Land use

Last updated
Cumulative CO2 emissions from land-use change (as of 2021). Emissions from land-use change can be positive or negative depending on whether these changes emit (positive, brown on the map) or sequester (negative) carbon (green on the map). Co2-land-use (OWID 0189).png
Cumulative CO2 emissions from land-use change (as of 2021). Emissions from land-use change can be positive or negative depending on whether these changes emit (positive, brown on the map) or sequester (negative) carbon (green on the map).

Land use is an umbrella term to describe what happens on a parcel of land. It concerns the benefits derived from using the land, and also the land management actions that humans carry out there. [1] The following categories are used for land use: forest land, cropland (agricultural land), grassland, wetlands, settlements and other lands. [2] : 2914  The way humans use land, and how land use is changing, has many impacts on the environment. [3] [4] Effects of land use choices and changes by humans include for example urban sprawl, soil erosion, soil degradation, land degradation and desertification. [5]

Contents

Land use and land management practices have a major impact on natural resources including water, soil, nutrients, plants and animals. [6] [7]

Definition and categories

A graphic description of land use in the Australian Capital Territory as of 2017. Colours represent different uses. Land-use-australian-capital-territory-large.png
A graphic description of land use in the Australian Capital Territory as of 2017. Colours represent different uses.
The development of global land use over the centuries and millennia: more and more of the world's habitable land is used for agriculture. Long-term-change-in-land-use.png
The development of global land use over the centuries and millennia: more and more of the world's habitable land is used for agriculture.

The IPCC defines the term land use as the "total of arrangements, activities and inputs applied to a parcel of land". [2] : 2914  The same report groups land use into the following categories: forest land, cropland (agricultural land), grassland, wetlands, settlements and other lands. [2] : 2914 

Another definition is that of the United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization: "Land use concerns the products and/or benefits obtained from use of the land as well as the land management actions (activities) carried out by humans to produce those products and benefits." [1]

As of the early 1990s, about 13% of the Earth was considered arable land, with 26% in pasture, 32% forests and woodland, and 1.5% urban areas. [1]

As of 2015, the total arable land is 10.7% of the land surface, with 1.3% being permanent cropland. [8] [9]

For example, the US Department of Agriculture has identified six major types of land use in the United States. Acreage statistics for each type of land use in the contiguous 48 states in 2017 were as follows: [10]

US land use (2017) [10]
Useacreage (M)km2 (M)% of total
Pasture/range 6542.64735
Forest 538.62.1828
Cropland 391.51.58421
Special use168.80.6839
Miscellaneous68.90.2794
Urban 69.40.2814
Total1,8917.653100

Special use areas in the table above include national parks (29 M acres) and state parks (15 M), wildlife areas (64.4 M), highways (21 M), railroads (3M), military bases (25 M), airports (3M) and a few others. Miscellaneous includes cemeteries, golf courses, marshes, deserts, and other areas of "low economic value". The total land area of the United States is 9.1 M km2 but the total used here refers only to the contiguous 48 states, without Alaska etc.

Land use change

Global distribution of land used for agriculture Global-land-use-graphic.png
Global distribution of land used for agriculture

Land use change is "the change from one land-use category to another". [2] : 2914  Land-use change, together with use of fossil fuels, are the major anthropogenic sources of carbon dioxide, a dominant greenhouse gas. [11]

Deforestation is an example of large-scale land use change. The deforestation of temperate regions since 1750 has had a major effect on land cover. [12]

Land use by humans has a long history, first emerging more than 10,000 years ago. [13] [14] Human changes to land surfaces have been documented for centuries as having significant impacts on both earth systems and human well-being. The reshaping of landscapes to serve human needs, such as the deforestation for farmland, can have long-term effects on earth systems and exacerbate the causes of climate change. [15] Although the burning of fossil fuels is the primary driver of present-day climate change, prior to the Industrial Revolution, deforestation and irrigation were the largest sources of human-driven greenhouse gas emissions. [15] Even today, 35% of anthropogenic carbon dioxide contributions can be attributed to land use or land cover changes. [15] Currently, almost 50% of Earth’s non-ice land surface has been transformed by human activities, with approximately 40% of that land used for agriculture, surpassing natural systems as the principal source of nitrogen emissions. [15]

Land change modeling can be used to predict and assess future shifts in land use.

Increasing land conversion by humans in future is not inevitable: In a discussion on response options to climate change mitigation and adaptation an IPCC special report stated that "a number of response options such as increased food productivity, dietary choices and food losses, and waste reduction, can reduce demand for land conversion, thereby potentially freeing land and creating opportunities for enhanced implementation of other response options". [16] : 20 

Examples

Deforestation

Rainforest deforestation for land use conversion Deforestation of Rainforest.jpg
Rainforest deforestation for land use conversion

Deforestation is the systematic and permanent conversion of previously forested land for other uses. [17] It has historically been a primary facilitator of land use and land cover change. [18] Forests are a vital part of the global ecosystem and are essential to carbon capture, ecological processes, and biodiversity. [18] However, since the invention of agriculture, global forest cover has diminished by 35%. [18]

There is rarely one direct or underlying cause for deforestation. [19] Rather, deforestation is the result of intertwining systemic forces working simultaneously or sequentially to change land cover. [19] For instance, mass deforestation is often viewed as the product of industrial agriculture, yet a considerable portion old-growth forest deforestation is the result of small-scale migrant farming. [20] As forest cover is removed, forest resources become exhausted and increasing populations lead to scarcity, which prompts people to move again to previously undisturbed forest, restarting the process of deforestation. [20] There are several reasons behind this continued migration: poverty-driven lack of available farmland and high costs may lead to an increase in farming intensity on existing farmland. [20] This leads to the overexploitation of farmland, and down the line results in desertification, another land cover change, which renders soil unusable and unprofitable, requiring farmers to seek out untouched and unpopulated old-growth forests. [20]

In addition to rural migration and subsistence farming, economic development can also play a substantial role in deforestation. [19] For example, road and railway expansions designed to increase quality of life have resulted in significant deforestation in the Amazon and Central America. [19] Moreover, the underlying drivers of economic development are often linked to global economic engagement, ranging from increased exports to a foreign debt. [19]

Urbanization

An aerial image of New Delhi, India, one of the world's largest urban areas Delhi aerial photo 03-2016 img2.jpg
An aerial image of New Delhi, India, one of the world's largest urban areas

Broadly, urbanization is the increasing number of people who live in urban areas. Urbanization refers to both urban population growth and the physical growth of urban areas. [21] According to the United Nations, the global urban population has increased rapidly since 1950, from 751 million to 4.2 billion in 2018, and current trends predict this number will continue to grow. [22] Accompanying this population shift are significant changes in economic flow, culture and lifestyle, and spatial population distribution. [22] Although urbanized areas cover just 3% of the Earth's surface, they nevertheless have a significant impact on land use and land cover change. [23]

Urbanization is important to land use and land cover change for a variety of reasons. In particular, urbanization affects land change elsewhere through the shifting of urban-rural linkages, or the ecological footprint of the transfer of goods and services between urban and rural areas. [24] Increases in urbanization lead to increases in consumption, which puts increased pressure on surrounding rural lands. [24] The outward spread of urban areas can also take over adjacent land formerly used for crop cultivation. [24]

Urbanization additionally affects land cover through the urban heat island effect. Heat islands occur when, due to high concentrations of structures, such as buildings and roads, that absorb and re-emit solar radiation, and low concentrations of vegetative cover, urban areas experience higher temperatures than surrounding areas. [25] The high temperatures associated with heat islands can compromise human health, particularly in low-income areas. [25]

Aral Sea

Remote sensing images show changes to the extent of the Aral Sea from 1989 (left) to 2014 (right). AralSea1989 2014.jpg
Remote sensing images show changes to the extent of the Aral Sea from 1989 (left) to 2014 (right).

The rapid decline of the Aral Sea is an example how local-scale land use and land change can have compounded impacts on regional climate systems, particularly when human activities heavily disrupt natural climatic cycles, how land change science can be used to map and study such changes. [26] In 1960, the Aral Sea, located in Central Asia, was the world's fourth largest lake. [27] However, a water diversion project, undertaken by the Soviet Union to irrigate arid plains in what is now Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan, resulted in the Aral Sea losing 85% of its land cover and 90% of its volume. [27] The loss of the Aral Sea has had a significant effect on human-environment interactions in the region, including the decimation of the sea's fishing industry and the salinization of agricultural lands by the wind-spread of dried sea salt beds. [26] [27]

Additionally, scientists have been able to use technology such as NASA's Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) to track changes to the Aral Sea and its surrounding climate over time. [28] This use of modeling and satellite imagery to track human-caused land cover change is characteristic of the scope of land change science.

Regulation

Commonly, political jurisdictions will undertake land-use planning and regulate the use of land in an attempt to avoid land-use conflicts. Land use plans are implemented through land division and use ordinances and regulations, such as zoning regulations.

The urban growth boundary is one form of land-use regulation. For example, Portland, Oregon is required to have an urban growth boundary which contains at least 20,000 acres (81 km2) of vacant land. Additionally, Oregon restricts the development of farmland. The regulations are controversial, but an economic analysis concluded that farmland appreciated similarly to the other land. [29]

United States

Habitat fragmentation caused by numerous roads near the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore Indiana Dunes Habitat Fragmentation.jpg
Habitat fragmentation caused by numerous roads near the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore

In colonial America, few regulations were originally put into place regarding the usage of land. As society shifted from rural to urban, public land regulation became important, especially to city governments trying to control industry, commerce, and housing within their boundaries. The first zoning ordinance was passed in New York City in 1916, [30] [31] and, by the 1930s, most states had adopted zoning laws. In the 1970s, concerns about the environment and historic preservation led to further regulation.

Today, federal, state, and local governments regulate growth and development through statutory law. The majority of controls on land, however, stem from the actions of private developers and individuals. Judicial decisions and enforcement of private land-use arrangements can reinforce public regulation, and achieve forms and levels of control that regulatory zoning cannot. There is growing concern that land use regulation is a direct cause of housing segregation in the United States today. [32]

Two major federal laws passed in the 1960s limit the use of land significantly. These are the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 (today embodied in 16 U.S.C. 461 et seq.) and the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (42 U.S.C. 4321 et seq.).

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arable land</span> Land capable of being ploughed and used to grow crops

Arable land is any land capable of being ploughed and used to grow crops. Alternatively, for the purposes of agricultural statistics, the term often has a more precise definition:

Arable land is the land under temporary agricultural crops, temporary meadows for mowing or pasture, land under market and kitchen gardens and land temporarily fallow. The abandoned land resulting from shifting cultivation is not included in this category. Data for 'Arable land' are not meant to indicate the amount of land that is potentially cultivable.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Causes of climate change</span> Effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent global warming

The scientific community has been investigating the causes of climate change for decades. After thousands of studies, it came to a consensus, where it is "unequivocal that human influence has warmed the atmosphere, ocean and land since pre-industrial times." This consensus is supported by around 200 scientific organizations worldwide, The dominant role in this climate change has been played by the direct emissions of carbon dioxide from the burning of fossil fuels. Indirect CO2 emissions from land use change, and the emissions of methane, nitrous oxide and other greenhouse gases play major supporting roles.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deforestation</span> Conversion of forest to non-forest for human use

Deforestation or forest clearance is the removal and destruction of a forest or stand of trees from land that is then converted to non-forest use. Deforestation can involve conversion of forest land to farms, ranches, or urban use. About 31% of Earth's land surface is covered by forests at present. This is one-third less than the forest cover before the expansion of agriculture, with half of that loss occurring in the last century. Between 15 million to 18 million hectares of forest, an area the size of Bangladesh, are destroyed every year. On average 2,400 trees are cut down each minute. Estimates vary widely as to the extent of deforestation in the tropics. In 2019, nearly a third of the overall tree cover loss, or 3.8 million hectares, occurred within humid tropical primary forests. These are areas of mature rainforest that are especially important for biodiversity and carbon storage.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Desertification</span> Process by which fertile areas of land become increasingly arid

Desertification is a type of gradual land degradation of fertile land into arid desert due to a combination of natural processes and human activities.

Land management is the process of managing the use and development of land resources. One aim of sustainable land management is to prevent or reverse land degradation. Another aim is to ensure water security by increasing soil moisture availability, decreasing surface runoff, and decreasing soil erosion. Land resources are used for a variety of purposes which may include for example agriculture, forestry, water resource management, human settlements and tourism. Unsustainable land managements leads to land being over- or misused which in turn degrades the land, reduces productivity and disrupts natural equilibriums.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Land degradation</span> Gradual destruction of land

Land degradation is a process where land becomes less healthy and productive due to a combination of human activities or natural conditions. The causes for land degradation are numerous and complex. Human activities are often the main cause, such as unsustainable land management practices. Natural hazards are excluded as a cause; however human activities can indirectly affect phenomena such as floods and wildfires.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Habitat destruction</span> Process by which a natural habitat becomes incapable of supporting its native species

Habitat destruction occurs when a natural habitat is no longer able to support its native species. The organisms once living there have either moved to elsewhere or are dead, leading to a decrease in biodiversity and species numbers. Habitat destruction is in fact the leading cause of biodiversity loss and species extinction worldwide.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Afforestation</span> Establishment of trees where there were none previously

Afforestation is the establishment of a forest or stand of trees in an area where there was no recent tree cover. There are three types of afforestation: Natural regeneration, agroforestry and tree plantations. Afforestation has many benefits. In the context of climate change, afforestation can be helpful for climate change mitigation through the route of carbon sequestration. Afforestation can also improve the local climate through increased rainfall and by being a barrier against high winds. The additional trees can also prevent or reduce topsoil erosion, floods and landslides. Finally, additional trees can be a habitat for wildlife, and provide employment and wood products.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Land use, land-use change, and forestry</span> Greenhouse gas inventory sector

Land use, land-use change, and forestry (LULUCF), also referred to as Forestry and other land use (FOLU) or Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU), is defined as a "greenhouse gas inventory sector that covers emissions and removals of greenhouse gases resulting from direct human-induced land use such as settlements and commercial uses, land-use change, and forestry activities."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental issues in Haiti</span>

Environmental issues in Haiti include a historical deforestation problem, overpopulation, a lack of sanitation, natural disasters, and food insecurity. The major reasons for these environmental issues are corruption, human exploitation, and the embezzlement of taxpayers' funds for personal gains. In addition, there is not sufficient protection or management of the country's natural resources. Other environmental issues, such as decreases in precipitation and more severe natural disasters, will likely arise in Haiti as a result of climate change. Experts agree that Haiti needs to adopt new policies to address both the issues that already exist and to prepare for the effects of climate change.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental issues in Nepal</span>

Environmental issues in Nepal include a number of issues, such as deforestation, climate change, energy and species conservation. Many of these issues have been precipitated by rapid industrialization without major environmental regulation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental issues in Africa</span>

African environmental problems are problems caused by the direct and indirect human impacts on the natural environment and affect humans and nearly all forms of life in Africa. Issues include deforestation, soil degradation, air pollution, water pollution, coastal erosion, garbage pollution, climate change, Oil spills, Biodiversity loss, and water scarcity. These issues result in environmental conflict and are connected to broader social struggles for democracy and sovereignty. The scarcity of climate adaptation techniques in Africa makes it the least resilient continent to climate change.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deforestation in Brazil</span>

Brazil once had the highest deforestation rate in the world and in 2005 still had the largest area of forest removed annually. Since 1970, over 700,000 square kilometres (270,000 sq mi) of the Amazon rainforest have been destroyed. In 2001, the Amazon was approximately 5,400,000 square kilometres (2,100,000 sq mi), which is only 87% of the Amazon's original size. According to official data, about 729,000 km² have already been deforested in the Amazon biome, which corresponds to 17% of the total. 300,000 km² have been deforested in the last 20 years.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deforestation in Nigeria</span>

The extensive and rapid clearing of forests (deforestation) within the borders of Nigeria has significant impacts on both local and global scales.

Akure Forest Reserve is a protected area in southwest Nigeria, covering 66 km2 (25 sq mi). The Akure Forest Reserve, established in 1948 and spanning approximately 32 hectares. It was created with the primary aim of safeguarding the genetic diversity of the forest ecosystem. About 11.73% (8.2 km2) is estimated to be cleared for cocoa farming and other food crops. Aponmu and Owena Yoruba speaking communities owned the forest, though, there are also minor settlements surrounding the forest. They include Ipogun, Kajola/ Aponmu, Kajola, Ago Petesi, Akika Camp, Owena Town, Ibutitan/Ilaro Camp, Elemo Igbara Oke Camp and Owena Water new Dam.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deforestation and climate change</span> Interactions between deforestation and climate change

Deforestation is a primary contributor to climate change, and climate change affects the health of forests. Land use change, especially in the form of deforestation, is the second largest source of carbon dioxide emissions from human activities, after the burning of fossil fuels. Greenhouse gases are emitted from deforestation during the burning of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon. Global models and national greenhouse gas inventories give similar results for deforestation emissions. As of 2019, deforestation is responsible for about 11% of global greenhouse gas emissions. Carbon emissions from tropical deforestation are accelerating.

The desert-covered Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is the geographically largest country in the Middle East. Moreover, it accounts for 65% of the overall population of the GCC countries and 42% of its GDP. Saudi Arabia does not have a strong history in environmentalism. Thus, as the number of population increases and the industrial activity grows, environmental issues pose a real challenge to the country.

Agricultural expansion describes the growth of agricultural land especially in the 20th and 21st centuries.

Senegal's environmental issues are varied. According to the CIA world factbook pressing problems exist with: diminishing wildlife populations which are threatened by poaching, deforestation, overgrazing, soil erosion, desertification, and overfishing.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Special Report on Climate Change and Land</span> IPCC report

The United Nations' Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's (IPCC) Special Report on Climate Change and Land (SRCCL), also known as the "Special Report on climate change, desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems", is a landmark study from 2019 by 107 experts from 52 countries. The SRCCL provides a comprehensive overview of the entire land-climate system for the first time and decided to enlist land as a "critical resource". The IPCC's 50th session (IPCC-50) formally adopted the SRCCL's Summary for policymakers (SPM) and approved the underlying report. The SPM and the full text of Special Report on Climate Change and Land—in an unedited form—were released on 8 August 2019. The report is over 1,300 pages long and includes the work of 107 experts from 52 countries.

References

  1. 1 2 3 FAO Land and Water Division retrieved 14 September 2010
  2. 1 2 3 4 IPCC, 2022: Annex II: Glossary [Möller, V., R. van Diemen, J.B.R. Matthews, C. Méndez, S. Semenov, J.S. Fuglestvedt, A. Reisinger (eds.)]. In: Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 2897–2930, doi:10.1017/9781009325844.029.
  3. ↑ Meyfroidt, P.; Roy Chowdhury, R.; de Bremond, A.; Ellis, E. C.; Erb, K. -H.; Filatova, T.; Garrett, R. D.; Grove, J. M.; Heinimann, A.; Kuemmerle, T.; Kull, C. A. (2018-11-01). "Middle-range theories of land system change" (PDF). Global Environmental Change . 53: 52–67. doi: 10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2018.08.006 . ISSN   0959-3780. S2CID   158366220.
  4. ↑ Ellis, Erle C. (2021-10-18). "Land Use and Ecological Change: A 12,000-Year History". Annual Review of Environment and Resources. 46 (1): 1–33. doi: 10.1146/annurev-environ-012220-010822 . ISSN   1543-5938. S2CID   244592514.
  5. ↑ UN Land Degradation and Land Use/Cover Data Sources ret. 26 June 2007
  6. ↑ Ameztegui, Aitor; Coll, Lluis; Brotons, Lluis; Ninot, J.M. (2016). "Land-use legacies rather than climate change are driving the recent upward shift of the mountain tree line in the Pyrenees" (PDF). Global Ecology and Biogeography . 25 (3): 263–273. doi:10.1111/geb.12407. hdl: 10459.1/65151 . Archived (PDF) from the original on August 9, 2021. Retrieved September 8, 2022.
  7. ↑ "Chapter 1 - Meaning of Land" (PDF). Global Land Outlook (Report). United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification. 2017. p. 21. ISBN   978-92-95110-48-9. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 20, 2022. Retrieved September 18, 2022.
  8. ↑ "World Bank arable land". World Bank. Archived from the original on October 2, 2015. Retrieved October 19, 2015.
  9. ↑ "World Bank permanent cropland". World Bank. Archived from the original on July 13, 2015. Retrieved October 19, 2015.
  10. 1 2 Merrill, Dave; Leatherby, Lauren (July 31, 2018). "Here's How America Uses Its Land". Bloomberg . Retrieved 2018-08-05.
  11. ↑ "UN Report on Climate Change" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on February 3, 2007. Retrieved June 25, 2007.
  12. ↑ "Changes in Atmospheric Constituents and in Radiative Forcing" (PDF). Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 15, 2007.
  13. ↑ Ellis, Erle; Goldewijk, Kees Klein; Gaillard, Marie-José; Kaplan, Jed O.; Thornton, Alexa; Powell, Jeremy; Garcia, Santiago Munevar; Beaudoin, Ella; Zerboni, Andrea (2019-08-30). "Archaeological assessment reveals Earth's early transformation through land use". Science . 365 (6456): 897–902. Bibcode:2019Sci...365..897S. doi:10.1126/science.aax1192. hdl: 10150/634688 . ISSN   0036-8075. PMID   31467217. S2CID   201674203.
  14. ↑ Ellis, Erle C.; Gauthier, Nicolas; Goldewijk, Kees Klein; Bird, Rebecca Bliege; Boivin, Nicole; Díaz, Sandra; Fuller, Dorian Q.; Gill, Jacquelyn L.; Kaplan, Jed O.; Kingston, Naomi; Locke, Harvey (2021-04-27). "People have shaped most of terrestrial nature for at least 12,000 years". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences . 118 (17): e2023483118. Bibcode:2021PNAS..11823483E. doi: 10.1073/pnas.2023483118 . ISSN   0027-8424. PMC   8092386 . PMID   33875599.
  15. 1 2 3 4 Turner, B. L.; Lambin, Eric F.; Reenberg, Anette (2007). "The emergence of land change science for global environmental change and sustainability". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 104 (52): 20666–20671. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0704119104 . ISSN   0027-8424. PMC   2409212 . PMID   18093934.
  16. ↑ IPCC, 2019: Summary for Policymakers. In: Climate Change and Land: an IPCC special report on climate change, desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems [P.R. Shukla, J. Skea, E. Calvo Buendia, V. Masson-Delmotte, H.- O. Pörtner, D. C. Roberts, P. Zhai, R. Slade, S. Connors, R. van Diemen, M. Ferrat, E. Haughey, S. Luz, S. Neogi, M. Pathak, J. Petzold, J. Portugal Pereira, P. Vyas, E. Huntley, K. Kissick, M. Belkacemi, J. Malley, (eds.)]. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157988.001
  17. ↑ Derouin, Sarah (2019). "Deforestation: Facts, Causes & Effects". livescience.com. Archived from the original on 2020-12-20. Retrieved 2021-03-08.
  18. 1 2 3 Mayer, Audrey L.; Buma, Brian; Davis, Amélie; Gagné, Sara A.; Loudermilk, E. Louise; Scheller, Robert M.; Schmiegelow, Fiona K.A.; Wiersma, Yolanda F.; Franklin, Janet (2016-04-27). "How Landscape Ecology Informs Global Land-Change Science and Policy". BioScience. 66 (6): 458–469. doi: 10.1093/biosci/biw035 . hdl: 11122/8174 . ISSN   0006-3568.
  19. 1 2 3 4 5 "Tropical Deforestation". earthobservatory.nasa.gov. 2007-03-30. Archived from the original on 2021-03-31. Retrieved 2021-04-08.
  20. 1 2 3 4 López-Carr, David; Burgdorfer, Jason (2013-01-01). "Deforestation Drivers: Population, Migration, and Tropical Land Use". Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development. 55 (1): 3–11. Bibcode:2013ESPSD..55a...3L. doi:10.1080/00139157.2013.748385. ISSN   0013-9157. PMC   3857132 . PMID   24347675.
  21. ↑ "Urbanization". ScienceDaily. Archived from the original on 2021-01-13. Retrieved 2021-04-09.
  22. 1 2 United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2019). World Urbanization Prospects 2018: Highlights (ST/ESA/SER.A/421).
  23. ↑ Liu, Zhifeng; He, Chunyang; Zhou, Yuyu; Wu, Jianguo (May 2014). "How much of the world's land has been urbanized, really? A hierarchical framework for avoiding confusion". Landscape Ecology. 29 (5): 763–771. Bibcode:2014LaEco..29..763L. doi:10.1007/s10980-014-0034-y. ISSN   0921-2973. S2CID   207209868.
  24. 1 2 3 Lambin, Eric F.; Turner, B.L.; Geist, Helmut J.; Agbola, Samuel B.; Angelsen, Arild; Bruce, John W.; Coomes, Oliver T.; Dirzo, Rodolfo; Fischer, Günther; Folke, Carl; George, P.S.; Homewood, Katherine; Imbernon, Jacques; Leemans, Rik; Li, Xiubin; Moran, Emilio F.; Mortimore, Michael; Ramakrishnan, P.S.; Richards, John F.; Skånes, Helle; Steffen, Will; Stone, Glenn D.; Svedin, Uno; Veldkamp, Tom A.; Vogel, Coleen; Xu, Jianchu (2001-12-01). "The causes of land-use and land-cover change: moving beyond the myths". Global Environmental Change. 11 (4): 261–269. doi:10.1016/S0959-3780(01)00007-3. ISSN   0959-3780. Archived from the original on 2020-07-05. Retrieved 2021-04-09.
  25. 1 2 US EPA, OAR (2014-02-28). "Heat Island Effect". US EPA. Archived from the original on 2021-04-07. Retrieved 2021-04-09.
  26. 1 2 Turner, B. L.; Lambin, Eric F.; Reenberg, Anette (2007-12-26). "The emergence of land change science for global environmental change and sustainability". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 104 (52): 20666–20671. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0704119104 . ISSN   0027-8424. PMC   2409212 . PMID   18093934.
  27. 1 2 3 Middleton, Nick (2019). The Global Casino: An Introduction to Environmental Issues. London & New York: Routledge. pp. 179–182. ISBN   978-1-315-15840-2.
  28. ↑ "World of Change: Shrinking Aral Sea". earthobservatory.nasa.gov. 2014-09-24. Archived from the original on 2021-03-20. Retrieved 2021-03-08.
  29. ↑ Jaeker WG, Plantinga AJ (2007). How have Land-use regulations Affected Property Values in Oregon? Archived 2012-07-22 at the Wayback Machine OSU Extension.
  30. ↑ Village of Euclid, Ohio v. Ambler Realty Co.
  31. ↑ Nolon, John R. (July–August 1992). "Local Land Use Control in New York: An Aging Citadel Under Siege". New York State Bar Journal : 38.
  32. ↑ Trounstine, Jessica (May 2020). "The Geography of Inequality: How Land Use Regulation Produces Segregation". American Political Science Review . 114 (2): 443. doi: 10.1017/S0003055419000844 . S2CID   213239635.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.