Thermal pollution

Last updated
Lake Stechlin, Germany, received coolant discharge from the nuclear power plant Rheinsberg starting in the 1960s. The plant was operational for 24 years, closing in June 1990. Stechlinsee.jpg
Lake Stechlin, Germany, received coolant discharge from the nuclear power plant Rheinsberg starting in the 1960s. The plant was operational for 24 years, closing in June 1990.

Thermal pollution, sometimes called "thermal enrichment", is the degradation of water quality by any process that changes ambient water temperature. Thermal pollution is the rise or drop in the temperature of a natural body of water caused by human influence. Thermal pollution, unlike chemical pollution, results in a change in the physical properties of water. A common cause of thermal pollution is the use of water as a coolant by power plants and industrial manufacturers. [1] Urban runoff—stormwater discharged to surface waters from rooftops, roads, and parking lots—and reservoirs can also be a source of thermal pollution. [4] Thermal pollution can also be caused by the release of very cold water from the base of reservoirs into warmer rivers.

Contents

When water used as a coolant is returned to the natural environment at a higher temperature, the sudden change in temperature decreases oxygen supply and affects ecosystem composition. Fish and other organisms adapted to particular temperature range can be killed by an abrupt change in water temperature (either a rapid increase or decrease) known as "thermal shock". Warm coolant water can also have long term effects on water temperature, increasing the overall temperature of water bodies, including deep water. Seasonality effects how these temperature increases are distributed throughout the water column. Elevated water temperatures decrease oxygen levels, which can kill fish and alter food chain composition, reduce species biodiversity, and foster invasion by new thermophilic species. [5] [6] : 375 

Sources and control of thermal pollution

Cooling tower at Gustav Knepper Power Station, Dortmund, Germany Coal power plant Knepper 1.jpg
Cooling tower at Gustav Knepper Power Station, Dortmund, Germany

Industrial wastewater

In the United States about 75 to 80 percent of thermal pollution is generated by power plants. [6] : 376  The remainder is from industrial sources such as petroleum refineries, pulp and paper mills, chemical plants, steel mills and smelters. [7] : 4–2  [8]

Heated water from these sources may be controlled with:

One of the largest contributors to thermal pollution are once-through cooling (OTC) systems which do not reduce temperature as effectively as the above systems. A large power plant may withdraw and export as many as 500 million gallons per day. [10] These systems produce water 10°C warmer on average. [11] For example, the Potrero Generating Station in San Francisco (closed in 2011), used OTC and discharged water to San Francisco Bay approximately 10 °C (20 °F) above the ambient bay temperature. [12] Over 1,200 facilities in the United States use OTC systems as of 2014. [7] : 4–4 

Temperatures can be taken through remote sensing techniques to continually monitor plants' pollution. [13] This aids in quantifying each plants' specific effects, and allows for tighter regulation of thermal pollution.

Converting facilities from once-through cooling to closed-loop systems can significantly decrease the thermal pollution emitted. [10] These systems release water at a temperature more comparable to the natural environment.

Reservoirs

As water stratifies within man-made dams, the temperature at the bottom drops dramatically. Many dams are constructed to release this cold water from the bottom into the natural systems. [14] This may be mitigated by designing the dam to release warmer surface waters instead of the colder water at the bottom of the reservoir. [15]

A bioretention cell for treating urban runoff in California Emeryville California Stormwater Curb Extension.jpg
A bioretention cell for treating urban runoff in California

Urban runoff

During warm weather, urban runoff can have significant thermal impacts on small streams. As storm water passes over hot rooftops, parking lots, roads and sidewalks it absorbs some of the heat, an effect of the urban heat island. Storm water management facilities that absorb runoff or direct it into groundwater, such as bioretention systems and infiltration basins, reduce these thermal effects by allowing the water more time to release excess heat before entering the aquatic environment. These related systems for managing runoff are components of an expanding urban design approach commonly called green infrastructure. [16]

Retention basins (stormwater ponds) tend to be less effective at reducing runoff temperature, as the water may be heated by the sun before being discharged to a receiving stream. [17]

Effects

Potrero Generating Station discharged heated water into San Francisco Bay. The plant was closed in 2011. Unit 3 - Potrero Power Plant.jpg
Potrero Generating Station discharged heated water into San Francisco Bay. The plant was closed in 2011.

Warm water effects

Elevated temperature typically decreases the level of dissolved oxygen and of water, as gases are less soluble in hotter liquids. This can harm aquatic animals such as fish, amphibians and other aquatic organisms. Thermal pollution may also increase the metabolic rate of aquatic animals, as enzyme activity, resulting in these organisms consuming more food in a shorter time than if their environment were not changed. [5] : 179  An increased metabolic rate may result in fewer resources; the more adapted organisms moving in may have an advantage over organisms that are not used to the warmer temperature. As a result, food chains of the old and new environments may be compromised. Some fish species will avoid stream segments or coastal areas adjacent to a thermal discharge. Biodiversity can be decreased as a result. [20] : 415–17  [6] : 380 

High temperature limits oxygen dispersion into deeper waters, contributing to anaerobic conditions. This can lead to increased bacteria levels when there is ample food supply. Many aquatic species will fail to reproduce at elevated temperatures. [5] : 179–80 

Primary producers (e.g. plants, cyanobacteria) are affected by warm water because higher water temperature increases plant growth rates, resulting in a shorter lifespan and species overpopulation. The increased temperature can also change the balance of microbial growth, including the rate of algae blooms which reduce dissolved oxygen concentrations. [21]

Temperature changes of even one to two degrees Celsius can cause significant changes in organism metabolism and other adverse cellular biology effects. Principal adverse changes can include rendering cell walls less permeable to necessary osmosis, coagulation of cell proteins, and alteration of enzyme metabolism. These cellular level effects can adversely affect mortality and reproduction.

A large increase in temperature can lead to the denaturing of life-supporting enzymes by breaking down hydrogen- and disulphide bonds within the quaternary structure of the enzymes. Decreased enzyme activity in aquatic organisms can cause problems such as the inability to break down lipids, which leads to malnutrition. Increased water temperature can also increase the solubility and kinetics of metals, which can increase the uptake of heavy metals by aquatic organisms. This can lead to toxic outcomes for these species, as well as build up of heavy metals in higher trophic levels in the food chain, increasing human exposures via dietary ingestion. [21]

In limited cases, warm water has little deleterious effect and may even lead to improved function of the receiving aquatic ecosystem. This phenomenon is seen especially in seasonal waters. An extreme case is derived from the aggregational habits of the manatee, which often uses power plant discharge sites during winter. Projections suggest that manatee populations would decline upon the removal of these discharges. [22]

Cold water

Releases of unnaturally cold water from reservoirs can dramatically change the fish and macroinvertebrate fauna of rivers, and reduce river productivity. [23] In Australia, where many rivers have warmer temperature regimes, native fish species have been eliminated, and macroinvertebrate fauna have been drastically altered. Survival rates of fish have dropped up to 75% due to cold water releases. [14]

Thermal shock

When a power plant first opens or shuts down for repair or other causes, fish and other organisms adapted to particular temperature range can be killed by the abrupt change in water temperature, either an increase or decrease, known as "thermal shock". [6] : 380  [24] : 478 

Biogeochemical effects

Water warming effects, as opposed to water cooling effects, have been the most studied with regard to biogeochemical effects. Much of this research is on the long term effects of nuclear power plants on lakes after a nuclear power plant has been removed. Overall, there is support for thermal pollution leading to an increase in water temperatures. [25] When power plants are active, short term water temperature increases are correlated with electrical needs, with more coolant released during the winter months. Water warming has also been seen to persist in systems for long periods of time, even after plants have been removed. [3]

When warm water from power plant coolant enters systems, it often mixes leading to general increases in water temperature throughout the water body, including deep cooler water. Specifically in lakes and similar water bodies, stratification leads to different effects on a seasonal basis. In the summer, thermal pollution has been seen to increase deeper water temperature more dramatically than surface water, though stratification still exists, while in the winter surface water temperatures see a larger increase. Stratification is reduced in winter months due to thermal pollution, often eliminating the thermocline. [3]

A study looking at the effect of a removed nuclear power plant in Lake Stechlin, Germany, found a 2.33°C increase persisted in surface water during the winter and a 2.04°C increase persisted in deep water during the summer, with marginal increases throughout the water column in both winter and summer. [3] Stratification and water temperature differences due to thermal pollution seem to correlate with nutrient cycling of phosphorus and nitrogen, as oftentimes water bodies that receive coolant will shift toward eutrophication. No clear data has been obtained on this though, as it is difficult to differentiate influences from other industry and agriculture. [26] [27]

Similar to effects seen in aquatic systems due to climatic warming of water, thermal pollution has also been seen to increase surface temperatures in the summer. This can create surface water temperatures that lead to releases of warm air into the atmosphere, increasing air temperature. [3] It therefore can be seen as a contributor to global warming. [28] Many ecological effects will be compounded by climate change as well, as ambient temperature rises in water bodies. [11]

Spacial and climatic factors can impact the severity of water warming due to thermal pollution. High wind speeds tend to increase the impact of thermal pollution. Rivers and large bodies of water also tend to lose the effects of thermal pollution as they progress from the source. [25] [29]

Rivers present a unique problem with thermal pollution. As water temperatures are elevated upstream, power plants downstream receive warmer waters. Evidence of this effect has been seen along the Mississippi River, as power plants are forced to use warmer waters as their coolants. [30] This reduces the efficiency of the plants and forces the plants to use more water and produce more thermal pollution.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Urban heat island</span> Urban area that is significantly warmer than its surrounding rural areas

Urban areas usually experience the urban heat island (UHI) effect, that is, they are significantly warmer than surrounding rural areas. The temperature difference is usually larger at night than during the day, and is most apparent when winds are weak, under block conditions, noticeably during the summer and winter. The main cause of the UHI effect is from the modification of land surfaces while waste heat generated by energy usage is a secondary contributor. A study has shown that heat islands can be affected by proximity to different types of land cover, so that proximity to barren land causes urban land to become hotter and proximity to vegetation makes it cooler. As a population center grows, it tends to expand its area and increase its average temperature. The term heat island is also used; the term can be used to refer to any area that is relatively hotter than the surrounding, but generally refers to human-disturbed areas. Urban areas occupy about 0.5% of the Earth's land surface but host more than half of the world's population.

Environmental science is an interdisciplinary academic field that integrates physics, biology, and geography to the study of the environment, and the solution of environmental problems. Environmental science emerged from the fields of natural history and medicine during the Enlightenment. Today it provides an integrated, quantitative, and interdisciplinary approach to the study of environmental systems.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Water pollution</span> Contamination of water bodies

Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies, usually as a result of human activities, so that it negatively affects its uses. Water bodies include lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers, reservoirs and groundwater. Water pollution results when contaminants mix with these water bodies. Contaminants can come from one of four main sources: sewage discharges, industrial activities, agricultural activities, and urban runoff including stormwater. Water pollution is either surface water pollution or groundwater pollution. This form of pollution can lead to many problems, such as the degradation of aquatic ecosystems or spreading water-borne diseases when people use polluted water for drinking or irrigation. Another problem is that water pollution reduces the ecosystem services that the water resource would otherwise provide.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cooling pond</span>

A cooling pond is a man-made body of water primarily formed for the purpose of cooling heated water and/or to store and supply cooling water to a nearby power plant or industrial facility such as a petroleum refinery, pulp and paper mill, chemical plant, steel mill or smelter.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Water cooling</span> Method of heat removal from components and industrial equipment

Water cooling is a method of heat removal from components and industrial equipment. Evaporative cooling using water is often more efficient than air cooling. Water is inexpensive and non-toxic; however, it can contain impurities and cause corrosion.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cooling tower</span> Device which rejects waste heat to the atmosphere through the cooling of a water stream

A cooling tower is a device that rejects waste heat to the atmosphere through the cooling of a coolant stream, usually a water stream, to a lower temperature. Cooling towers may either use the evaporation of water to remove heat and cool the working fluid to near the wet-bulb air temperature or, in the case of dry cooling towers, rely solely on air to cool the working fluid to near the dry-bulb air temperature using radiators.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fossil fuel power station</span> Facility that burns fossil fuels to produce electricity

A fossil fuel power station is a thermal power station which burns a fossil fuel, such as coal or natural gas, to produce electricity. Fossil fuel power stations have machinery to convert the heat energy of combustion into mechanical energy, which then operates an electrical generator. The prime mover may be a steam turbine, a gas turbine or, in small plants, a reciprocating gas engine. All plants use the energy extracted from the expansion of a hot gas, either steam or combustion gases. Although different energy conversion methods exist, all thermal power station conversion methods have their efficiency limited by the Carnot efficiency and therefore produce waste heat.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pilgrim Nuclear Power Station</span> Decommissioning nuclear power plant located in Plymouth, Massachusetts

Pilgrim Nuclear Power Station (PNPS) is a closed nuclear power plant in Massachusetts in the Manomet section of Plymouth on Cape Cod Bay, south of the tip of Rocky Point and north of Priscilla Beach. Like many similar plants, it was constructed by Bechtel, and was powered by a General Electric BWR 3 boiling water reactor inside of a Mark 1 pressure suppression type containment and generator. With a 690 MWe production capacity, it produced about 14% of the electricity generated in Massachusetts.

A coolant is a substance, typically liquid, that is used to reduce or regulate the temperature of a system. An ideal coolant has high thermal capacity, low viscosity, is low-cost, non-toxic, chemically inert and neither causes nor promotes corrosion of the cooling system. Some applications also require the coolant to be an electrical insulator.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lake stratification</span> Separation of water in a lake into distinct layers

Lake stratification is the tendency of lakes to form separate and distinct thermal layers during warm weather. Typically stratified lakes show three distinct layers: the epilimnion, comprising the top warm layer; the thermocline, the middle layer, whose depth may change throughout the day; and the colder hypolimnion, extending to the floor of the lake.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Effluent</span> Liquid waste or sewage discharged into a river or the sea

Effluent is wastewater from sewers or industrial outfalls that flows directly into surface waters, either untreated or after being treated at a facility. The term has slightly different meanings in certain contexts, and may contain various pollutants depending on the source.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Thermal power station</span> Power plant that generates electricity from heat energy

A thermal power station is a type of power station in which heat energy is converted to electrical energy. In a steam-generating cycle heat is used to boil water in a large pressure vessel to produce high-pressure steam, which drives a steam turbine connected to an electrical generator. The low-pressure exhaust from the turbine enters a steam condenser where it is cooled to produce hot condensate which is recycled to the heating process to generate more high pressure steam. This is known as a Rankine cycle.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aquatic biomonitoring</span>

Aquatic biomonitoring is the science of inferring the ecological condition of rivers, lakes, streams, and wetlands by examining the organisms that live there. While aquatic biomonitoring is the most common form of biomonitoring, any ecosystem can be studied in this manner.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wastewater quality indicators</span> Ways to test the suitability of wastewater

Wastewater quality indicators are laboratory test methodologies to assess suitability of wastewater for disposal, treatment or reuse. The main parameters in sewage that are measured to assess the sewage strength or quality as well as treatment options include: solids, indicators of organic matter, nitrogen, phosphorus, indicators of fecal contamination. Tests selected vary with the intended use or discharge location. Tests can measure physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of the wastewater. Physical characteristics include temperature and solids. Chemical characteristics include pH value, dissolved oxygen concentrations, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen demand (COD), nitrogen, phosphorus, chlorine. Biological characteristics are determined with bioassays and aquatic toxicology tests.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Waste heat</span> Heat that is produced by a machine that uses energy, as a byproduct of doing work

Waste heat is heat that is produced by a machine, or other process that uses energy, as a byproduct of doing work. All such processes give off some waste heat as a fundamental result of the laws of thermodynamics. Waste heat has lower utility than the original energy source. Sources of waste heat include all manner of human activities, natural systems, and all organisms, for example, incandescent light bulbs get hot, a refrigerator warms the room air, a building gets hot during peak hours, an internal combustion engine generates high-temperature exhaust gases, and electronic components get warm when in operation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Total dissolved solids</span> Measurement in environmental chemistry

Total dissolved solids (TDS) is a measure of the dissolved combined content of all inorganic and organic substances present in a liquid in molecular, ionized, or micro-granular suspended form. TDS are often measured in parts per million (ppm). TDS in water can be measured using a digital meter.

Monomictic lakes are holomictic lakes that mix from top to bottom during one mixing period each year. Monomictic lakes may be subdivided into cold and warm types.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Urban runoff</span> Surface runoff of water caused by urbanization

Urban runoff is surface runoff of rainwater, landscape irrigation, and car washing created by urbanization. Impervious surfaces are constructed during land development. During rain, storms, and other precipitation events, these surfaces, along with rooftops, carry polluted stormwater to storm drains, instead of allowing the water to percolate through soil. This causes lowering of the water table and flooding since the amount of water that remains on the surface is greater. Most municipal storm sewer systems discharge untreated stormwater to streams, rivers, and bays. This excess water can also make its way into people's properties through basement backups and seepage through building wall and floors.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Freshwater biology</span> The scientific study of freshwater ecosystems and biology

Freshwater biology is the scientific biological study of freshwater ecosystems and is a branch of limnology. This field seeks to understand the relationships between living organisms in their physical environment. These physical environments may include rivers, lakes, streams, ponds, lakes, reservoirs, or wetlands. Knowledge from this discipline is also widely used in industrial processes to make use of biological processes involved with sewage treatment and water purification. Water presence and flow is an essential aspect to species distribution and influences when and where species interact in freshwater environments.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Freshwater environmental quality parameters</span>

Freshwater environmental quality parameters are those chemical, physical or biological parameters that can be used to characterise a freshwater body. Because almost all water bodies are dynamic in their composition, the relevant quality parameters are typically expressed as a range of expected concentrations.

References

  1. 1 2 "Brayton Point Station Power Plant, Somerset, MA: Final NPDES Permit". Boston, MA: United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). May 21, 2021.
  2. ↑ Finucane, Martin (2017-06-01). "Mass. says goodbye to coal power generation". Boston Globe.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 Kirillin, Georgiy; Shatwell, Tom; Kasprzak, Peter (2013-07-24). "Consequences of thermal pollution from a nuclear plant on lake temperature and mixing regime". Journal of Hydrology . 496: 47–56. Bibcode:2013JHyd..496...47K. doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2013.05.023. ISSN   0022-1694.
  4. ↑ "Protecting Water Quality from Urban Runoff". Washington, D.C.: EPA. February 2003. Fact Sheet. EPA 841-F-03-003.
  5. 1 2 3 Goel, P.K. (2006). Water Pollution - Causes, Effects and Control. New Delhi: New Age International. p. 179. ISBN   978-81-224-1839-2.
  6. 1 2 3 4 Laws, Edward A. (2017). Aquatic Pollution: An Introductory Text (4th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN   9781119304500.
  7. 1 2 Technical Development Document for the Final Section 316(b) Existing Facilities Rule (PDF) (Report). EPA. May 2014. EPA 821-R-14-002.
  8. ↑ Technical Development Document for the Final Section 316(b) Phase III Rule (PDF) (Report). EPA. June 2006. EPA 821-R-06-003. Chapter 2.
  9. ↑ Profile of the Fossil Fuel Electric Power Generation Industry (PDF) (Report). Office of Compliance, Sector Notebook Project. EPA. 1997. p. 24. EPA 310-R-97-007. Archived from the original on 2011-02-03.
  10. 1 2 "Freshwater Use by U.S. Power Plants". Cambridge, MA: Union of Concerned Scientists. Retrieved 2021-04-14.
  11. 1 2 Madden, N.; Lewis, A.; Davis, M. (2013). "Thermal effluent from the power sector: an analysis of once-through cooling system impacts on surface water temperature". Environmental Research Letters . 8 (3): 035006. Bibcode:2013ERL.....8c5006M. doi: 10.1088/1748-9326/8/3/035006 .
  12. ↑ California Environmental Protection Agency. San Francisco Bay Regional Water Quality Control Board. "Waste Discharge Requirements for Mirant Potrero, LLC, Potrero Power Plant." Archived 2011-06-16 at the Wayback Machine Order No. R2-2006-0032; NPDES Permit No. CA0005657. May 10, 2006.
  13. ↑ Chen, Chuqun; Shi, Ping; Mao, Qingwen (2003-08-01). "Application of Remote Sensing Techniques for Monitoring the Thermal Pollution of Cooling-Water Discharge from Nuclear Power Plant". Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part A. 38 (8): 1659–1668. doi:10.1081/ESE-120021487. ISSN   1093-4529. PMID   12929815. S2CID   35998403.
  14. 1 2 "Cold water pollution". Fishing/Habitat management. Parramatta NSW: Department of Primary Industries, New South Wales Government. 27 April 2016. Retrieved 2021-04-14.
  15. ↑ Mollyo, Fran (15 September 2015). "A happier environment for fish". Phys.org. ScienceX.
  16. ↑ "What is Green Infrastructure?". EPA. 2021-07-29.
  17. ↑ Preliminary Data Summary of Urban Storm Water Best Management Practices (PDF) (Report). EPA. August 1999. p. 5-58. EPA 821-R-99-012.
  18. ↑ Selna, Robert (2009-01-02). "Power plant has no plans to stop killing fish". San Francisco Chronicle.
  19. ↑ "Potrero Power Plant: Site Overview". Pacific Gas & Electric Co. Retrieved 2012-07-17.
  20. ↑ Kennish, Michael J. (1992). Ecology of Estuaries: Anthropogenic Effects. Marine Science Series. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. ISBN   978-0-8493-8041-9.
  21. 1 2 Vallero, D.A. (2019). "Thermal Pollution". In Letcher, T.M.; Vallero, D.A. (eds.). Waste: A Handbook for Management. Amsterdam: Elsevier Academic Press. pp. 381–88. ISBN   9780128150603.
  22. ↑ "Florida Manatee Recovery Facts". North Florida Ecological Services Office. Jacksonville, FL: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2016-06-21.
  23. ↑ Parisi, M A; Cramp, R L; Gordos, M A; Franklin, C E (2020-01-01). "Can the impacts of cold-water pollution on fish be mitigated by thermal plasticity?". Conservation Physiology. 8 (coaa005): coaa005. doi:10.1093/conphys/coaa005. ISSN   2051-1434. PMC   7026996 . PMID   32099655.
  24. ↑ Chiras, Daniel D. (2012). Environmental Science. Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett. ISBN   9781449614867.
  25. 1 2 Abbaspour, M (2005). "Modeling of thermal pollution in coastal area and its economical and environmental assessment". International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology. 2: 13–26. doi:10.1007/BF03325853. hdl: 1807/9111 . S2CID   110075823.
  26. ↑ Socal, Giorgio; Bianchi, F.; Alberighi, L. (1999). "Effects of thermal pollution and nutrient discharges on a spring phytoplankton bloom in the industrial area of the Lagoon of Venice". Vie et Milieu. 49 (1): 19–31.
  27. ↑ Koschel, R. H.; Gonsiorczyk, T.; Krienitz, L.; Padisák, J.; Scheffler, W. (2017-12-01). "Primary production of phytoplankton and nutrient metabolism during and after thermal pollution in a deep, oligotrophic lowland lake (Lake Stechlin, Germany)". Internationale Vereinigung für theoretische und angewandte Limnologie: Verhandlungen. 28 (2): 569–575. doi:10.1080/03680770.2001.11901781. ISSN   0368-0770. S2CID   128273427.
  28. ↑ Nordell, Bo (2003-09-01). "Thermal pollution causes global warming". Global and Planetary Change. 38 (3–4): 305–312. Bibcode:2003GPC....38..305N. doi:10.1016/S0921-8181(03)00113-9. ISSN   0921-8181.
  29. ↑ Verones, Francesca; Hanafiah, Marlia Mohd; Pfister, Stephan; Huijbregts, Mark A. J.; Pelletier, Gregory J.; Koehler, Annette (2010-12-15). "Characterization Factors for Thermal Pollution in Freshwater Aquatic Environments". Environmental Science & Technology. 44 (24): 9364–9369. Bibcode:2010EnST...44.9364V. doi:10.1021/es102260c. hdl: 2066/83496 . ISSN   0013-936X. PMID   21069953.
  30. ↑ Miara, Ariel; Vörösmarty, Charles J; Macknick, Jordan E; Tidwell, Vincent C; Fekete, Balazs; Corsi, Fabio; Newmark, Robin (2018-03-01). "Thermal pollution impacts on rivers and power supply in the Mississippi River watershed". Environmental Research Letters. 13 (3): 034033. Bibcode:2018ERL....13c4033M. doi: 10.1088/1748-9326/aaac85 . ISSN   1748-9326. S2CID   158536102.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.