Wildlife management

Last updated

Wildlife management is the management process influencing interactions among and between wildlife, its habitats and people to achieve predefined impacts. [1] [2] [3] Wildlife management can include wildlife conservation, population control, gamekeeping, wildlife contraceptive and pest control. [4] [5]

Contents

Wildlife management triad. Wildlife management triad - management environment, wildlife, habitat, humans - "Human Dimensions of Wildlife Management" (2012) ISBN 9781421406541 p. 4.png
Wildlife management triad.

Wildlife management aims to halt the loss in the Earth's biodiversity, [6] [7] by taking into consideration ecological principles such as carrying capacity, disturbance and succession, and environmental conditions such as physical geography, pedology and hydrology. [8] [9] [10] [11] Most wildlife biologists are concerned with the conservation and improvement of habitats; although rewilding is increasingly being undertaken. [12] [13] Techniques can include reforestation, pest control, nitrification and denitrification, irrigation, coppicing and hedge laying. [14]

Gamekeeping is the management or control of wildlife for the well-being of game and may include the killing of other animals which share the same niche or predators to maintain a high population of more profitable species, such as pheasants introduced into woodland. Aldo Leopold defined wildlife management in 1933 as the art of making land produce sustained annual crops of wild game for recreational use. [15]

History

The history of wildlife management begins with the game laws, which regulated the right to kill fish and wildlife game. [16]

United Kingdom

In Great Britain game laws developed out of the forest laws, which in the time of the Norman kings were very oppressive. Under William the Conqueror, it was as great a crime to kill one of the king's deer as to kill one of his subjects. A certain rank and standing were for a long time qualifications indispensably necessary to confer upon anyone the right of pursuing and killing game. [16]

Hunter with rooks, pheasant, and a flat-coated retriever, Yorkshire, 1912. Snowden Slights, front view YORYM-S13.jpg
Hunter with rooks, pheasant, and a flat-coated retriever, Yorkshire, 1912.

The late 19th century saw the passage of the first pieces of wildlife conservation legislation and the establishment of the first nature conservation societies. The Sea Birds Preservation Act of 1869 was passed in the United Kingdom as the first nature protection law in the world [17] after extensive lobbying from the Association for the Protection of Sea-Birds. [18]

The Game Act 1831 (1 & 2 Will. 4. c. 32) protected game birds by establishing close seasons when they could not be legally taken. The act made it lawful to take game only with the provision of a game license and provided for the appointment of gamekeepers around the country. The purposes of the law was to balance the needs for preservation and harvest and to manage both environment and populations of fish and game. [19]

The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds was founded as the Plumage League in 1889 by Emily Williamson at her house in Manchester [20] as a protest group campaigning against the use of great crested grebe and kittiwake skins and feathers in fur clothing. The group gained popularity and eventually amalgamated with the Fur and Feather League in Croydon to form the RSPB. [21] The Society attracted growing support from the suburban middle-classes as well as support from many other influential figures, such as the ornithologist Professor Alfred Newton. [20]

The National Trust formed in 1895 with the manifesto to "...promote the permanent preservation, for the benefit of the nation, of lands, ...to preserve (so far practicable) their natural aspect." On 1 May 1899, the Trust purchased two acres of Wicken Fen with a donation from the amateur naturalist Charles Rothschild, establishing the first nature reserve in Britain. [22] Rothschild was a pioneer of wildlife conservation in Britain, and went on to establish many other nature reserves, such as one at Woodwalton Fen, near Huntingdon, in 1910. [23] During his lifetime he built and managed his estate at Ashton Wold [24] in Northamptonshire to maximise its suitability for wildlife, especially butterflies. Concerned about the loss of wildlife habitats, in 1912 he set up the Society for the Promotion of Nature Reserves, the forerunner of The Wildlife Trusts partnership.

During the society's early years, membership tended to be made up of specialist naturalists and its growth was comparatively slow. The first independent Trust was formed in Norfolk in 1926 as the Norfolk Naturalists Trust, followed in 1938 by the Pembrokeshire Bird Protection Society which after several subsequent changes of name is now the Wildlife Trust of South and West Wales and it was not until the 1940s and 1950s that more Naturalists' Trusts were formed in Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, Leicestershire and Cambridgeshire. These early Trusts tended to focus on purchasing land to establish nature reserves in the geographical areas they served.

In the later 20th century, wildlife management is undertaken by several organizations including government bodies such as the Forestry Commission, Charities such as the RSPB and The Wildlife Trusts and privately hired gamekeepers and contractors. Legislation has also been passed to protect wildlife such as the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981. The UK government also give farmers subsidies through the Countryside Stewardship Scheme to improve the conservation value of their farms.

United States

Early game laws were enacted in the United States in 1839 when Rhode Island closed the hunting season for white-tailed deer from May to November. Other regulations during this time focused primarily on restricting hunting. At this time, lawmakers did not consider population sizes or the need for preservation or restoration of wildlife habitats. [25]

Waterfowl hunting using decoys near Toledo, Ohio, 1908. Wild Duck Shooting, Crane Creek, near Toledo, Ohio - DPLA - 4ac6a51874f9a3716ae87583a4965ead (page 1).jpg
Waterfowl hunting using decoys near Toledo, Ohio, 1908.

The profession of wildlife management was established in the United States in the 1920s and 1930s by Aldo Leopold and others who sought to transcend the purely restrictive policies of the previous generation of conservationists, such as anti-hunting activist William T. Hornaday. Leopold and his close associate Herbert Stoddard, who had both been trained in scientific forestry, argued that modern science and technology could be used to restore and improve wildlife habitat and thus produce abundant "crops" of ducks, deer, and other valued wild animals. [26]

The institutional foundations of the profession of wildlife management were established in the 1930s, when Leopold was granted the first university professorship in wildlife management (1933, University of Wisconsin, Madison), when Leopold's textbook 'Game Management' was published (1933), when The Wildlife Society was founded, when the Journal of Wildlife Management began publishing, and when the first Cooperative Wildlife Research Units were established. Conservationists planned many projects throughout the 1940s. Some of which included the harvesting of female mammals such as deer to decrease rising populations. Others included waterfowl and wetland research. The Fish and Wildlife Management Act was put in place to urge farmers to plant food for wildlife and to provide cover for them. [26]

In 1937, the Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act (also known as the Pittman-Robertson Act) was passed in the U.S.. This law was an important advancement in the field of wildlife management. It placed a 10% tax on sales of guns and ammunition. The funds generated were then distributed to the states for use in wildlife management activities and research. This law is still in effect today. [27]

Wildlife management grew after World War II with the help of the GI Bill and a postwar boom in recreational hunting. An important step in wildlife management in the United States national parks occurred after several years of public controversy regarding the forced reduction of the elk population in Yellowstone National Park. [28] In 1963, United States Secretary of the Interior Stewart Udall appointed an advisory board to collect scientific data to inform future wildlife management. In the Leopold Report, the committee observed that culling programs at other national parks had been ineffective, and recommended active management of Yellowstone's elk population. [29]

Elk overpopulation in Yellowstone is thought by many wildlife biologists, such as Douglas Smith, to have been primarily caused by the extirpation of wolves from the park and surrounding environment. After wolves were removed, elk herds increased in population, reaching new highs during the mid-1930s. The increased number of elk resulted in overgrazing in parts of Yellowstone. Park officials decided that the elk herd should be managed. For approximately thirty years, the park elk herds were culled: Each year some were captured and shipped to other locations, a certain number were killed by park rangers, and hunters were allowed to take more elk that migrated outside the park. By the late 1960s the herd populations dropped to historic lows (less than 4,000 for the Northern Range herd). This caused outrage among both conservationists and hunters. The park service stopped culling elk in 1968. The elk population then rebounded. Twenty years later there were 19,000 elk in the Northern Range herd, a historic high. [30]

Since the tumultuous 1970s, when animal rights activists and environmentalists began to challenge some aspects of wildlife management, the profession has been overshadowed by the rise of conservation biology. Although wildlife managers remain central to the implementation of the Endangered Species Act and other wildlife conservation policies, conservation biologists have shifted the focus of conservation away from wildlife management's concern with the protection and restoration of single species and toward the maintenance of ecosystems and biodiversity. In the United States, wildlife management practices are implemented by a governmental agency, such as the Endangered Species Act. [30]

Types of wildlife management

Bear-resistant custodial management trash receptacles in Slough Creek. Slough Creek Campground bear-proof trash receptacles (16599663349).jpg
Bear-resistant custodial management trash receptacles in Slough Creek.

Custodial management is preventive or protective. The aim is to minimize external influences on the population and its habitat. It is appropriate in a national park where one of the stated goals is to protect ecological processes. It is also appropriate for conservation of a threatened species where the threat is of external origin rather than being intrinsic to the system. Feeding of animals by visitors is discouraged. [31] [32]

Manipulative management acts on a population, either changing its numbers by direct means or influencing numbers by the indirect means of altering food supply, habitat, density of predators, or prevalence of disease. This is appropriate when a population is to be harvested, or when it slides to an unacceptably low density or increases to an unacceptably high level. Such densities are inevitably the subjective view of the land owner, and may be disputed by animal welfare interests. [33]

Pest control is the control of real or perceived pests and can be used for the benefit of wildlife, farmers, gamekeepers or human safety.

Hunting limitations

Wildlife management studies, research and lobbying by interest groups help designate times of the year when certain wildlife species can be legally hunted, allowing for surplus animals to be removed. In the United States, hunting season and bag limits are determined by guidelines set by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service for waterfowl and other migratory gamebirds. [34] The hunting season and bag limits for state regulated game species such as deer are determined by State game Commissions, which are made up of representatives from various interest groups and wildlife biologists. [35]

Open season is when wildlife is allowed to be hunted by law and is usually not during the breeding season. Hunters may be restricted by sex, age or class of animal, for instance there may be an open season for any male deer with 4 points or better on at least one antler. Closed season is when wildlife is protected from hunting and is usually during its breeding season. Closed season is enforced by law, any hunting during closed season is punishable by law and termed as illegal hunting or poaching. Open and closed season on deer in the United Kingdom is legislated for in the Deer Act. [36] [37]

Impact on ecosystems

Habitat destruction and fragmentation are major drivers of biodiversity loss in the United Kingdom, [38] however landowners that participate in field sports, particularly hunting and shooting, are more likely to conserve and reinstate woodlands [39] and hedgerows [40] because they are used by quarry species. A study in 2003 showed that they are around 2.5 times more likely to plant new woodlands than landowners without game or hunting interests, and also conserve a far greater woodland area. [39]

Landowners undertake management measures to improve habitats for quarry species, including shrub planting, coppicing [41] and skylighting [42] to encourage understory growth. Roger Draycott of the Game and Wildlife Conservation Trust has reported the conservation benefits of game management schemes in the UK, including woodlands with denser undergrowth and higher abundances of native birds. [43] However, overall evidence that game shooting is beneficial to wider biodiversity has been inconclusive: high densities of game birds are known to negatively impact ecosystems, resulting in shorter grassland vegetation, [44] lower floral diversity in semi-natural woodlands, [45] fewer saplings in hedgerows leading from such woodlands, [46] and reductions in arthropod biomass attributable to predation.

The rearing of both wild and released game birds requires the provision of food and shelter during the winter months, [47] and to achieve this landowners plant cover crops. Generally species such as maize or quinoa, these are planted in strips alongside arable land. Cover crops are also utilised by a variety of nationally declining farmland birds such as linnets and finches, [48] [49] [50] providing valuable food resources and refuge from predators. [51]

Prior to the Hunting Act, fox hunting also provided a major incentive for woodland conservation and management throughout England and Wales, with higher species diversity and abundance of plants and butterflies found in woodlands managed for foxes according to a survey of mounted hunts in 2006, verified by The Council of Hunting Associations. [52]

Opposition

The control of wildlife through killing and hunting has created an opposition to hunting by animal rights and animal welfare activists. [53] Critics object to the real or perceived cruelty involved in some forms of wildlife management. They also argue against the deliberate breeding of certain animals by environmental organizations—who hunters pay money to kill—in pursuit of profit. [54] Additionally, they draw attention to the attitude that it is acceptable to kill animals in the name of ecosystem or biodiversity preservation, yet it is seen as unacceptable to kill humans for the same purpose; asserting that such attitudes are a form of discrimination based on species-membership i.e. speciesism. [55] [56]

Environmentalists have also opposed hunting where they believe it is unnecessary or will negatively affect biodiversity. [57] Critics of game keeping note that habitat manipulation and predator control are often used to maintain artificially inflated populations of valuable game animals (including introduced exotics) without regard to the ecological integrity of the habitat. [58] [59] Gamekeepers in the United Kingdom claim it to be necessary for wildlife conservation as the amount of countryside they look after exceeds by a factor of nine the amount in nature reserves and national parks. [60]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hunting</span> Searching, pursuing, and killing wild animals

Hunting is the human practice of seeking, pursuing, capturing, and killing wildlife or feral animals. The most common reasons for humans to hunt are to obtain the animal's body for meat and useful animal products, for recreation/taxidermy, although it may also be done for resourceful reasons such as removing predators dangerous to humans or domestic animals, to eliminate pests and nuisance animals that damage crops/livestock/poultry or spread diseases, for trade/tourism, or for ecological conservation against overpopulation and invasive species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Common pheasant</span> Species of bird

The common pheasant, ring-necked pheasant, or blue-headed pheasant, a bird in the pheasant family (Phasianidae). The genus name comes from Latin phasianus, "pheasant". The species name colchicus is Latin for "of Colchis", a country on the Black Sea where pheasants became known to Europeans. Although Phasianus was previously thought to be closely related to the genus Gallus, the genus of junglefowl and domesticated chickens, recent studies show that they are in different subfamilies, having diverged over 20 million years ago.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eurasian woodcock</span> Species of bird

The Eurasian woodcock is a medium-small wading bird found in temperate and subarctic Eurasia. It has cryptic camouflage to suit its woodland habitat, with reddish-brown upperparts and buff-coloured underparts. Its eyes are set far back on its head to give it 360-degree vision and it probes in the ground for food with its long, sensitive bill, making it vulnerable to cold weather when the ground remains frozen.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Green pheasant</span> Species of bird

The green pheasant, also known as the Japanese green pheasant, is an omnivorous bird native to the Japanese archipelago, to which it is endemic. Some taxonomic authorities consider it a subspecies of the common pheasant, Phasianus colchicus. It is the national bird of Japan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Game (hunting)</span> Wild animals under pursuit or taken in hunting

Game or quarry is any wild animal hunted for animal products, for recreation ("sporting"), or for trophies. The species of animals hunted as game varies in different parts of the world and by different local jurisdictions, though most are terrestrial mammals and birds. Fish caught non-commercially are also referred to as game fish.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gamekeepers in the United Kingdom</span> Person who manages an area of countryside and ensures there is game or fish

In the United Kingdom, a gamekeeper is a person who manages an area of countryside to make sure that there is enough game for hunting, or fish for fishing, and acts as guide to those pursuing them.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Trophy hunting</span> Hunting of wild animals for trophies

Trophy hunting is a form of hunting for sport in which parts of the hunted wild animals are kept and displayed as trophies. The animal being targeted, known as the "game", is typically a mature male specimen from a popular species of collectable interests, usually of large sizes, holding impressive horns, antlers, furs, or manes. Most trophies consist of only select parts of the animal, which are prepared for display by a taxidermist. The parts most commonly kept vary by species but often include the head, hide, tusks, horns, or antlers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Game law</span> Regulations for hunting

Game laws are statutes which regulate the right to pursue and hunt certain kinds of wild animals and fish. The scope of game laws can include the following:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Boone and Crockett Club</span> Non-profit organisation in the USA

The Boone and Crockett Club is an American nonprofit organization that advocates fair chase hunting in support of habitat conservation. The club is North America's oldest wildlife and habitat conservation organization, founded in the United States in 1887 by Theodore Roosevelt and George Bird Grinnell. The club was named in honor of hunter-heroes of the day, Daniel Boone and Davy Crockett, whom the club's founders viewed as pioneering men who hunted extensively while opening the American frontier, but realized the consequences of overharvesting game. In addition to authoring a famous "fair chase" statement of hunter ethics, the club worked for the expansion and protection of Yellowstone National Park and the establishment of American conservation in general. The club and its members were also responsible for the elimination of commercial market hunting, creation of the National Park and National Forest Services, National Wildlife Refuge system, wildlife reserves, and funding for conservation, all under the umbrella of what is known today as the North American Model of Wildlife Conservation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Elk</span> Species of deer

The elk, or wapiti, is the second largest species within the deer family, Cervidae, and one of the largest terrestrial mammals in its native range of North America and Central and East Asia. The word "elk" originally referred to the European variety of the moose, Alces alces, but was transferred to Cervus canadensis by North American colonists.

In the United Kingdom, the term hunting generally refers to hunting with hounds, e.g. normally fox hunting, stag (deer) hunting, beagling, or minkhunting, whereas shooting is the shooting of game birds. What is called deer hunting elsewhere is deer stalking. According to the British Association for Shooting and Conservation (BASC) over a million people a year participate in shooting, including stalking, shooting, hunting, clay shooting and target shooting. Firearm ownership is regulated by licensing.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">A. Starker Leopold</span> American author, forester, zoologist and conservationist

Aldo Starker Leopold was an American author, forester, zoologist and conservationist. Leopold served as a professor at the University of California, Berkeley, for thirty years within the Zoology, Conservation, and Forestry departments. Throughout his life, Leopold was a public face for science. He was active in numerous wildlife and conservation groups and made significant research contributions in ornithology, mammalogy, and wildlife ecology. Leopold is notable for his ecosystem management paper, the Leopold Report, and his considerable presence in some of the most controversial wildlife issues, including national park wildlife policy, predator control, wildlife refuge, and fire policy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Game & Wildlife Conservation Trust</span> British charitable organisation

The Game & Wildlife Conservation Trust is a British charitable organisation using science to promote game and wildlife management as an essential part of nature conservation. For over 80 years the Trust has been conducting scientific research to understand why there have been declines in species such as the grey partridge, black grouse, water vole, corn bunting and brown hare.

Overpopulation or overabundance is a state in which the population of a species is larger than the carrying capacity of its environment. This may be caused by increased birth rates, lowered mortality rates, reduced predation or large scale migration, leading to an overabundant species and other animals in the ecosystem competing for food, space, and resources. The animals in an overpopulated area may then be forced to migrate to areas not typically inhabited, or die off without access to necessary resources.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Driven grouse shooting</span> Hunting of the red grouse

Driven grouse shooting is a field sport in the United Kingdom involving the shooting of red grouse. It is one of two forms of the sport, the other is walked-up shooting. Driven grouse shooting involves grouse being driven to fly over people with shotguns in fixed positions. In walked-up shooting the participants walk forward in a line and flush the birds as they go. Walked-up shooting is more physically demanding than a driven shoot and typically involves fewer birds being shot.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Professional hunter</span> Person who hunts and/or manages game by profession

A professional hunter is a person who hunts and/or manages game by profession. Some professional hunters work in the private sector or for government agencies and manage species that are considered overabundant, others are self-employed and make a living by selling hides and meat, while still others guide clients on big-game hunts.

The North American Model of Wildlife Conservation is a set of principles that has guided wildlife management and conservation decisions in the United States and Canada. Although not formally articulated until 2001, the model has its origins in 19th century conservation movements, the near extinction of several species of wildlife and the rise of sportsmen with the middle class. Beginning in the 1860s sportsmen began to organize and advocate for the preservation of wilderness areas and wildlife. The North American Model of Wildlife Conservation rests on two basic principles – fish and wildlife are for the non-commercial use of citizens, and should be managed such that they are available at optimum population levels forever.

Australia has a population of about 26 million while the Commonwealth Government estimating there are 640,000 recreational hunters in the country. There are around 6 million legally owned guns in Australia, ranging from airguns to single-shot, bolt-action, pump-action, lever-action or semi-automatic firearms.

Wildlife law in England and Wales is the law relating to the protection of wildlife in England and Wales. Much of existing UK law dates from pre-Victorian times. Wildlife was viewed as a resource to be used; phrases such as "game" or "sporting rights" appear. Public opinion is now much more in favour of protection of birds and mammals rather than the landowners’ interests.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">McArthur Lake Wildlife Corridor</span> Wildlife corridor in Idaho, U.S.

The McArthur Lake Wildlife Corridor (MLWC) is a wildlife corridor in northern Idaho, United States. It links the wilderness areas of the Selkirk and Cabinet mountains, and is used by species such as grizzly bears that move between these areas. It also provides a wintering area for deer and other ungulates. A highway and two railway lines run through the corridor, with a strip of side roads, buildings and fences along the highway. The highway section running through the corridor has high rates of vehicle collisions with wildlife. There is limited opportunity for creating safe wildlife crossings due to the difficult terrain. Conservation groups have been active in obtaining easements on timber land to prevent further development in the corridor while allowing sustainable forestry.

References

  1. ↑ Decker, Daniel J.; Riley, Shawn J. (Shawn James); Siemer, William F. (2012). Human dimensions of wildlife management (2nd ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 4. ISBN   978-1-4214-0654-1. OCLC   778244877.
  2. ↑ Sinclair, Anthony R. E.; Fryxell, John M.; Caughley, Graeme (2006). Wildlife ecology, conservation, and management (2nd ed.). Malden, MA: Blackwell. p. 2. ISBN   978-1-4051-0737-2. OCLC   58526307.
  3. ↑ Raj, A. J.; Lal, S. B. (2013). Forestry Principles and Applications. Jodhpur: Scientific Publishers (India). p. 359. ISBN   978-93-8623774-3. OCLC   972943172.
  4. ↑ Potter, Dale R.; Kathryn M. Sharpe; John C. Hendee (1973). Human Behavior Aspects Of Fish And Wildlife Conservation - An Annotated Bibliography (PDF). U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. p. 290.
  5. ↑ Greenfield, Emily (2024-01-15). "What Is Wildlife Management?". Sigma Earth. Retrieved 2024-11-19.
  6. ↑ James, Frances C. (1980-07-11). "Ecological Recommendations: Conservation Biology. An Evolutionary-Ecological Perspective". Science. 209 (4453): 267–268. doi:10.1126/science.209.4453.267.b. ISSN   0036-8075.
  7. ↑ Soulé, Michael E. (1985-12-01). "What is Conservation Biology?: A new synthetic discipline addresses the dynamics and problems of perturbed species, communities, and ecosystems". BioScience. 35 (11): 727–734. doi:10.2307/1310054. ISSN   0006-3568. JSTOR   1310054.
  8. ↑ Soule, Michael E. (1986). Conservation Biology: The Science of Scarcity and Diversity. Sinauer Associates. p. 584. ISBN   9780878937950.
  9. ↑ Hunter, M. L. (1996). Fundamentals of Conservation Biology. Blackwell Science Inc., Cambridge, Massachusetts., ISBN   0-86542-371-7.
  10. ↑ Groom, M.J., Meffe, G.K. and Carroll, C.R. (2006) Principles of Conservation Biology (3rd ed.). Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, MA. ISBN   0-87893-518-5
  11. ↑ Van Dyke, Fred (2010). Conservation biology: foundations, concepts, applications (2 ed.). Dordrecht: Springer. ISBN   978-90-481-7753-0.
  12. ↑ Torres, Aurora; Fernández, Néstor; zu Ermgassen, Sophus; Helmer, Wouter; Revilla, Eloy; Saavedra, Deli; Perino, Andrea; Mimet, Anne; Rey-Benayas, José M.; Selva, Nuria; Schepers, Frans (2018-12-05). "Measuring rewilding progress". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 373 (1761): 20170433. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2017.0433 . PMC   6231071 . PMID   30348877.
  13. ↑ "Conservation | Definition, Ecology, Examples, & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 2024-10-03. Retrieved 2024-11-19.
  14. ↑ Riley, Shawn J.; Decker, Daniel J.; Carpenter, Len H.; Organ, John F.; Siemer, William F.; Mattfeld, George F.; Parsons, Gary (2002). "The Essence of Wildlife Management". Wildlife Society Bulletin (1973-2006). 30 (2): 585–593. ISSN   0091-7648. JSTOR   3784519.
  15. ↑ Leopold, Aldo (1933). Game management. New York: C. Scribner's Sons. OCLC   560822.
  16. 1 2 "Hunting | History, Methods, & Management | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 2024-11-16. Retrieved 2024-11-19.
  17. ↑ G. Baeyens, M. L. Martinez (2007). Coastal Dunes: Ecology and Conservation. Springer. p. 282.
  18. ↑ "Protecting seabirds at Bempton Cliffs". 2 February 2011.
  19. ↑ "Wildlife Conservation and Management" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on Dec 30, 2006.
  20. 1 2 "Milestones". RSPB. Retrieved 19 February 2007.
  21. ↑ "History of the RSPB". RSPB. Retrieved 19 February 2007.
  22. ↑ "Wicken Fen National Nature Reserve". Wicken Fen..
  23. ↑ Wildlife Trust for Bedfordshire, Cambridgeshire, Northamptonshire and Peterborough
  24. ↑ Pevsner, Nikolaus (1961). The Buildings of England – Northamptonshire. London and New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 94–5. ISBN   978-0-300-09632-3.
  25. ↑ Bolen, Eric G.; Robinson, William L. (2003). Wildlife ecology and management (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall. p. 2. ISBN   978-0-13-066250-7. OCLC   49558956.
  26. 1 2 Mahoney, Shane P., ed. (2019). The North American model of wildlife conservation. Wildlife management and conservation. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN   978-1-4214-3280-9.
  27. ↑ Ryder, Thomas J. (2018). State wildlife management and conservation. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins university press. ISBN   978-1-4214-2446-0.
  28. ↑ Wright, Robert E. (2022). The History and Evolution of the North American Wildlife Conservation Model. London: Palgrave Macmillan Cham. doi:10.1007/978-3-031-06163-9. ISBN   978-3-031-06162-2.
  29. ↑ Leopold, A. Starker, et al. 1963. "The Goal of Park Management in the United States". Wildlife Management in the National Parks. National Park Service. Retrieved on September 19, 2009.
  30. 1 2 Silvy, Nova J. (2020). The wildlife techniques manual (8 ed.). Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins university press. ISBN   978-1-4214-3669-2.
  31. ↑ McComb, Brenda C. (2015). Wildlife habitat management: concepts and applications in forestry (2 ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group. ISBN   978-1-4398-7856-9.
  32. ↑ Tallamy, Douglas W. (2019). Nature's best hope: a new approach to conservation that starts in your yard. Portland, Oregon: Timber Press. ISBN   978-1-60469-900-5. OCLC   1078889529.
  33. ↑ Krausman, Paul R.; Cain, James W., eds. (2013). Wildlife management and conservation: contemporary principles and practices. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, published in affiliation with The Wildlife Society. ISBN   978-1-4214-0986-3.
  34. ↑ "How the Hunting Seasons and Limits are Set for Waterfowl | U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service". www.fws.gov. 2023-01-26. Retrieved 2024-11-21.
  35. ↑ Salzman, James; Thompson, Barton H. (2019). Environmental law and policy. Concepts and insights series (5 ed.). St. Paul, MN: Foundation Press. ISBN   978-1-68328-790-2.
  36. ↑ "Deer Act". Legislation.gov.uk. 1991.
  37. ↑ "Deer (Scotland) Act". Legislation.gov.uk. 1996.
  38. ↑ "Lost life: England's lost and threatened species - NE233". Natural England. 2010-03-10.
  39. 1 2 Oldfield, T. E. E.; Smith, R. J.; Harrop, S. R.; Leader-Williams, N. (2003-05-29). "Field sports and conservation in the United Kingdom". Nature. 423 (6939): 531–533. doi:10.1038/nature01678. ISSN   0028-0836. PMID   12774120.
  40. ↑ Draycott, Roger A. H.; Hoodless, Andrew N.; Cooke, Matthew; Sage, Rufus B. (2012-02-01). "The influence of pheasant releasing and associated management on farmland hedgerows and birds in England". European Journal of Wildlife Research. 58 (1): 227–234. doi:10.1007/s10344-011-0568-0. ISSN   1439-0574.
  41. ↑ Robertson, P.A. (1992). "Woodland management for pheasants" (PDF). Forestry Commission Archive.
  42. ↑ Ludolf, I.C.; Robertson, P.A.; Woodburn, M.I.A. (1989). "Game and Wildlife Conservation Trust". Biological Habitat Conservation. London: Belhaven Press. pp. 312–327.
  43. ↑ Draycott, Roger A. H.; Hoodless, Andrew N.; Sage, Rufus B. (2008). "Effects of pheasant management on vegetation and birds in lowland woodlands". Journal of Applied Ecology. 45 (1): 334–341. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2664.2007.01379.x. ISSN   0021-8901.
  44. ↑ Callegari, Sarah E.; Bonham, Emma; Hoodless, Andrew N.; Sage, Rufus B.; Holloway, Graham J. (2014-10-01). "Impact of game bird release on the Adonis blue butterfly Polyommatus bellargus (Lepidoptera Lycaenidae) on chalk grassland". European Journal of Wildlife Research. 60 (5): 781–787. doi:10.1007/s10344-014-0847-7. ISSN   1439-0574.
  45. ↑ Sage, Rufus B.; Ludolf, Clare; Robertson, Peter A. (2005-03-01). "The ground flora of ancient semi-natural woodlands in pheasant release pens in England". Biological Conservation. 122 (2): 243–252. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2004.07.014. ISSN   0006-3207.
  46. ↑ Sage, R. B.; Woodburn, M. I. A.; Draycott, R. A. H.; Hoodless, A. N.; Clarke, S. (2009-07-01). "The flora and structure of farmland hedges and hedgebanks near to pheasant release pens compared with other hedges". Biological Conservation. 142 (7): 1362–1369. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2009.01.034. ISSN   0006-3207.
  47. ↑ Parish, David M. B.; Sotherton, Nicolas W. (2004-12-01). "Game crops as summer habitat for farmland songbirds in Scotland". Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment. 104 (3): 429–438. doi:10.1016/j.agee.2004.01.037. ISSN   0167-8809.
  48. ↑ Stoate, Chris; Szczur, John; Aebischer, Nicholas J. (2003). "Winter use of wild bird cover crops by passerines on farmland in northeast England". Bird Study. 50 (1): 15–21. doi:10.1080/00063650309461285. ISSN   0006-3657.
  49. ↑ Henderson, I. G; Vickery, J. A; Carter, N (2004-06-01). "The use of winter bird crops by farmland birds in lowland England". Biological Conservation. 118 (1): 21–32. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2003.06.003. ISSN   0006-3207.
  50. ↑ Sage, Rufus B.; Parish, David M. B.; Woodburn, Maureen I. A.; Thompson, Peter G. L. (2005-12-01). "Songbirds using crops planted on farmland as cover for game birds". European Journal of Wildlife Research. 51 (4): 248–253. doi:10.1007/s10344-005-0114-z. ISSN   1439-0574.
  51. ↑ Stoate, C. (2002-04-01). "Multifunctional use of a natural resource on farmland: wild pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) management and the conservation of farmland passerines". Biodiversity & Conservation. 11 (4): 561–573. doi:10.1023/A:1015564806990. ISSN   1572-9710.
  52. ↑ Ewald, J. A.; Callegari, S. E.; Kingdon, N. G.; Graham, N. A. (2006-12-01). "Fox-hunting in England and Wales: its contribution to the management of woodland and other habitats". Biodiversity & Conservation. 15 (13): 4309–4334. doi:10.1007/s10531-005-3739-z. ISSN   1572-9710.
  53. ↑ Gamborg, Christian; Palmer, Clare; Sandoe, Peter (2012). "Ethics of Wildlife Management and Conservation: What Should We Try to Protect?". Nature Education Knowledge. 3 (10): 8.
  54. ↑ "Hunting". PETA. 2010-06-24. Retrieved 2019-10-11.
  55. ↑ "Hunting". Animal Ethics. 2016-03-29. Retrieved 2019-10-11.
  56. ↑ Carson, Rachel (1962). Silent spring (40 ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN   978-0-618-24906-0. OCLC   50751491.
  57. ↑ "Does Hunting Help or Hurt the Environment?". Scientific American. 2009-11-10. Retrieved 2020-05-01.
  58. ↑ Salem, Deborah J.; Rowan, Andrew N.; Humane Society of the United States, eds. (2003). The state of the animals II, 2003. Public policy series. Washington, D.C: Humane Society Press. ISBN   978-0-9658942-7-2.
  59. ↑ Juniper, Tony, ed. (2019). The ecology book. Big ideas simply explained. New York, New York: DK Publishing. ISBN   978-1-4654-7958-7. OCLC   1044554389.
  60. ↑ National Gamekeepers' Organisation Charitable Trust

Commons-logo.svg Media related to Wildlife management at Wikimedia Commons

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.