep through building walls and floors, or backup into buildings through sewer pipes, cellars, toilets and sinks.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change adaptation in the Philippines</span>

Climate change adaptation in the Philippines is being incorporated into development plans and policies that specifically target national and local climate vulnerabilities. As a developing country and an archipelago, the Philippines is particularly vulnerable to a variety of climatic threats like intensifying tropical cyclones, drastic changes in rainfall patterns, rising sea levels, and rising temperatures. According to the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), the Philippines is one of the most disaster-prone countries in the world. In 2021, the Global Climate Risk Index ranked the Philippines fourth of the ten countries most affected between the years 2000 and 2019. The need for managing climate risks through climate change adaptation has become increasingly evident. Adaptation can reduce, moderate or avoid current and expected climate effects or take advantage of beneficial climatic events. Developing greater resilience to various threats can be a major goal of comprehensive disaster risk reduction strategy. The Philippines is therefore working on a number of national and local adaptation and disaster risk reduction strategies to build the country's climate resilience.

References

  1. ↑ Girardin, Cécile A. J.; Jenkins, Stuart; Seddon, Nathalie; Allen, Myles; Lewis, Simon L.; Wheeler, Charlotte E.; Griscom, Bronson W.; Malhi, Yadvinder (2021). "Nature-based solutions can help cool the planet — if we act now". Nature . 593 (7858): 191–194. Bibcode:2021Natur.593..191G. doi: 10.1038/d41586-021-01241-2 . PMID   33981055.
  2. 1 2 3 Debele, S. E.; Leo, L. S.; Kumar, P.; Sahani, J.; Ommer, J.; Bucchignani, E.; Vranić, S.; Kalas, M.; Amirzada, Z.; Pavlova, I.; Shah, M. A. R.; Gonzalez-Ollauri, A.; Di Sabatino, S. (2023). "Nature-based solutions can help reduce the impact of natural hazards: A global analysis of NBS case studies". Science of the Total Environment. 902: 165824. Bibcode:2023ScTEn.90265824D. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.165824. hdl: 11585/953217 . PMID   37527720.
  3. ↑ Eggermont, Hilde; Balian, Estelle; Azevedo, José Manuel N.; Beumer, Victor; Brodin, Tomas; Claudet, Joachim; Fady, Bruno; Grube, Martin; Keune, Hans (2015). "Nature-based Solutions: New Influence for Environmental Management and Research in Europe" (PDF). Gaia - Ecological Perspectives for Science and Society. 24 (4): 243–248. doi:10.14512/gaia.24.4.9. S2CID   53518417. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 May 2020. Retrieved 24 May 2020.
  4. 1 2 3 Environment, U. N. (2019). "Nature-Based Solutions for Climate". UNEP - UN Environment Programme. Retrieved 2024-01-11.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Parmesan, C., M.D. Morecroft, Y. Trisurat, R. Adrian, G.Z. Anshari, A. Arneth, Q. Gao, P. Gonzalez, R. Harris, J. Price, N. Stevens, and G.H. Talukdarr, 2022: Chapter 2: Terrestrial and Freshwater Ecosystems and Their Services. In: Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 197–377, doi:10.1017/9781009325844.004.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 Eggermont, Hilde; Balian, Estelle; Azevedo, José Manuel N.; Beumer, Victor; Brodin, Tomas; Claudet, Joachim; Fady, Bruno; Grube, Martin; Keune, Hans (2015). "Nature-based Solutions: New Influence for Environmental Management and Research in Europe" (PDF). Gaia - Ecological Perspectives for Science and Society. 24 (4): 243–248. doi:10.14512/gaia.24.4.9. hdl:10400.3/4170. S2CID   53518417. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 May 2020. Retrieved 24 May 2020.
  7. ↑ Marois, Darryl E.; Mitsch, William J. (2 January 2015). "Coastal protection from tsunamis and cyclones provided by mangrove wetlands – a review". International Journal of Biodiversity Science, Ecosystem Services & Management. 11 (1): 71–83. Bibcode:2015IJBSE..11...71M. doi:10.1080/21513732.2014.997292. ISSN   2151-3732. S2CID   86554474. Archived from the original on 23 November 2021. Retrieved 5 September 2021.
  8. ↑ Inoue, Tomomi (2019), "Carbon Sequestration in Mangroves", Blue Carbon in Shallow Coastal Ecosystems, Singapore: Springer Singapore, pp. 73–99, doi:10.1007/978-981-13-1295-3_3, ISBN   978-981-13-1294-6, S2CID   133839393, archived from the original on 23 November 2021, retrieved 5 September 2021
  9. 1 2 3 4 Faivre, Nicolas; Fritz, Marco; Freitas, Tiago; de Boissezon, Birgit; Vandewoestijne, Sofie (2017). "Nature-Based Solutions in the EU: Innovating with nature to address social, economic and environmental challenges". Environmental Research. 159: 509–518. Bibcode:2017ER....159..509F. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2017.08.032. ISSN   0013-9351. PMID   28886502. S2CID   42573101. Archived from the original on 23 November 2021. Retrieved 5 September 2021.
  10. 1 2 Wamsler, C.; Wickenberg, B.; Hanson, H.; Alkan Olsson, J.; Stålhammar, S.; Björn, H.; Falck, H.; Gerell, D.; Oskarsson, T.; Simonsson, E.; Torffvit, F. (2020). "Environmental and climate policy integration: Targeted strategies for overcoming barriers to nature-based solutions and climate change adaptation". Journal of Cleaner Production. 247: 119154. Bibcode:2020JCPro.24719154W. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.119154 . ISSN   0959-6526.
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Chausson, Alexandre; Turner, Beth; Seddon, Dan; Chabaneix, Nicole; Girardin, Cécile A. J.; Kapos, Valerie; Key, Isabel; Roe, Dilys; Smith, Alison; Woroniecki, Stephen; Seddon, Nathalie (2020-09-09). "Mapping the effectiveness of nature-based solutions for climate change adaptation". Global Change Biology. 26 (11): 6134–6155. Bibcode:2020GCBio..26.6134C. doi: 10.1111/gcb.15310 . ISSN   1354-1013. PMID   32906226. S2CID   221621517.
  12. 1 2 3 IPCC, 2022: Summary for Policymakers [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, M. Tignor, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem (eds.)]. In: Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 3–33, doi:10.1017/9781009325844.001.
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Cohen-Shacham, E., G. Walters, C. Janzen, S. Maginnis (eds). 2016. Nature-based solutions to address global societal challenges. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. Xiii + 97 pp. Downloadable from https://portals.iucn.org/library/node/46191 Archived 1 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine
  14. ↑ Dubash, N.K., C.  Mitchell, E.L.  Boasson, M.J.  Borbor-Cordova, S.  Fifita, E.  Haites, M.  Jaccard, F.  Jotzo, S.  Naidoo, P.  Romero-Lankao, M.  Shlapak, W.  Shen, L. Wu, 2022: Chapter 13: National and sub-national policies and institutions. In IPCC, 2022: Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [P.R. Shukla, J. Skea, R. Slade, A. Al Khourdajie, R. van Diemen, D.  McCollum, M.  Pathak, S.  Some, P. Vyas, R.  Fradera, M.  Belkacemi, A.  Hasija, G.  Lisboa, S.  Luz, J.  Malley, (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA. doi: 10.1017/9781009157926.015
  15. ↑ Lecocq, F., H. Winkler, J.P. Daka, S. Fu, J.S. Gerber, S. Kartha, V. Krey, H. Lofgren, T. Masui, R. Mathur, J. Portugal-Pereira, B.  K. Sovacool,  M. V. Vilariño,  N. Zhou, 2022: Chapter 4: Mitigation and development pathways in the near- to mid-term. In IPCC, 2022: Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [P.R. Shukla, J. Skea, R. Slade, A. Al Khourdajie, R. van  Diemen, D. McCollum, M. Pathak, S. Some, P. Vyas, R. Fradera, M. Belkacemi, A. Hasija, G. Lisboa, S. Luz, J. Malley, (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA. doi: 10.1017/9781009157926.006
  16. 1 2 "Nature-Based Solutions - European Commission". Archived from the original on 23 September 2019. Retrieved 10 December 2019.
  17. 1 2 Wild, Tom; Freitas, Tiago; Vandewoestijne, Sofie (2020). Nature-based Solutions - State of the Art in EU-funded Projects (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 January 2021. Retrieved 11 January 2021.
  18. ↑ "'Nature-based solutions' is the latest green jargon that means more than you might think". Nature. 541 (7636): 133–134. 2017. Bibcode:2017Natur.541R.133.. doi:10.1038/541133b. ISSN   0028-0836. PMID   28079099. S2CID   4455842.
  19. ↑ MacKinnon, K., C. Sobrevila, V. Hickey. 2008. Biodiversity, climate change and adaptation: nature-based solutions from the Word Bank portfolio. Washington D.C.: World Bank.
  20. ↑ IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature). 2009. No time to lose – make full use of nature-based solutions in the post-2012 climate change regime. Position paper on the Fifteenth session of the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (COP 15). Gland: IUCN.
  21. 1 2 European Commission. 2015. Towards an EU Research and Innovation policy agenda for nature-based solutions & re-naturing cities. Final Report of the Horizon2020 Expert Group on Nature-Based Solutions and Re-Naturing Cities. Brussels: European Commission.
  22. ↑ "Global Climate Action Summit kicks off today in San Francisco with nature-based solutions high on the agenda". Global Climate Action Summit kicks off today in San Francisco with nature-based solutions high on the agenda. 12 September 2018. Archived from the original on 13 September 2018. Retrieved 13 September 2018.
  23. ↑ IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature). 2016. Resolution 077 World Conservation Congress 2016, Hawai’i (https://portals.iucn.org/congress/motion/077 Archived 2019-08-08 at the Wayback Machine ) 17. European Commission. 2016. Horizon2020 Work Programme 2016–2017 – 12. Climate action, environment, resource efficiency & raw materials, 99 pp. (http://ec.europa.eu/research/participants/data/ref/h2020/wp/2016_2017/main/h2020-wp1617-climate_en.pdf Archived 13 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine )
  24. ↑ IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature). 2016. Resolution 077 World Conservation Congress 2016, Hawai’i (https://portals.iucn.org/congress/motion/077 Archived 8 August 2019 at the Wayback Machine )
  25. ↑ European Commission. 2016. Horizon2020 Work Programme 2016–2017 – 12. Climate action, environment, resource efficiency & raw materials, 99 pp. (http://ec.europa.eu/research/participants/data/ref/h2020/wp/2016_2017/main/h2020-wp1617-climate_en.pdf Archived 13 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine )
  26. ↑ Milner-Gulland, E.J.; Addison, Prue; Arlidge, William N.S.; Baker, Julia; Booth, Hollie; Brooks, Thomas; Bull, Joseph W.; Burgass, Michael J.; Ekstrom, Jon; zu Ermgassen, Sophus O.S.E.; Fleming, L. Vincent; Grub, Henry M.J.; von Hase, Amrei; Hoffmann, Michael; Hutton, Jonathan (2021-01-22). "Four steps for the Earth: mainstreaming the post-2020 global biodiversity framework". One Earth. 4 (1): 75–87. Bibcode:2021OEart...4...75M. doi:10.1016/j.oneear.2020.12.011. ISSN   2590-3322.
  27. ↑ Harris, Duchess (15 December 2018). The Paris climate agreement. ISBN   978-1-5321-5964-0. OCLC   1101137974.
  28. ↑ Paris Agreement (2015), Paris, France
  29. ↑ "Nature-Based Solutions Policy Platform". www.nbspolicyplatform.org. Archived from the original on 2020-05-24. Retrieved 13 September 2018.
  30. ↑ "Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) | UNFCCC". unfccc.int. Archived from the original on 13 September 2018. Retrieved 13 September 2018.
  31. ↑ "Ecosystem-based adaptation: a win–win formula for sustainability in a warming world?". July 2016. Archived from the original on 13 September 2018. Retrieved 13 September 2018.
  32. 1 2 Raymond, Christopher M.; Frantzeskaki, Niki; Kabisch, Nadja; Berry, Pam; Breil, Margaretha; Nita, Mihai Razvan; Geneletti, Davide; Calfapietra, Carlo (2017). "A framework for assessing and implementing the co-benefits of nature-based solutions in urban areas". Environmental Science & Policy. 77: 15–24. Bibcode:2017ESPol..77...15R. doi:10.1016/j.envsci.2017.07.008. hdl: 11572/200028 . ISSN   1462-9011. S2CID   55764441. Archived from the original on 23 November 2021. Retrieved 5 September 2021.
  33. ↑ Bush, Judy; Doyon, Andréanne (2019). "Building urban resilience with nature-based solutions: How can urban planning contribute?". Cities. 95: 102483. doi:10.1016/j.cities.2019.102483. hdl: 11343/233228 . ISSN   0264-2751. S2CID   211385632. Archived from the original on 23 November 2021. Retrieved 5 September 2021.
  34. 1 2 Frantzeskaki, Niki (2019). "Seven lessons for planning nature-based solutions in cities". Environmental Science & Policy. 93: 101–111. Bibcode:2019ESPol..93..101F. doi: 10.1016/j.envsci.2018.12.033 . ISSN   1462-9011.
  35. 1 2 3 Chen, Wenjie; Wang, Weiqi; Huang, Guoru; Wang, Zhaoli; Lai, Chengguang; Yang, Zhiyong (2021-02-15). "The capacity of grey infrastructure in urban flood management: A comprehensive analysis of grey infrastructure and the green-grey approach". International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction. 54: 102045. Bibcode:2021IJDRR..5402045C. doi:10.1016/j.ijdrr.2021.102045. ISSN   2212-4209. S2CID   234190451.
  36. ↑ Kourtis, Ioannis M.; Bellos, Vasilis; Kopsiaftis, George; Psiloglou, Basil; Tsihrintzis, Vassilios A. (2021-12-01). "Methodology for holistic assessment of grey-green flood mitigation measures for climate change adaptation in urban basins". Journal of Hydrology. 603: 126885. Bibcode:2021JHyd..60326885K. doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2021.126885. ISSN   0022-1694. S2CID   239659097.
  37. 1 2 3 Hankin, Barry; Page, Trevor; McShane, Gareth; Chappell, Nick; Spray, Chris; Black, Andrew; Comins, Luke (2021-08-01). "How can we plan resilient systems of nature-based mitigation measures in larger catchments for flood risk reduction now and in the future?". Water Security. 13: 100091. Bibcode:2021WatSe..1300091H. doi: 10.1016/j.wasec.2021.100091 . ISSN   2468-3124. S2CID   238840688.
  38. 1 2 3 4 Qi, Yunfei; Chan, Faith Ka Shun; Thorne, Colin; O’Donnell, Emily; Quagliolo, Carlotta; Comino, Elena; Pezzoli, Alessandro; Li, Lei; Griffiths, James; Sang, Yanfang; Feng, Meili (October 2020). "Addressing Challenges of Urban Water Management in Chinese Sponge Cities via Nature-Based Solutions". Water. 12 (10): 2788. doi: 10.3390/w12102788 .
  39. ↑ UN-Water (2018) World Water Development Report 2018 Archived 8 September 2019 at the Wayback Machine , Geneva, Switzerland
  40. ↑ UN-Water (2018) World Water Development Report 2018: Nature-based Solutions for Water Archived 8 September 2019 at the Wayback Machine , Geneva, Switzerland
  41. ↑ The State of the World's Forests 2020. Forests, biodiversity and people – In brief. Rome: FAO & UNEP. 2020. doi:10.4060/ca8985en. ISBN   978-92-5-132707-4. S2CID   241416114.
  42. ↑ "Global Forest Resource Assessment 2020". www.fao.org. Retrieved 20 September 2020.
  43. ↑ IUCN (2019), Forest landscape restoration pathways to achieving the SDGs, INTERNATIONAL UNION FOR CONSERVATION OF NATURE
  44. ↑ Anderson, Carl C.; Renaud, Fabrice G. (19 February 2021). "A review of public acceptance of nature-based solutions: The 'why', 'when', and 'how' of success for disaster risk reduction measures". Ambio. 50 (8): 1552–1573. Bibcode:2021Ambio..50.1552A. doi:10.1007/s13280-021-01502-4. ISSN   0044-7447. PMC   8249538 . PMID   33606249. Archived from the original on 23 November 2021. Retrieved 5 September 2021.
  45. 1 2 Cohen-Shacham, Emmanuelle; Andrade, Angela; Dalton, James; Dudley, Nigel; Jones, Mike; Kumar, Chetan; Maginnis, Stewart; Maynard, Simone; Nelson, Cara R.; Renaud, Fabrice G.; Welling, Rebecca (2019). "Core principles for successfully implementing and upscaling Nature-based Solutions". Environmental Science & Policy. 98: 20–29. Bibcode:2019ESPol..98...20C. doi: 10.1016/j.envsci.2019.04.014 . ISSN   1462-9011. S2CID   182716739.
  46. ↑ Seddon, Nathalie; Chausson, Alexandre; Berry, Pam; Girardin, Cécile A. J.; Smith, Alison; Turner, Beth (2020). "Understanding the value and limits of nature-based solutions to climate change and other global challenges". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 375 (1794): 20190120. doi:10.1098/rstb.2019.0120. ISSN   0962-8436. PMC   7017763 . PMID   31983344.
  47. ↑ Dhyani, Shalini; Karki, Madhav; Gupta, Anil Kumar (2020), "Opportunities and Advances to Mainstream Nature-Based Solutions in Disaster Risk Management and Climate Strategy", Nature-based Solutions for Resilient Ecosystems and Societies, Disaster Resilience and Green Growth, Singapore: Springer Singapore, pp. 1–26, doi:10.1007/978-981-15-4712-6_1, ISBN   978-981-15-4711-9, S2CID   226611591, archived from the original on 23 November 2021, retrieved 5 September 2021
  48. ↑ Costa, Sandra; Peters, Rik; Martins, Ricardo; Postmes, Luuk; Keizer, Jan Jacob; Roebeling, Peter (March 2021). "Effectiveness of Nature-Based Solutions on Pluvial Flood Hazard Mitigation: The Case Study of the City of Eindhoven (The Netherlands)". Resources. 10 (3): 24. doi: 10.3390/resources10030024 .
  49. 1 2 3 Mubeen, Adam; Ruangpan, Laddaporn; Vojinovic, Zoran; Sanchez Torrez, Arlex; Plavšić, Jasna (2021-08-01). "Planning and Suitability Assessment of Large-scale Nature-based Solutions for Flood-risk Reduction". Water Resources Management. 35 (10): 3063–3081. Bibcode:2021WatRM..35.3063M. doi: 10.1007/s11269-021-02848-w . ISSN   1573-1650. S2CID   235781989.
  50. ↑ "ThinkNature | Platform for Nature-Based Solutions". ThinkNature. Archived from the original on 5 September 2021. Retrieved 5 September 2021.
  51. ↑ Nikolaidis, Nikolaos P.; Kolokotsa, Dionyssia; Banwart, Steven A. (16 March 2017). "Nature-based solutions: business". Nature. 543 (7645): 315. Bibcode:2017Natur.543..315N. doi: 10.1038/543315d . ISSN   0028-0836. PMID   28300105.
  52. ↑ "Nature-Based Solutions, Tallinn, 24–26 October 2017". Archived from the original on 21 June 2018. Retrieved 21 March 2018.
  53. ↑ Nam Pham, Tamra Gilbertson, Joshua Witchger, Elisa Soto-Danseco, and Tom BK Goldtooth (2022) Nature-based solutions. Indigenous Environmental Network Climate Justice Program Briefing Series
  54. ↑ Ara Begum, R., R. Lempert, E. Ali, T.A. Benjaminsen, T. Bernauer, W. Cramer, X. Cui, K. Mach, G. Nagy, N.C. Stenseth, R. Sukumar, and P.Wester, 2022: Chapter 1: Point of Departure and Key Concepts. In: Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 121–196, doi:10.1017/9781009325844.003.
  55. ↑ Benedict, M.A., E.T. McMahon. 2006. Green Infrastructure: linking landscapes and communities. Washington D.C.: Island.
  56. ↑ Cowan C., C. Epple, H. Korn, R. Schliep, J. Stadler (Eds.). 2010. Working with nature to tackle climate change. Report of the ENCA/BfN Workshop on "Developing ecosystem-based approaches to climate change – Why, what and how, https://www.bfn.de/fileadmin/MDB/documents/service/Skript264.pdf Archived 26 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine ". Bonn: Bundesamt für Naturschutz.

Nature-based solutions in the context of climate change:

Nature-based solutions in other contexts:

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.