Groundwater pollution

Last updated

Groundwater pollution in Lusaka, Zambia, where the pit latrine in the background is polluting the shallow well in the foreground with pathogens and nitrate Pit latrine and well in close proximity (3794846044).jpg
Groundwater pollution in Lusaka, Zambia, where the pit latrine in the background is polluting the shallow well in the foreground with pathogens and nitrate

Groundwater pollution (also called groundwater contamination) occurs when pollutants are released to the ground and make their way into groundwater. This type of water pollution can also occur naturally due to the presence of a minor and unwanted constituent, contaminant, or impurity in the groundwater, in which case it is more likely referred to as contamination rather than pollution. Groundwater pollution can occur from on-site sanitation systems, landfill leachate, effluent from wastewater treatment plants, leaking sewers, petrol filling stations, hydraulic fracturing (fracking) or from over application of fertilizers in agriculture. Pollution (or contamination) can also occur from naturally occurring contaminants, such as arsenic or fluoride. [1] Using polluted groundwater causes hazards to public health through poisoning or the spread of disease (water-borne diseases).

Contents

The pollutant often produces a contaminant plume within an aquifer. Movement of water and dispersion within the aquifer spreads the pollutant over a wider area. Its advancing boundary, often called a plume edge, can intersect with groundwater wells and surface water, such as seeps and springs, making the water supplies unsafe for humans and wildlife. The movement of the plume, called a plume front, may be analyzed through a hydrological transport model or groundwater model. Analysis of groundwater pollution may focus on soil characteristics and site geology, hydrogeology, hydrology, and the nature of the contaminants. Different mechanisms have influence on the transport of pollutants, e.g. diffusion, adsorption, precipitation, decay, in the groundwater.

The interaction of groundwater contamination with surface waters is analyzed by use of hydrology transport models. Interactions between groundwater and surface water are complex. For example, many rivers and lakes are fed by groundwater. This means that damage to groundwater aquifers e.g. by fracking or over abstraction, could therefore affect the rivers and lakes that rely on it. Saltwater intrusion into coastal aquifers is an example of such interactions. [2] [3] Prevention methods include: applying the precautionary principle, groundwater quality monitoring, land zoning for groundwater protection, locating on-site sanitation systems correctly and applying legislation. When pollution has occurred, management approaches include point-of-use water treatment, groundwater remediation, or as a last resort, abandonment.

Pollutant types

Contaminants found in groundwater cover a broad range of physical, inorganic chemical, organic chemical, bacteriological, and radioactive parameters. Principally, many of the same pollutants that play a role in surface water pollution may also be found in polluted groundwater, although their respective importance may differ.

Arsenic and fluoride

Arsenic and fluoride have been recognized by the World Health Organization (WHO) as the most serious inorganic contaminants in drinking-water on a worldwide basis. [4] [5]

Inorganic arsenic is the most common type of arsenic in soil and water. [6] The metalloid arsenic can occur naturally in groundwater, as seen most frequently in Asia, including in China, India and Bangladesh. [7] In the Ganges Plain of northern India and Bangladesh severe contamination of groundwater by naturally occurring arsenic affects 25% of water wells in the shallower of two regional aquifers. Groundwater in these areas is also contaminated by the use of arsenic-based pesticides. [8]

Arsenic in groundwater can also be present where there are mining operations or mine waste dumps that will leach arsenic.

Natural fluoride in groundwater is of growing concern as deeper groundwater is being used, "with more than 200 million people at risk of drinking water with elevated concentrations." [9] Fluoride can especially be released from acidic volcanic rocks and dispersed volcanic ash when water hardness is low. High levels of fluoride in groundwater is a serious problem in the Argentinean Pampas, Chile, Mexico, India, Pakistan, the East African Rift, and some volcanic islands (Tenerife) [10]

In areas that have naturally occurring high levels of fluoride in groundwater which is used for drinking water, both dental and skeletal fluorosis can be prevalent and severe. [11]

Pathogens

Waterborne diseases can be spread via a groundwater well which is contaminated with fecal pathogens from pit latrines. Groundwater Contamination Latin America Sm.png
Waterborne diseases can be spread via a groundwater well which is contaminated with fecal pathogens from pit latrines.

The lack of proper sanitation measures, as well as improperly placed wells, can lead to drinking water contaminated with pathogens carried in feces and urine. Such fecal–oral transmitted diseases include typhoid, cholera and diarrhea. [12] [13] Of the four pathogen types that are present in feces (bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and helminths or helminth eggs), the first three can be commonly found in polluted groundwater, whereas the relatively large helminth eggs are usually filtered out by the soil matrix.[ citation needed ]

Deep, confined aquifers are usually considered the safest source of drinking water with respect to pathogens. Pathogens from treated or untreated wastewater can contaminate certain, especially shallow, aquifers. [14] [15]

Nitrate

Nitrate is the most common chemical contaminant in the world's groundwater and aquifers. [16] In some low-income countries, nitrate levels in groundwater are extremely high, causing significant health problems. It is also stable (it does not degrade) under high oxygen conditions. [4]

Elevated nitrate levels in groundwater can be caused by on-site sanitation, sewage sludge disposal and agricultural activities. [17] It can therefore have an urban or agricultural origin. [10]

Nitrate levels above 10 mg/L (10 ppm) in groundwater can cause "blue baby syndrome" (acquired methemoglobinemia). [18] Drinking water quality standards in the European Union stipulate less than 50 mg/L for nitrate in drinking water. [19]

The linkages between nitrates in drinking water and blue baby syndrome have been disputed in other studies. [20] [21] The syndrome outbreaks might be due to other factors than elevated nitrate concentrations in drinking water. [22]

Organic compounds

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are a dangerous contaminant of groundwater. They are generally introduced to the environment through careless industrial practices. Many of these compounds were not known to be harmful until the late 1960s and it was some time before regular testing of groundwater identified these substances in drinking water sources.[ citation needed ]

Primary VOC pollutants found in groundwater include aromatic hydrocarbons such as BTEX compounds (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylenes), and chlorinated solvents including tetrachloroethylene (PCE), trichloroethylene (TCE), and vinyl chloride (VC). BTEX are important components of gasoline. PCE and TCE are industrial solvents used in dry cleaning processes and as a metal degreaser, respectively.[ citation needed ]

Other organic pollutants present in groundwater and derived from industrial operations are the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Due to its molecular weight, naphthalene is the most soluble and mobile PAH found in groundwater, whereas benzo(a)pyrene is the most toxic one. PAHs are generally produced as byproducts by incomplete combustion of organic matter.[ citation needed ]

Organic pollutants can also be found in groundwater as insecticides and herbicides. As many other synthetic organic compounds, most pesticides have very complex molecular structures. This complexity determines the water solubility, adsorption capacity, and mobility of pesticides in the groundwater system. Thus, some types of pesticides are more mobile than others so they can more easily reach a drinking-water source. [9]

Metals

Several trace metals occur naturally in certain rock formations and can enter in the environment from natural processes such as weathering. However, industrial activities such as mining, metallurgy, solid waste disposal, paint and enamel works, etc. can lead to elevated concentrations of toxic metals including lead, cadmium and chromium. These contaminants have the potential to make their way into groundwater. [17]

The migration of metals (and metalloids) in groundwater will be affected by several factors, in particular by chemical reactions which determine the partitioning of contaminants among different phases and species. Thus, the mobility of metals primarily depends on the pH and redox state of groundwater. [9]

Pharmaceuticals

Trace amounts of pharmaceuticals from treated wastewater infiltrating into the aquifer are among emerging ground-water contaminants being studied throughout the United States. [23] Popular pharmaceuticals such as antibiotics, anti-inflammatories, antidepressants, decongestants, tranquilizers, etc. are normally found in treated wastewater. [24] This wastewater is discharged from the treatment facility, and often makes its way into the aquifer or source of surface water used for drinking water.[ citation needed ]

Trace amounts of pharmaceuticals in both groundwater and surface water are far below what is considered dangerous or of concern in most areas, but it could be an increasing problem as population grows and more reclaimed wastewater is utilized for municipal water supplies. [24] [25]

Others

Other organic pollutants include a range of organohalides and other chemical compounds, petroleum hydrocarbons, various chemical compounds found in personal hygiene and cosmetic products, drug pollution involving pharmaceutical drugs and their metabolites. Inorganic pollutants might include other nutrients such as ammonia and phosphate, and radionuclides such as uranium (U) or radon (Rn) naturally present in some geological formations. Saltwater intrusion is also an example of natural contamination, but is very often intensified by human activities.[ citation needed ]

Groundwater pollution is a worldwide issue. A study of the groundwater quality of the principal aquifers of the United States conducted between 1991 and 2004, showed that 23% of domestic wells had contaminants at levels greater than human-health benchmarks. [26] Another study suggested that the major groundwater pollution problems in Africa, considering the order of importance are: (1) nitrate pollution, (2) pathogenic agents, (3) organic pollution, (4) salinization, and (5) acid mine drainage. [27]

Causes

Causes of groundwater pollution include (further details below):

Naturally-occurring (geogenic)

"Geogenic" refers to naturally occurring as a result from geological processes.[ citation needed ]

The natural arsenic pollution occurs because aquifer sediments contain organic matter that generates anaerobic conditions in the aquifer. These conditions result in the microbial dissolution of iron oxides in the sediment and, thus, the release of the arsenic, normally strongly bound to iron oxides, into the water. As a consequence, arsenic-rich groundwater is often iron-rich, although secondary processes often obscure the association of dissolved arsenic and dissolved iron.[ citation needed ]. Arsenic is found in groundwater most commonly as the reduced species arsenite and the oxidized species arsenate, the acute toxicity of arsenite being somewhat greater than that of arsenate. [28] Investigations by WHO indicated that 20% of 25,000 boreholes tested in Bangladesh had arsenic concentrations exceeding 50 μg/L. [4]

The occurrence of fluoride is close related to the abundance and solubility of fluoride-containing minerals such as fluorite (CaF2). [28] Considerably high concentrations of fluoride in groundwater are typically caused by a lack of calcium in the aquifer. [4] Health problems associated with dental fluorosis may occur when fluoride concentrations in groundwater exceed 1.5 mg/L, which is the WHO guideline value since 1984. [4]

The Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (EAWAG) has recently developed the interactive Groundwater Assessment Platform (GAP), where the geogenic risk of contamination in a given area can be estimated using geological, topographical and other environmental data without having to test samples from every single groundwater resource. This tool also allows the user to produce probability risk mapping for both arsenic and fluoride. [29]

High concentrations of parameters like salinity, iron, manganese, uranium, radon and chromium, in groundwater, may also be of geogenic origin. This contaminants can be important locally but they are not as widespread as arsenic and fluoride. [28]

On-site sanitation systems

A traditional housing compound near Herat, Afghanistan, where a shallow water supply well (foreground) is in close proximity to the pit latrine (behind the white greenhouse) leading to contamination of the groundwater Shallow water well in traditional house (4359799047).jpg
A traditional housing compound near Herat, Afghanistan, where a shallow water supply well (foreground) is in close proximity to the pit latrine (behind the white greenhouse) leading to contamination of the groundwater

Groundwater pollution with pathogens and nitrate can also occur from the liquids infiltrating into the ground from on-site sanitation systems such as pit latrines and septic tanks, depending on the population density and the hydrogeological conditions. [12]

Factors controlling the fate and transport of pathogens are quite complex and the interaction among them is not well understood. [4] If the local hydrogeological conditions (which can vary within a space of a few square kilometers) are ignored, simple on-site sanitation infrastructures such as pit latrines can cause significant public health risks via contaminated groundwater.[ citation needed ]

Liquids leach from the pit and pass the unsaturated soil zone (which is not completely filled with water). Subsequently, these liquids from the pit enter the groundwater where they may lead to groundwater pollution. This is a problem if a nearby water well is used to supply groundwater for drinking water purposes. During the passage in the soil, pathogens can die off or be adsorbed significantly, mostly depending on the travel time between the pit and the well. [30] Most, but not all pathogens die within 50 days of travel through the subsurface. [31]

The degree of pathogen removal strongly varies with soil type, aquifer type, distance and other environmental factors. [32] For example, the unsaturated zone becomes "washed" during extended periods of heavy rain, providing hydraulic pathway for the quick pass of pathogens. [4] It is difficult to estimate the safe distance between a pit latrine or a septic tank and a water source. In any case, such recommendations about the safe distance are mostly ignored by those building pit latrines. In addition, household plots are of a limited size and therefore pit latrines are often built much closer to groundwater wells than what can be regarded as safe. This results in groundwater pollution and household members falling sick when using this groundwater as a source of drinking water.[ citation needed ]

Sewage and sewage sludge

Groundwater pollution can be caused by untreated waste discharge leading to diseases like skin lesions, bloody diarrhea and dermatitis. This is more common in locations having limited wastewater treatment infrastructure, or where there are systematic failures of the on-site sewage disposal system. [32] Along with pathogens and nutrients, untreated sewage can also have an important load of heavy metals that may seep into the groundwater system.[ citation needed ]

The treated effluent from sewage treatment plants may also reach the aquifer if the effluent is infiltrated or discharged to local surface water bodies. Therefore, those substances that are not removed in conventional sewage treatment plants may reach the groundwater as well. [33] For example, detected concentrations of pharmaceutical residues in groundwater were in the order of 50 mg/L in several locations in Germany. [34] This is because in conventional sewage treatment plants, micro-pollutants such as hormones, pharmaceutical residues and other micro-pollutants contained in urine and feces are only partially removed and the remainder is discharged into surface water, from where it may also reach the groundwater.

Groundwater pollution can also occur from leaking sewers which has been observed for example in Germany. [35] This can also lead to potential cross-contamination of drinking-water supplies. [36]

Spreading wastewater or sewage sludge in agriculture may also be included as sources of fecal contamination in groundwater. [4]

Fertilizers and pesticides

Nitrate can also enter the groundwater via excessive use of fertilizers, including manure spreading. This is because only a fraction of the nitrogen-based fertilizers is converted to produce and other plant matter. The remainder accumulates in the soil or lost as run-off. [37] High application rates of nitrogen-containing fertilizers combined with the high water-solubility of nitrate leads to increased runoff into surface water as well as leaching into groundwater, thereby causing groundwater pollution. [38] The excessive use of nitrogen-containing fertilizers (be they synthetic or natural) is particularly damaging, as much of the nitrogen that is not taken up by plants is transformed into nitrate which is easily leached. [39]

Poor management practices in manure spreading can introduce both pathogens and nutrients (nitrate) in the groundwater system. Manure spreading - geograph.org.uk - 1241415.jpg
Poor management practices in manure spreading can introduce both pathogens and nutrients (nitrate) in the groundwater system.

The nutrients, especially nitrates, in fertilizers can cause problems for natural habitats and for human health if they are washed off soil into watercourses or leached through soil into groundwater. The heavy use of nitrogenous fertilizers in cropping systems is the largest contributor to anthropogenic nitrogen in groundwater worldwide. [40]

Feedlots/animal corrals can also lead to the potential leaching of nitrogen and metals to groundwater. [36] Over application of animal manure may also result in groundwater pollution with pharmaceutical residues derived from veterinary drugs.[ citation needed ]

The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the European Commission are seriously dealing with the nitrate problem related to agricultural development, as a major water supply problem that requires appropriate management and governance. [10] [41]

Runoff of pesticides may leach into groundwater causing human health problems from contaminated water wells. [4] Pesticide concentrations found in groundwater are typically low, and often the regulatory human health-based limits exceeded are also very low. [4] The organophosphorus insecticide monocrotophos (MCP) appears to be one of a few hazardous, persistent, soluble and mobile (it does not bind with minerals in soils) pesticides able to reach a drinking-water source. [42] In general, more pesticide compounds are being detected as groundwater quality monitoring programs have become more extensive; however, much less monitoring has been conducted in developing countries due to the high analysis costs. [4]

Commercial and industrial leaks

A wide variety of both inorganic and organic pollutants have been found in aquifers underlying commercial and industrial activities.[ citation needed ]

Ore mining and metal processing facilities are the primary responsible of the presence of metals in groundwater of anthropogenic origin, including arsenic. The low pH associated with acid mine drainage (AMD) contributes to the solubility of potential toxic metals that can eventually enter the groundwater system.[ citation needed ]

Oil spills associated with underground pipelines and tanks can release benzene and other soluble petroleum hydrocarbons that rapidly percolate down into the aquifer. Benzene Transport to Groundwater from Oil Spill.pdf
Oil spills associated with underground pipelines and tanks can release benzene and other soluble petroleum hydrocarbons that rapidly percolate down into the aquifer.

There is an increasing concern over the groundwater pollution by gasoline leaked from petroleum underground storage tanks (USTs) of gas stations. [4] BTEX compounds are the most common additives of the gasoline. BTEX compounds, including benzene, have densities lower than water (1 g/mL). Similar to the oil spills on the sea, the non-miscible phase, referred to as Light Non-Aqueous Phase Liquid (LNAPL), will "float" upon the water table in the aquifer. [4]

Chlorinated solvents are used in nearly any industrial practice where degreasing removers are required. [4] PCE is a highly utilized solvent in the dry cleaning industry because of its cleaning effectiveness and relatively low cost. It has also been used for metal-degreasing operations. Because it is highly volatile, it is more frequently found in groundwater than in surface water. [43] [ unreliable source? ] TCE has historically been used as a metal cleaning. The military facility Anniston Army Depot (ANAD) in the United States was placed on the EPA Superfund National Priorities List (NPL) because of groundwater contamination with as much as 27 million pounds of TCE. [44] Both PCE and TCE may degrade to vinyl chloride (VC), the most toxic chlorinated hydrocarbon. [4]

Many types of solvents may have also been disposed illegally, leaking over time to the groundwater system. [4]

Chlorinated solvents such as PCE and TCE have densities higher than water and the non-miscible phase is referred to as Dense Non-Aqueous Phase Liquids (DNAPL). [4] Once they reach the aquifer, they will "sink" and eventually accumulate on the top of low-permeability layers. [4] [45] Historically, wood-treating facilities have also release insecticides such as pentachlorophenol (PCP) and creosote into the environment, impacting the groundwater resources. [46] PCP is a highly soluble and toxic obsolete pesticide recently listed in the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants. PAHs and other semi-VOCs are the common contaminants associated with creosote.

Although non-miscible, both LNAPLs and DNAPLs still have the potential to slowly dissolve into the aqueous (miscible) phase to create a plume and thus become a long-term source of contamination. DNAPLs (chlorinated solvents, heavy PAHs, creosote, PCBs) tend to be difficult to manage as they can reside very deep in the groundwater system. [4]

Hydraulic fracturing

The recent growth of hydraulic fracturing ("Fracking") wells in the United States has raised concerns regarding its potential risks of contaminating groundwater resources. [47] EPA, along with many other researchers, has been delegated to study the relationship between hydraulic fracturing and drinking water resources. [48] While it is possible to perform hydraulic fracturing without having a relevant impact on groundwater resources if stringent controls and quality management measures are in place, there are a number of cases where groundwater pollution due to improper handling or technical failures was observed.[ citation needed ]

While the EPA has not found significant evidence of a widespread, systematic impact on drinking water by hydraulic fracturing, this may be due to insufficient systematic pre- and post- hydraulic fracturing data on drinking water quality, and the presence of other agents of contamination that preclude the link between tight oil and shale gas extraction and its impact. [49]

Despite the EPA's lack of profound widespread evidence, other researchers have made significant observations of rising groundwater contamination in close proximity to major shale oil/gas drilling sites located in Marcellus [50] [51] (British Columbia, Canada). Within one kilometer of these specific sites, a subset of shallow drinking water consistently showed higher concentration levels of methane, ethane, and propane concentrations than normal. An evaluation of higher Helium and other noble gas concentration along with the rise of hydrocarbon levels supports the distinction between hydraulic fracturing fugitive gas and naturally occurring "background" hydrocarbon content. This contamination is speculated to be the result of leaky, failing, or improperly installed gas well casings. [52]

Furthermore, it is theorized that contamination could also result from the capillary migration of deep residual hyper-saline water and hydraulic fracturing fluid, slowly flowing through faults and fractures until finally making contact with groundwater resources; [52] however, many researchers argue that the permeability of rocks overlying shale formations are too low to allow this to ever happen sufficiently. [53] To ultimately prove this theory, there would have to be traces of toxic trihalomethanes (THM) since they are often associated with the presence of stray gas contamination, and typically co-occur with high halogen concentrations in hyper-saline waters. [53] Besides, highly saline waters are a common natural feature in deep groundwater systems.[ citation needed ]

While conclusions regarding groundwater pollution as the result to hydraulic fracturing fluid flow is restricted in both space and time, researchers have hypothesized that the potential for systematic stray gas contamination depends mainly on the integrity of the shale oil/gas well structure, along with its relative geological location to local fracture systems that could potentially provide flow paths for fugitive gas migration. [52] [53]

Though widespread, systematic contamination by hydraulic fracturing has been heavily disputed, one major source of contamination that has the most consensus among researchers of being the most problematic is site-specific accidental spillage of hydraulic fracturing fluid and produced water. So far, a significant majority of groundwater contamination events are derived from surface-level anthropogenic routes rather than the subsurface flow from underlying shale formations. [54] While the damage can be obvious, and much more effort is being done to prevent these accidents from occurring so frequently, the lack of data from fracking oil spills continue to leave researchers in the dark. In many of these events, the data acquired from the leakage or spillage is often very vague, and thus would lead researchers to lacking conclusions. [55]

Researchers from the Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources (BGR) conducted a model study for a deep shale-gas formation in the North German Basin. They concluded that the probability is small that the rise of fracking fluids through the geological underground to the surface will impact shallow groundwater. [56]

Landfill leachate

Leachate from sanitary landfills can lead to groundwater pollution. Chemicals can reach into ground water through precipitation and runoff. New landfills are required to be lined with clay or another synthetic material, along with leachate to protect surrounding ground water. However, older landfills do not have these measures and are often close to surface waters and in permeable soils. Closed landfills can still pose a threat to ground water if they are not capped by an impermeable material before closure to prevent leaking of contaminants. [57]

Love Canal was one of the most widely known examples of groundwater pollution. In 1978, residents of the Love Canal neighborhood in upstate New York noticed high rates of cancer and an alarming number of birth defects. This was eventually traced to organic solvents and dioxins from an industrial landfill that the neighborhood had been built over and around, which had then infiltrated into the water supply and evaporated in basements to further contaminate the air. Eight hundred families were reimbursed for their homes and moved, after extensive legal battles and media coverage.[ citation needed ]

Over-pumping

Satellite data in the Mekong Delta in Vietnam have provided evidence that over-pumping of groundwater leads to land subsidence as well as consequential release of arsenic and possibly other heavy metals. [58] Arsenic is found in clay strata due to their high surface area to volume ratio relative to sand-sized particles. Most pumped groundwater travels through sands and gravels with low arsenic concentration. However, during over-pumping, a high vertical gradient pulls water from less-permeable clays, thus promoting arsenic release into the water. [59]

Other

Groundwater pollution can be caused by chemical spills from commercial or industrial operations, chemical spills occurring during transport (e.g. spillage of diesel fuels), illegal waste dumping, infiltration from urban runoff or mining operations, road salts, de-icing chemicals from airports and even atmospheric contaminants since groundwater is part of the hydrologic cycle. [60]

Herbicide use can contribute to groundwater contamination through arsenic infiltration. Herbicides contribute to arsenic desorption through mobilization and transportation of the contaminant. Chlorinated herbicides exhibit a lower impact on arsenic desorption than phosphate type herbicides. This can help to prevent arsenic contamination through choosing herbicides appropriate for different concentrations of arsenic present in certain soils. [61]

The burial of corpses and their subsequent degradation may also pose a risk of pollution to groundwater. [62]

Mechanisms

The passage of water through the subsurface can provide a reliable natural barrier to contamination but it only works under favorable conditions. [12]

The stratigraphy of the area plays an important role in the transport of pollutants. An area can have layers of sandy soil, fractured bedrock, clay, or hardpan. Areas of karst topography on limestone bedrock are sometimes vulnerable to surface pollution from groundwater. Earthquake faults can also be entry routes for downward contaminant entry. Water table conditions are of great importance for drinking water supplies, agricultural irrigation, waste disposal (including nuclear waste), wildlife habitat, and other ecological issues. [63]

Many chemicals undergo reactive decay or chemical change, especially over long periods of time in groundwater reservoirs. A noteworthy class of such chemicals is the chlorinated hydrocarbons such as trichloroethylene (used in industrial metal degreasing and electronics manufacturing) and tetrachloroethylene used in the dry cleaning industry. Both of these chemicals, which are thought to be carcinogens themselves, undergo partial decomposition reactions, leading to new hazardous chemicals (including dichloroethylene and vinyl chloride). [64]

Interactions with surface water

Although interrelated, surface water and groundwater have often been studied and managed as separate resources. [65] Interactions between groundwater and surface water are complex. Surface water seeps through the soil and becomes groundwater. Conversely, groundwater can also feed surface water sources. For example, many rivers and lakes are fed by groundwater. This means that damage to groundwater aquifers e.g. by fracking or over abstraction, could therefore affect the rivers and lakes that rely on it. Saltwater intrusion into coastal aquifers is an example of such interactions. [2] [3]

A spill or ongoing release of chemical or radionuclide contaminants into soil (located away from a surface water body) may not create point or non-point source pollution but can contaminate the aquifer below, creating a toxic plume. The movement of the plume, may be analyzed through a hydrological transport model or groundwater model.[ citation needed ]

Prevention

Schematic showing that there is a lower risk of groundwater pollution with greater depth of the water well Safer siting of sanitation systems - schematic.jpg
Schematic showing that there is a lower risk of groundwater pollution with greater depth of the water well

Precautionary principle

The precautionary principle, evolved from Principle 15 of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, is important in protecting groundwater resources from pollution. The precautionary principle provides that "where there are threats of irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation." [66]

One of the six basic principles of the European Union (EU) water policy is the application of the precautionary principle. [67]

Groundwater quality monitoring

Groundwater quality monitoring programs have been implemented regularly in many countries around the world. They are important components to understand the hydrogeological system, and for the development of conceptual models and aquifer vulnerability maps. [68]

Groundwater quality must be regularly monitored across the aquifer to determine trends. Effective groundwater monitoring should be driven by a specific objective, for example, a specific contaminant of concern. [9] Contaminant levels can be compared to the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines for drinking-water quality. [69] It is not rare that limits of contaminants are reduced as more medical experience is gained. [10]

Sufficient investment should be given to continue monitoring over the long term. When a problem is found, action should be taken to correct it. [9] Waterborne outbreaks in the United States decreased with the introduction of more stringent monitoring (and treatment) requirements in the early 90s. [4]

The community can also help monitor the groundwater quality. [68]

Scientists have developed methods by which hazard maps could be produced for geogenic toxic substances in groundwater. [70] [71] [72] This provides an efficient way of determining which wells should be tested.[ citation needed ]

Land zoning for groundwater protection

The development of land-use zoning maps has been implemented by several water authorities at different scales around the world. There are two types of zoning maps: aquifer vulnerability maps and source protection maps. [9]

Aquifer vulnerability map

It refers to the intrinsic (or natural) vulnerability of a groundwater system to pollution. [9] Intrinsically, some aquifers are more vulnerable to pollution than other aquifers. [68] Shallow unconfined aquifers are more at risk of pollution because there are fewer layers to filter out contaminants. [9]

The unsaturated zone can play an important role in retarding (and in some cases eliminating) pathogens and so must be considered when assessing aquifer vulnerability. [4] The biological activity is greatest in the top soil layers where the attenuation of pathogens is generally most effective. [4]

Preparation of the vulnerability maps typically involves overlaying several thematic maps of physical factors that have been selected to describe the aquifer vulnerability. [68] The index-based parametric mapping method GOD developed by Foster and Hirata (1988) uses three generally available or readily estimated parameters, the degree of Groundwater hydraulic confinement, geological nature of the Overlying strata and Depth to groundwater. [68] [73] [74] A further approach developed by EPA, a rating system named "DRASTIC", employs seven hydrogeological factors to develop an index of vulnerability: Depth to water table, net Recharge, Aquifer media, Soil media, Topography (slope), Impact on the vadose zone, and hydraulic Conductivity. [68] [75]

There is a particular debate among hydrogeologists as to whether aquifer vulnerability should be established in a general (intrinsic) way for all contaminants, or specifically for each pollutant. [68]

Source protection map

It refers to the capture areas around an individual groundwater source, such as a water well or a spring, to especially protect them from pollution. Thus, potential sources of degradable pollutants, such as pathogens, can be located at distances which travel times along the flowpaths are long enough for the pollutant to be eliminated through filtration or adsorption. [9]

Analytical methods using equations to define groundwater flow and contaminant transport are the most widely used. [76] The WHPA is a semi-analytical groundwater flow simulation program developed by the US EPA for delineating capture zones in a wellhead protection area. [77]

The simplest form of zoning employs fixed-distance methods where activities are excluded within a uniformly applied specified distance around abstraction points. [76]

Locating on-site sanitation systems

As the health effects of most toxic chemicals arise after prolonged exposure, risk to health from chemicals is generally lower than that from pathogens. [4] Thus, the quality of the source protection measures is an important component in controlling whether pathogens may be present in the final drinking-water. [76]

On-site sanitation systems can be designed in such a way that groundwater pollution from these sanitation systems is prevented from occurring. [12] [31] Detailed guidelines have been developed to estimate safe distances to protect groundwater sources from pollution from on-site sanitation. [78] [79] The following criteria have been proposed for safe siting (i.e. deciding on the location) of on-site sanitation systems: [12]

As a very general guideline it is recommended that the bottom of the pit should be at least 2 m above groundwater level, and a minimum horizontal distance of 30 m between a pit and a water source is normally recommended to limit exposure to microbial contamination.[1] However, no general statement should be made regarding the minimum lateral separation distances required to prevent contamination of a well from a pit latrine. [12] For example, even 50 m lateral separation distance might not be sufficient in a strongly karstified system with a downgradient supply well or spring, while 10 m lateral separation distance is completely sufficient if there is a well developed clay cover layer and the annular space of the groundwater well is well sealed.[ citation needed ]

Legislation

Institutional and legal issues are critical in determining the success or failure of groundwater protection policies and strategies. [4] In the United States the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act protects groundwater by regulating the disposal of solid waste and hazardous waste, and the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act, also known as "Superfund", requires remediation of abandoned hazardous waste sites. [80] [81]

Sign near Mannheim, Germany, indicating a zone as a dedicated "groundwater protection zone" Blaues Hinweisschild Wasserschutzgebiet.JPG
Sign near Mannheim, Germany, indicating a zone as a dedicated "groundwater protection zone"

Management

Options for remediation of contaminated groundwater can be grouped into the following categories:

Point-of-use treatment

Portable water purification devices or "point-of-use" (POU) water treatment systems and field water disinfection techniques can be used to remove some forms of groundwater pollution prior to drinking, namely any fecal pollution. Many commercial portable water purification systems or chemical additives are available which can remove pathogens, chlorine, bad taste, odors, and heavy metals like lead and mercury. [83]

Techniques include boiling, filtration, activated charcoal absorption, chemical disinfection, ultraviolet purification, ozone water disinfection, solar water disinfection, solar distillation, homemade water filters.[ citation needed ]

Arsenic removal filters (ARF) are dedicated technologies typically installed to remove arsenic. Many of these technologies require a capital investment and long-term maintenance. Filters in Bangladesh are usually abandoned by the users due to their high cost and complicated maintenance, which is also quite expensive.[ citation needed ]

Groundwater remediation

Groundwater pollution is much more difficult to abate than surface pollution because groundwater can move great distances through unseen aquifers. Non-porous aquifers such as clays partially purify water of bacteria by simple filtration (adsorption and absorption), dilution, and, in some cases, chemical reactions and biological activity; however, in some cases, the pollutants merely transform to soil contaminants. Groundwater that moves through open fractures and caverns is not filtered and can be transported as easily as surface water. In fact, this can be aggravated by the human tendency to use natural sinkholes as dumps in areas of karst topography. [84]

Pollutants and contaminants can be removed from ground water by applying various techniques thereby making it safe for use. Ground water treatment (or remediation) techniques span biological, chemical, and physical treatment technologies. Most ground water treatment techniques utilize a combination of technologies. Some of the biological treatment techniques include bioaugmentation, bioventing, biosparging, bioslurping, and phytoremediation. Some chemical treatment techniques include ozone and oxygen gas injection, chemical precipitation, membrane separation, ion exchange, carbon absorption, aqueous chemical oxidation, and surfactant-enhanced recovery. Some chemical techniques may be implemented using nanomaterials. Physical treatment techniques include, but are not limited to, pump and treat, air sparging, and dual phase extraction.

Abandonment

If treatment or remediation of the polluted groundwater is deemed to be too difficult or expensive, then abandoning the use of this aquifer's groundwater and finding an alternative source of water is the only other option.

Examples

Africa

Lusaka, Zambia

The peri-urban areas of Lusaka, the capital of Zambia, have ground conditions which are strongly karstified and for this reason – together with the increasing population density in these peri-urban areas – pollution of water wells from pit latrines is a major public health threat there. [85]

Babati town, Tanzania

In Tanzania, many residents rely on groundwater sources, mainly from shallow on-site wells, for drinking and other domestic purposes. The cost of the official water supply has resulted in many households relying on private wells rather than Babati's urban water and sanitation facilities. The consumption of water from temporary water sources of unknown quality (mainly shallow wells) has resulted in large numbers of people suffering from water-borne diseases. In Tanzania, 23,900 children under the age of 5 are reported to die each year from dysentery and diarrhoea associated with drinking unsafe water. [86]

Asia

India

The Ganga River Basin (GRB) which is a sacred body of water for the Hindus is facing severe arsenic contamination. India covers 79% of the GRB, and thus numerous states have been affected. Affected states include Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Rajasthan, Chhattisgarh, Punjab, Haryana, and West Bengal. The arsenic levels are up to 4730 μg/L in the groundwater, ~1000 μg/L in irrigation water, and up to 3947 μg/kg in food materials all of which all exceed the United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization's standard for irrigation water and the World Health Organization's standards for drinking water. As a result, individuals who are exposed suffer from diseases that affect their dermal, neurological, reproductive and cognitive functioning, and can even result in cancer. [87]

In India the government has proceeded to promote sanitation development in order to combat the rise in ground water contamination in several regions of the country. The effort has proved to show results and has decreased the groundwater pollution and has decreased the chance of sickness for mothers and children who were mainly affected by this issue. This was something greatly needed as according to the study, over 117,000 children under five die every year due to consuming polluted water. The countries effort has seen success in the more economically developed sections of the country. [88]

North America

Hinkley, U.S.

The town of Hinkley, California (U.S.), had its groundwater contaminated with hexavalent chromium starting in 1952, resulting in a legal case against Pacific Gas & Electric (PG&E) and a multimillion-dollar settlement in 1996. The legal case was dramatized in the film Erin Brockovich , released in 2000.

San Joaquin, U.S.

Intensive pumping in San Joaquin county, California, has resulted in arsenic pollution. San Joaquin county has faced serious intensive pumping which has caused the ground below San Joaquin to sink and in turn damaged infrastructure. This intensive pumping into groundwater has allowed arsenic to move into groundwater aquifers which supply drinking water to at least a million residents and used in irrigation for crops in some of the richest farmland in the US. Aquifers are made up of sand and gravel that are separated by thin layers of clay which acts as a sponge that holds onto water and arsenic. When water is pumped intensively, the aquifer compresses and ground sinks which leads to the clay releasing arsenic. Study shows that aquifers contaminated as a result from over pumping, they can recover if withdrawals stop. [89]

Norco, California

The town of Norco, California was affected by Trichloroethylene and Hydrazine groundwater contamination as a result of improper and negligent hazardous material handling and disposal practices from the Wyle Laboratories facility, which was located next to the Norco High School. Trichlorethylene levels were detected as high as 128 times higher than the states safe limit for drinking water and Hydrazine was found in 2 nearby wells. [90]

The site is no longer in operation, and is an active hazmat cleanup site.

Walkerton, Canada

In the year 2000, groundwater pollution occurred in the small town of Walkerton, Canada leading to seven deaths in what is known as the Walkerton E. Coli outbreak. The water supply which was drawn from groundwater became contaminated with the highly dangerous O157:H7 strain of E. coli bacteria. [91] This contamination was due to farm runoff into an adjacent water well that was vulnerable to groundwater pollution.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Drinking water</span> Water safe for consumption

Drinking water or potable water is water that is safe for ingestion, either when drunk directly in liquid form or consumed indirectly through food preparation. It is often supplied through taps, in which case it is also called tap water.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Water extraction</span> Process of taking water from any source

Water extraction is the process of taking water from any source, either temporarily or permanently, for flood control or to obtain water for, for example, irrigation. The extracted water could also be used as drinking water after suitable treatment.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Groundwater</span> Water located beneath the ground surface

Groundwater is the water present beneath Earth's surface in rock and soil pore spaces and in the fractures of rock formations. About 30 percent of all readily available fresh water in the world is groundwater. A unit of rock or an unconsolidated deposit is called an aquifer when it can yield a usable quantity of water. The depth at which soil pore spaces or fractures and voids in rock become completely saturated with water is called the water table. Groundwater is recharged from the surface; it may discharge from the surface naturally at springs and seeps, and can form oases or wetlands. Groundwater is also often withdrawn for agricultural, municipal, and industrial use by constructing and operating extraction wells. The study of the distribution and movement of groundwater is hydrogeology, also called groundwater hydrology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Water quality</span> Assessment against standards for use

Water quality refers to the chemical, physical, and biological characteristics of water based on the standards of its usage. It is most frequently used by reference to a set of standards against which compliance, generally achieved through treatment of the water, can be assessed. The most common standards used to monitor and assess water quality convey the health of ecosystems, safety of human contact, extent of water pollution and condition of drinking water. Water quality has a significant impact on water supply and often determines supply options.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Water pollution</span> Contamination of water bodies

Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies, with a negative impact on their uses. It is usually a result of human activities. Water bodies include lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers, reservoirs and groundwater. Water pollution results when contaminants mix with these water bodies. Contaminants can come from one of four main sources. These are sewage discharges, industrial activities, agricultural activities, and urban runoff including stormwater. Water pollution may affect either surface water or groundwater. This form of pollution can lead to many problems. One is the degradation of aquatic ecosystems. Another is spreading water-borne diseases when people use polluted water for drinking or irrigation. Water pollution also reduces the ecosystem services such as drinking water provided by the water resource.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental remediation</span> Removal of pollution from soil, groundwater etc.

Environmental remediation is the cleanup of hazardous substances dealing with the removal, treatment and containment of pollution or contaminants from environmental media such as soil, groundwater, sediment. Remediation may be required by regulations before development of land revitalization projects. Developers who agree to voluntary cleanup may be offered incentives under state or municipal programs like New York State's Brownfield Cleanup Program. If remediation is done by removal the waste materials are simply transported off-site for disposal at another location. The waste material can also be contained by physical barriers like slurry walls. The use of slurry walls is well-established in the construction industry. The application of (low) pressure grouting, used to mitigate soil liquefaction risks in San Francisco and other earthquake zones, has achieved mixed results in field tests to create barriers, and site-specific results depend upon many variable conditions that can greatly impact outcomes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hydrogeology</span> Study of the distribution and movement of groundwater

Hydrogeology is the area of geology that deals with the distribution and movement of groundwater in the soil and rocks of the Earth's crust. The terms groundwater hydrology, geohydrology, and hydrogeology are often used interchangeably, though hydrogeology is the most commonly used.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Safe Drinking Water Act</span> Primary federal law in the United States intended to ensure safe drinking water for the public

The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) is the primary federal law in the United States intended to ensure safe drinking water for the public. Pursuant to the act, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is required to set standards for drinking water quality and oversee all states, localities, and water suppliers that implement the standards.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Soil contamination</span> Pollution of land by human-made chemicals or other alteration

Soil contamination, soil pollution, or land pollution as a part of land degradation is caused by the presence of xenobiotic (human-made) chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil environment. It is typically caused by industrial activity, agricultural chemicals or improper disposal of waste. The most common chemicals involved are petroleum hydrocarbons, polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons, solvents, pesticides, lead, and other heavy metals. Contamination is correlated with the degree of industrialization and intensity of chemical substance. The concern over soil contamination stems primarily from health risks, from direct contact with the contaminated soil, vapour from the contaminants, or from secondary contamination of water supplies within and underlying the soil. Mapping of contaminated soil sites and the resulting clean ups are time-consuming and expensive tasks, and require expertise in geology, hydrology, chemistry, computer modelling, and GIS in Environmental Contamination, as well as an appreciation of the history of industrial chemistry.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arsenic contamination of groundwater</span> Form of water pollution

Arsenic contamination of groundwater is a form of groundwater pollution which is often due to naturally occurring high concentrations of arsenic in deeper levels of groundwater. It is a high-profile problem due to the use of deep tube wells for water supply in the Ganges Delta, causing serious arsenic poisoning to large numbers of people. A 2007 study found that over 137 million people in more than 70 countries are probably affected by arsenic poisoning of drinking water. The problem became a serious health concern after mass poisoning of water in Bangladesh. Arsenic contamination of ground water is found in many countries throughout the world, including the US.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Water politics</span> Politics affected by the availability of water and water resources

Water politics, sometimes called hydropolitics, is politics affected by the availability of water and water resources, a necessity for all life forms and human development.

The Turlock Basin is a sub-basin of the San Joaquin Valley groundwater basin which occupies approximately 13,700 total square miles, making it the largest groundwater basin in California. The Turlock Basin makes up 542 square miles of this total. This aquifer is located within Merced and Stanislaus counties in the Central Valley bounded by the Tuolumne River to the north, the Merced River to the south and San Joaquin River to the west. The Sierra Nevada foothills bound the sub-basin to the east. Groundwater in the San Joaquin Valley occurs mostly in younger alluvial material. The Turlock Basin lies to the east of the city of Turlock. Groundwater in the Turlock Basin occurs in older alluvial deposits. Large portions of the San Joaquin Basin have experienced overdraft of water and infiltration of agricultural water pollutants, resulting in poor water quality.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Water testing</span> Procedures used to analyze water quality

Water testing is a broad description for various procedures used to analyze water quality. Millions of water quality tests are carried out daily to fulfill regulatory requirements and to maintain safety.

Drinking water quality in the United States is generally safe. In 2016, over 90 percent of the nation's community water systems were in compliance with all published U.S. Environmental Protection Agency standards. Over 286 million Americans get their tap water from a community water system. Eight percent of the community water systems—large municipal water systems—provide water to 82 percent of the US population. The Safe Drinking Water Act requires the US EPA to set standards for drinking water quality in public water systems. Enforcement of the standards is mostly carried out by state health agencies. States may set standards that are more stringent than the federal standards.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Water pollution in the United States</span> Overview of water pollution in the United States of America

Water pollution in the United States is a growing problem that became critical in the 19th century with the development of mechanized agriculture, mining, and manufacturing industrys—although laws and regulations introduced in the late 20th century have improved water quality in many water bodies. Extensive industrialization and rapid urban growth exacerbated water pollution as a lack of regulation allowed for discharges of sewage, toxic chemicals, nutrients, and other pollutants into surface water. This has led to the need for more improvement in water quality as it is still threatened and not fully safe.

Water in Arkansas is an important issue encompassing the conservation, protection, management, distribution and use of the water resource in the state. Arkansas contains a mixture of groundwater and surface water, with a variety of state and federal agencies responsible for the regulation of the water resource. In accordance with agency rules, state, and federal law, the state's water treatment facilities utilize engineering, chemistry, science and technology to treat raw water from the environment to potable water standards and distribute it through water mains to homes, farms, business and industrial customers. Following use, wastewater is collected in collection and conveyance systems, decentralized sewer systems or septic tanks and treated in accordance with regulations at publicly owned treatment works (POTWs) before being discharged to the environment.

Groundwater pollution, also referred to as groundwater contamination, is not as easily classified as surface water pollution. Groundwater aquifers are susceptible to contamination from sources that may not directly affect surface water bodies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wellhead protection program</span> US groundwater contamination law

The Wellhead Protection Program in the 1986 amendments to the Safe Drinking Water Act requires states to protect underground sources of drinking water from contaminants that may adversely affect human health. Over half of the U.S. population relies on groundwater for drinking water However, residential, municipal, commercial, industrial, and agricultural activities can all contaminate groundwater. In the event of contamination, a community's drinking water supply can develop poor quality or be lost altogether. Groundwater contamination occurs from products such as oil, chemicals, gasoline, or other toxic substances to infiltrate groundwater. These products can travel through soil and seep into the groundwater; this process can occur through landfills, septic tanks, mining sites, fertilization, etc. Groundwater contamination might not be detected for a long period of time and health problems can occur from drinking contaminated water. Cleanup of a contaminated underground source of drinking water may be impossible or so difficult it costs thousands or millions of dollars. The U.S. Congress requiring Wellhead Protection Programs by 42 U.S.C. § 300h–7 in the Safe Drinking Water Act applied the concept that it is better to prevent groundwater contamination than try to remediate it. U.S. Congress by 42 U.S.C. § 300h–7 requires identification of the areas that need implementation of control measures in order to protect public water supply wells from contamination as "wellhead protection areas". Communities can use the police power established by the Tenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution to enforce zoning and subdivision regulations to protect drinking water sources. Thereby communities can direct development away from areas that would pose a threat to drinking water sources.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pollution in Door County, Wisconsin</span> Overview of pollution in Door County, Wisconsin, United States

Pollution in Door County, Wisconsin relates to the degree of pollution in the air, water, and land in Door County, Wisconsin. Pollution is defined as the addition of any substance or any form of energy to the environment at a faster rate than it can be dispersed, diluted, decomposed, recycled, or stored in some harmless form.

References

  1. ↑ Adelana, Segun Michael (2014). Groundwater: Hydrogeochemistry, Environmental Impacts and Management Practices. Nova Science Publishers, Inc. ISBN   978-1-63321-791-1. OCLC   915416488.
  2. 1 2 Costall, A. R.; Harris, B. D.; Teo, B.; Schaa, R.; Wagner, F. M.; Pigois, J. P. (2020). "Groundwater Throughflow and Seawater Intrusion in High Quality Coastal Aquifers". Scientific Reports . 10 (1): 9866. Bibcode:2020NatSR..10.9866C. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-66516-6. ISSN   2045-2322. PMC   7300005 . PMID   32555499.
  3. 1 2 Han, D.M.; Song, X.F.; Currell, Matthew J.; Yang, J.L.; Xiao, G.Q. (2014). "Chemical and isotopic constraints on evolution of groundwater salinization in the coastal plain aquifer of Laizhou Bay, China". Journal of Hydrology . 508: 12–27. Bibcode:2014JHyd..508...12H. doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2013.10.040.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 World Health Organization (WHO). "Section 1:Managing the Quality of Drinking-water Sources" (PDF). Protecting Groundwater for Health: Managing the Quality oPublishing for WHO.
  5. ↑ Brindha, K.; Elango, L. (2011). "Fluoride in groundwater: causes, implications and mitigation measures". Fluoride properties, applications and environmental management. Vol. 1. pp. 111–136.
  6. ↑ Johnson LR, Hiltbold AE (1969). "Arsenic Content of Soil and Crops Following Use of Methanearsonate Herbicides". Soil Science Society of America Journal . 33 (2): 279–282. Bibcode:1969SSASJ..33..279J. doi:10.2136/sssaj1969.03615995003300020032x. ISSN   1435-0661.
  7. ↑ Ravenscroft P (2007). "Predicting the global extent of arsenic pollution of groundwater and its potential impact on human health" (PDF). UNICEF. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 19, 2017. Retrieved March 18, 2017.
  8. ↑ Abedin MJ, Feldmann J, Meharg AA (March 2002). "Uptake kinetics of arsenic species in rice plants". Plant Physiology . 128 (3): 1120–8. doi: 10.1104/pp.010733 . PMC   152223 . PMID   11891266.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Smith M, Cross K, Paden M, Laben P, eds. (2016). Spring - managing groundwater sustainably (PDF). IUCN. ISBN   978-2-8317-1789-0.
  10. 1 2 3 4 Custodio E, ed. (2013). Trends in groundwater pollution: Loss of groundwater quality & related services - Groundwater Governance (PDF). Global Environmental Facility (GEF). Archived from the original (PDF) on September 21, 2018. Retrieved March 18, 2017.
  11. ↑ Fawell J, Bailey K, Chilton J, Dahi E (2006). Fluoride in drinking-water (PDF). Geneva: IWA for WHO. ISBN   978-9241563192.
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Wolf L, Nick A, Cronin A (2015). How to keep your groundwater drinkable: Safer siting of sanitation systems. Sustainable Sanitation Alliance Working Group 11.
  13. ↑ Wolf J, Prüss-Ustün A, Cumming O, Bartram J, Bonjour S, Cairncross S, et al. (August 2014). "Assessing the impact of drinking water and sanitation on diarrhoeal disease in low- and middle-income settings: systematic review and meta-regression" (PDF). Tropical Medicine & International Health . 19 (8): 928–42. doi: 10.1111/tmi.12331 . PMID   24811732. S2CID   22903164.
  14. ↑ "Bacteria and Their Effects on Ground-Water Quality". Michigan Water Science Center . Lansing, MI: United States Geological Survey (USGS). January 4, 2017.
  15. ↑ Banks WS, Battigelli DA (2002). Occurrence and Distribution of Microbiological Contamination and Enteric Viruses in Shallow Ground Water in Baltimore and Harford Counties, Maryland (PDF) (Report). Baltimore, MD: USGS. Water-Resources Investigations Report 01-4216.
  16. ↑ Ross N, ed. (2010). Clearing the waters a focus on water quality solutions. Nairobi, Kenya: UNEP. ISBN   978-92-807-3074-6. Archived from the original on June 5, 2019. Retrieved March 22, 2017.
  17. 1 2 AGW-Net (2016). Integration of Groundwater Management into Transboundary Basin Organizations in Africa: Groundwater Hazards - a Training Manual by AGW-Net, BGR, IWMI, CapNet, ANBO, & IGRAC (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on October 13, 2015. Retrieved March 19, 2017.
  18. ↑ Knobeloch L, Salna B, Hogan A, Postle J, Anderson H (July 2000). "Blue babies and nitrate-contaminated well water". Environmental Health Perspectives . 108 (7): 675–8. doi:10.1289/ehp.00108675. PMC   1638204 . PMID   10903623.
  19. ↑ "Council Directive 98/83/EC of 3 November 1998 on the quality of water intended for human consumption, ANNEX I: PARAMETERS AND PARAMETRIC VALUES, PART B: Chemical parameters". EUR-Lex. Retrieved December 30, 2019.
  20. ↑ Fewtrell L (October 2004). "Drinking-water nitrate, methemoglobinemia, and global burden of disease: a discussion". Environmental Health Perspectives . 112 (14): 1371–4. doi:10.1289/ehp.7216. PMC   1247562 . PMID   15471727.
  21. ↑ van Grinsven HJ, Ward MH, Benjamin N, de Kok TM (September 2006). "Does the evidence about health risks associated with nitrate ingestion warrant an increase of the nitrate standard for drinking water?". Environmental Health . 5 (1): 26. Bibcode:2006EnvHe...5...26V. doi: 10.1186/1476-069X-5-26 . PMC   1586190 . PMID   16989661.
  22. ↑ Ward MH, deKok TM, Levallois P, Brender J, Gulis G, Nolan BT, VanDerslice J (November 2005). "Workgroup report: Drinking-water nitrate and health--recent findings and research needs". Environmental Health Perspectives . 113 (11): 1607–14. doi:10.1289/ehp.8043. PMC   1310926 . PMID   16263519.
  23. ↑ Bexfield, Laura M.; Toccalino, Patricia L.; Belitz, Kenneth; Foreman, William T.; Furlong, Edward T. (March 19, 2019). "Hormones and Pharmaceuticals in Groundwater Used As a Source of Drinking Water Across the United States". Environmental Science & Technology . 53 (6): 2950–2960. Bibcode:2019EnST...53.2950B. doi: 10.1021/acs.est.8b05592 . ISSN   0013-936X. PMID   30834750.
  24. 1 2 "Emerging Contaminants In Arizona Water" (PDF). September 2016. p. 4.3.1.
  25. ↑ Benotti MJ, Fisher SC, Terracciano SA (September 2006). Occurrence of Pharmaceuticals in Shallow Ground Water of Suffolk County, New York, 2002–2005 (PDF) (Report). Reston, VA: USGS. Open-File Report 2006–1297.
  26. ↑ DeSimone LA, Hamilton PA, Gilliom RJ (2009). Quality of water from domestic wells in principal aquifers of the United States, 1991-2004: overview of major findings (PDF). Reston, VA: USGS. ISBN   9781411323506.
  27. ↑ Xu Y, Usher B, eds. (2006). Groundwater pollution in Africa. Taylor & Francis. ISBN   978-0-415-41167-7.
  28. 1 2 3 EAWAG (2015). Johnson CA, Brezler A (eds.). Geogenic Contamination Handbook - Addressing Arsenic and Fluoride in Drinking Water (PDF). Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (EAWAG). Archived from the original (PDF) on May 11, 2021. Retrieved March 19, 2017.
  29. ↑ "Groundwater Assessment Platform". GAP Maps. Retrieved March 22, 2017.
  30. ↑ Guidelines on drinking water protection areas – Part 1: Groundwater protection areas. Technical rule number W101:2006-06 (Report). Bonn: Deutsche Vereinigung des Gas- und Wasserfaches e.V. 2006.
  31. 1 2 Nick A, Foppen JW, Kulabako R, Lo D, Samwel M, Wagner F, Wolf L (2012). "Sustainable sanitation and groundwater protection". Factsheet of Working Group 11. Sustainable Sanitation Alliance (SuSanA).
  32. 1 2 3 Graham JP, Polizzotto ML (May 2013). "Pit latrines and their impacts on groundwater quality: a systematic review". Environmental Health Perspectives . 121 (5): 521–30. doi:10.1289/ehp.1206028. PMC   3673197 . PMID   23518813.
  33. ↑ Phillips PJ, Chalmers AT, Gray JL, Kolpin DW, Foreman WT, Wall GR (May 2012). "Combined sewer overflows: an environmental source of hormones and wastewater micropollutants". Environmental Science & Technology . 46 (10): 5336–43. Bibcode:2012EnST...46.5336P. doi:10.1021/es3001294. PMC   3352270 . PMID   22540536.
  34. ↑ Winker M (2009). Pharmaceutical residues in urine and potential risks related to usage as fertiliser in agriculture (PhD). Hamburg: Hamburg University of Technology (TUHH), Hamburg, Germany. ISBN   978-3-930400-41-6.
  35. ↑ Tellam JH, Rivett MO, Israfilov RG, Herringshaw LG (2006). Tellam JH, Rivett MO, Israfilov RG, Herringshaw LG (eds.). Urban Groundwater Management and Sustainability. NATO Science Series. Vol. 74. Springer Link, NATO Science Series Volume 74 2006. p. 490. doi:10.1007/1-4020-5175-1. ISBN   978-1-4020-5175-3. S2CID   140583063.
  36. 1 2 UN-Water (2015). "Wastewater Management - A UN-Water Analytical Brief" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on November 30, 2016. Retrieved March 22, 2017.
  37. ↑ Khan MN, Mohammad F (2014). "Eutrophication: Challenges and Solutions". In Ansari AA, Gill SS (eds.). Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences and Control. Springer. ISBN   978-94-007-7813-9.
  38. ↑ Singh B, Singh Y, Sekhon GS (1995). "Fertilizer-N use efficiency and nitrate pollution of groundwater in developing countries". Journal of Contaminant Hydrology . 20 (3–4): 167–184. Bibcode:1995JCHyd..20..167S. doi:10.1016/0169-7722(95)00067-4.
  39. ↑ Jackson LE, Burger M, Cavagnaro TR (2008). "Roots, nitrogen transformations, and ecosystem services". Annual Review of Plant Biology . 59 (1): 341–63. doi:10.1146/annurev.arplant.59.032607.092932. PMID   18444903. S2CID   6817866.
  40. ↑ Suthar S, Bishnoi P, Singh S, Mutiyar PK, Nema AK, Patil NS (November 2009). "Nitrate contamination in groundwater of some rural areas of Rajasthan, India". Journal of Hazardous Materials . 171 (1–3): 189–99. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.05.111. PMID   19545944.
  41. ↑ Directive 91/676/EEC of 12 December 1991 of the European Parliament and of the Council concerning the protection of waters against pollution caused by nitrates from agricultural sources
  42. ↑ "PPDB: Pesticide Properties DataBase". University of Hertfordshire . Retrieved March 23, 2017.
  43. ↑ Health Canada (2014). "Tetrachloroethylene in Drinking Water" . Retrieved March 20, 2017.
  44. ↑ ATSDR (US Agency for Toxic Substance & Disease Registry) (2008). "Follow-up Health Consultation: Anniston Army Depot" (PDF). Retrieved March 18, 2017.
  45. ↑ "A Citizen's Guide to Drycleaner Cleanup". Technologies for Cleaning Up Contaminated Sites. Washington, DC: US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). August 2011. EPA 542-F-11-013.
  46. ↑ "Superfund Site: Atlantic Wood Industries, Inc". Superfund. Philadelphia, PA: EPA. October 23, 2018.
  47. ↑ Jackson, Robert B.; Vengosh, Avner; Carey, J. William; Davies, Richard J.; Darrah, Thomas H.; O'Sullivan, Francis; Pétron, Gabrielle (October 17, 2014). "The Environmental Costs and Benefits of Fracking". Annual Review of Environment and Resources . 39 (1): 327–362. doi:10.1146/annurev-environ-031113-144051. ISSN   1543-5938.
  48. ↑ Office, US EPA National Center for Environmental Assessment, Immediate; Ridley, Caroline. "Hydraulic Fracturing for Oil and Gas: Impacts from the Hydraulic Fracturing Water Cycle on Drinking Water Resources in the United States (Final Report)". cfpub.epa.gov. Retrieved April 1, 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  49. ↑ Hydraulic Fracturing for Oil and Gas: Impacts from the Hydraulic Fracturing Water Cycle on Drinking Water Resources in the United States (Final Report) (Report). Washington, DC: EPA. 2016. EPA 600/R-16/236F.
  50. ↑ DiGiulio DC, Jackson RB (April 2016). "Impact to Underground Sources of Drinking Water and Domestic Wells from Production Well Stimulation and Completion Practices in the Pavillion, Wyoming, Field". Environmental Science & Technology . 50 (8): 4524–36. Bibcode:2016EnST...50.4524D. doi:10.1021/acs.est.5b04970. PMID   27022977. S2CID   206553782.
  51. ↑ Ellsworth WL (July 2013). "Injection-induced earthquakes". Science . 341 (6142): 1225942. doi:10.1126/science.1225942. PMID   23846903. S2CID   206543048.
  52. 1 2 3 Vengosh A, Jackson RB, Warner N, Darrah TH, Kondash A (2014). "A critical review of the risks to water resources from unconventional shale gas development and hydraulic fracturing in the United States". Environmental Science & Technology . 48 (15): 8334–48. Bibcode:2014EnST...48.8334V. doi:10.1021/es405118y. PMID   24606408. S2CID   22857048.
  53. 1 2 3 Howarth RW, Ingraffea A, Engelder T (September 2011). "Natural gas: Should fracking stop?". Nature . 477 (7364): 271–5. Bibcode:2011Natur.477..271H. doi: 10.1038/477271a . PMID   21921896. S2CID   205067220.
  54. ↑ Drollette BD, Hoelzer K, Warner NR, Darrah TH, Karatum O, O'Connor MP, et al. (October 2015). "Elevated levels of diesel range organic compounds in groundwater near Marcellus gas operations are derived from surface activities". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 112 (43): 13184–9. Bibcode:2015PNAS..11213184D. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1511474112 . PMC   4629325 . PMID   26460018.
  55. ↑ "Lack of data on fracking spills leaves researchers in the dark on water contamination". StateImpact Pennsylvania. Retrieved May 9, 2016.
  56. ↑ Pfunt H, Houben G, Himmelsbach T (2016). "Numerical modeling of fracking fluid migration through fault zones and fractures in the North German Basin". Hydrogeology Journal . 24 (6): 1343–1358. Bibcode:2016HydJ...24.1343P. doi:10.1007/s10040-016-1418-7. S2CID   133308889.
  57. ↑ Environmental Protection Agency. "Getting up to Speed: Ground Water Contamination" (PDF). EPA. Environmental Protection Agency . Retrieved September 30, 2019.
  58. ↑ Erban LE, Gorelick SM, Zebker HA (2014). "Groundwater extraction, land subsidence, and sea-level rise in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam". Environmental Research Letters . 9 (8): 084010. Bibcode:2014ERL.....9h4010E. doi: 10.1088/1748-9326/9/8/084010 . ISSN   1748-9326.
  59. ↑ Smith R, Knight R, Fendorf S (June 2018). "Overpumping leads to California groundwater arsenic threat". Nature Communications . 9 (1): 2089. Bibcode:2018NatCo...9.2089S. doi: 10.1038/s41467-018-04475-3 . PMC   5988660 . PMID   29872050.
  60. ↑ "Potential Threats to Our Groundwater". The Groundwater Foundation. Retrieved September 24, 2015.
  61. ↑ Jiang Y, Zhong W, Yan W, Yan L (November 2019). "Arsenic mobilization from soils in the presence of herbicides". Journal of Environmental Sciences . 85: 66–73. doi:10.1016/j.jes.2019.04.025. PMID   31471032. S2CID   164716323.
  62. ↑ Scottish Environmental Protection Agency (SEPA) (2015). "Guidance on Assessing the Impacts of Cemeteries on Groundwater" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on July 12, 2021. Retrieved March 19, 2017.
  63. ↑ "Groundwater Sampling". July 31, 2012. Archived from the original on February 11, 2014.
  64. ↑ A.T. Ekubo and J.F.N. Abowei (November 10, 2011). "Aspects of Aquatic Pollution in Nigeria" (PDF). Research Journal of Environmental and Earth Sciences. 3 (6): 684 – via Maxwell Scientific Organization.
  65. ↑ "Ground Water and Surface Water: A Single Resource". USGS . Denver, CO. 1998. Circular 1139.
  66. ↑ United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) (2015). "Good Practices for Regulating Wastewater Treatment" (PDF). Retrieved March 19, 2017.
  67. ↑ World Health Organization (WHO) (2006). "Section 5:Approaches to pollution source management" (PDF). In Schmoll O, Howard G, Chilton G (eds.). Protecting Groundwater for Health: Managing the Quality of Drinking-water. IWA for WHO.
  68. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 World Health Organization (WHO) (2006). "Protecting Groundwater for Health - Understanding the drinking-water catchment" (PDF). Retrieved March 20, 2017.
  69. ↑ World Health Organization (WHO) (2011). "Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality" (PDF). Retrieved March 18, 2017.
  70. ↑ Amini, Manouchehr; Mueller, Kim; Abbaspour, Karim C.; Rosenberg, Thomas; Afyuni, Majid; Møller, Klaus N.; Sarr, Mamadou; Johnson, C. Annette (May 15, 2008). "Statistical Modeling of Global Geogenic Fluoride Contamination in Groundwaters". Environmental Science & Technology . 42 (10): 3662–3668. Bibcode:2008EnST...42.3662A. doi: 10.1021/es071958y . ISSN   0013-936X. PMID   18546705.
  71. ↑ Amini, Manouchehr; Abbaspour, Karim C.; Berg, Michael; Winkel, Lenny; Hug, Stephan J.; Hoehn, Eduard; Yang, Hong; Johnson, C. Annette (May 15, 2008). "Statistical Modeling of Global Geogenic Arsenic Contamination in Groundwater". Environmental Science & Technology . 42 (10): 3669–75. Bibcode:2008EnST...42.3669A. doi: 10.1021/es702859e . ISSN   0013-936X. PMID   18546706.
  72. ↑ Winkel, Lenny; Berg, Michael; Amini, Manouchehr; Hug, Stephan J.; Johnson, C. Annette (2008). "Predicting groundwater arsenic contamination in Southeast Asia from surface parameters". Nature Geoscience . 1 (8): 536–42. Bibcode:2008NatGe...1..536W. doi:10.1038/ngeo254.
  73. ↑ Foster S, Hirata H (1988). Groundwater Pollution Risk Assessment. Lima, Peru: Pan American Centre for Sanitary Engineering and Environmental Sciences.
  74. ↑ Foster S, Hirata H, Gomes D, D'Elia M (2002). Groundwater quality protection: a guide for water utilities, municipal authorities, and environment agencies.
  75. ↑ Aller L, Bennett T, Lehr JH, Petty RJ, Hackett G (September 1987). DRASTIC: A Standardized System For Evaluating Groundwater Pollution Potential Using Hydrogeologic Settings (Report). EPA. EPA 600/S2-87/035.
  76. 1 2 3 World Health Organization (WHO) (2006). "Section 4: Approaches to drinking-water source protection management" (PDF). In Schmoll I, Howard G (eds.). Protecting groundwater for health: Managing the quality of drinking-water sources. IWA Publishing for WHO.
  77. ↑ "Wellhead Protection Area (WHPA) Model". Water Research. Ada, OK: EPA, National Risk Management Research Laboratory. January 26, 2017.
  78. ↑ ARGOSS (2001). "Guidelines for assessing the risk to groundwater from on-site sanitation". NERC, British Geological Survey Commissioned Report, CR/01/142. UK.
  79. ↑ Moore C, Nokes C, Loe B, Close M, Pang L, Smith V, Osbaldiston S (2010). "Guidelines for separation distances based on virus transport between on-site domestic wastewater systems and wells" (PDF). Porirua, New Zealand. p. 296. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 13, 2015.
  80. ↑ United States. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act. Pub. L.   94–580, 42 U.S.C.   § 6901 et seq. Approved October 21, 1976.
  81. ↑ United States. Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980. Pub. L.   96–510, 42 U.S.C.   § 9601 et seq. Approved December 11, 1980.
  82. ↑ "Pollution of groundwater". Water Encyclopedia, Science and Issues. Retrieved March 21, 2015.
  83. ↑ Pooi CK, Ng HY (December 2018). "Review of low-cost point-of-use water treatment systems for developing communities". npj Clean Water. 1 (1): 11. Bibcode:2018npjCW...1...11P. doi: 10.1038/s41545-018-0011-0 . ISSN   2059-7037.
  84. ↑ The Nile Delta. Abdelazim M. Negm. Cham, Switzerland. 2017. ISBN   978-3-319-56124-0. OCLC   988609755.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: others (link)
  85. ↑ "Ground Water Rule". Drinking Water Requirements for States and Public Water Systems. Washington, DC: EPA. December 18, 2018.
  86. ↑ Pantaleo, P. A.; Komakech, H. C.; Mtei, K. M.; Njau, K. N. (December 1, 2018). "Contamination of groundwater sources in emerging African towns: the case of Babati town, Tanzania". Water Practice and Technology . 13 (4): 980–990. doi: 10.2166/wpt.2018.104 . ISSN   1751-231X. S2CID   115519904.
  87. ↑ Chakraborti D, Singh SK, Rahman MM, Dutta RN, Mukherjee SC, Pati S, Kar PB (January 2018). "Groundwater Arsenic Contamination in the Ganga River Basin: A Future Health Danger". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health . 15 (2): 180. doi: 10.3390/ijerph15020180 . PMC   5858255 . PMID   29360747.
  88. ↑ Mukherjee, Abhijit; Duttagupta, Srimanti; Chattopadhyay, Siddhartha; Bhanja, Soumendra Nath; Bhattacharya, Animesh; Chakraborty, Swagata; Sarkar, Soumyajit; Ghosh, Tilottama; Bhattacharya, Jayanta; Sahu, Sohini (October 23, 2019). "Impact of sanitation and socio-economy on groundwater fecal pollution and human health towards achieving sustainable development goals across India from ground-observations and satellite-derived nightlight". Scientific Reports . 9 (1): 15193. Bibcode:2019NatSR...915193M. doi: 10.1038/s41598-019-50875-w . ISSN   2045-2322. PMC   6811533 . PMID   31645651.
  89. ↑ University of Stanford (June 5, 2018). "Overpumping groundwater increases contamination risk". Stanford News. Retrieved March 16, 2021.
  90. ↑ "LA Times". Los Angeles Times. 2002. Retrieved November 13, 2023.
  91. ↑ McLaughlin T. "Walkerton E. coli outbreak declared over". The Globe and Mail .
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.