Freshwater ecosystem

Last updated
Freshwater ecosystem Panorama presa las ninas mogan gran canaria.jpg
Freshwater ecosystem

Freshwater ecosystems are a subset of Earth's aquatic ecosystems. They include lakes, ponds, rivers, streams, springs, bogs, and wetlands. [1] They can be contrasted with marine ecosystems, which have a larger salt content. Freshwater habitats can be classified by different factors, including temperature, light penetration, nutrients, and vegetation. There are three basic types of freshwater ecosystems: Lentic (slow moving water, including pools, ponds, and lakes), lotic (faster moving water, for example streams and rivers) and wetlands (areas where the soil is saturated or inundated for at least part of the time). [2] [1] Freshwater ecosystems contain 41% of the world's known fish species. [3]

Contents

Freshwater ecosystems have undergone substantial transformations over time, which has impacted various characteristics of the ecosystems. [4] Original attempts to understand and monitor freshwater ecosystems were spurred on by threats to human health (for example cholera outbreaks due to sewage contamination). [5] Early monitoring focused on chemical indicators, then bacteria, and finally algae, fungi and protozoa. A new type of monitoring involves quantifying differing groups of organisms (macroinvertebrates, macrophytes and fish) and measuring the stream conditions associated with them. [6]

Threats to freshwater biodiversity include overexploitation, water pollution, flow modification, destruction or degradation of habitat, and invasion by exotic species. [7] Climate change is putting further pressure on these ecosystems because water temperatures have already increased by about 1 °C, and there have been significant declines in ice coverage which have caused subsequent ecosystem stresses. [8]

Types

There are three basic types of freshwater ecosystems: Lentic (slow moving water, including pools, ponds, and lakes), lotic (faster moving water, for example streams and rivers) and wetlands (areas where the soil is saturated or inundated for at least part of the time). Limnology (and its branch freshwater biology) is a study about freshwater ecosystems. [1]

Lentic ecosystems

This section is an excerpt from Lake ecosystem.[ edit ]
The three primary zones of a lake Primary zones of a lake.png
The three primary zones of a lake

A lake ecosystem or lacustrine ecosystem includes biotic (living) plants, animals and micro-organisms, as well as abiotic (non-living) physical and chemical interactions. [9] Lake ecosystems are a prime example of lentic ecosystems (lentic refers to stationary or relatively still freshwater, from the Latin lentus, which means "sluggish"), which include ponds, lakes and wetlands, and much of this article applies to lentic ecosystems in general. Lentic ecosystems can be compared with lotic ecosystems, which involve flowing terrestrial waters such as rivers and streams. Together, these two ecosystems are examples of freshwater ecosystems.

Lentic systems are diverse, ranging from a small, temporary rainwater pool a few inches deep to Lake Baikal, which has a maximum depth of 1642 m. [10] The general distinction between pools/ponds and lakes is vague, but Brown [9] states that ponds and pools have their entire bottom surfaces exposed to light, while lakes do not. In addition, some lakes become seasonally stratified. Ponds and pools have two regions: the pelagic open water zone, and the benthic zone, which comprises the bottom and shore regions. Since lakes have deep bottom regions not exposed to light, these systems have an additional zone, the profundal. [11] These three areas can have very different abiotic conditions and, hence, host species that are specifically adapted to live there. [9]

Lotic ecosystems

This section is an excerpt from River ecosystem.[ edit ]
This stream operating together with its environment can be thought of as forming a river ecosystem. Stream in the redwoods.jpg
This stream operating together with its environment can be thought of as forming a river ecosystem.

River ecosystems are flowing waters that drain the landscape, and include the biotic (living) interactions amongst plants, animals and micro-organisms, as well as abiotic (nonliving) physical and chemical interactions of its many parts. [12] [13] River ecosystems are part of larger watershed networks or catchments, where smaller headwater streams drain into mid-size streams, which progressively drain into larger river networks. The major zones in river ecosystems are determined by the river bed's gradient or by the velocity of the current. Faster moving turbulent water typically contains greater concentrations of dissolved oxygen, which supports greater biodiversity than the slow-moving water of pools. These distinctions form the basis for the division of rivers into upland and lowland rivers.

The food base of streams within riparian forests is mostly derived from the trees, but wider streams and those that lack a canopy derive the majority of their food base from algae. Anadromous fish are also an important source of nutrients. Environmental threats to rivers include loss of water, dams, chemical pollution and introduced species. [14] A dam produces negative effects that continue down the watershed. The most important negative effects are the reduction of spring flooding, which damages wetlands, and the retention of sediment, which leads to the loss of deltaic wetlands. [15]

River ecosystems are prime examples of lotic ecosystems. Lotic refers to flowing water, from the Latin lotus, meaning washed. Lotic waters range from springs only a few centimeters wide to major rivers kilometers in width. [16] Much of this article applies to lotic ecosystems in general, including related lotic systems such as streams and springs. Lotic ecosystems can be contrasted with lentic ecosystems, which involve relatively still terrestrial waters such as lakes, ponds, and wetlands. Together, these two ecosystems form the more general study area of freshwater or aquatic ecology.

Wetlands

This section is an excerpt from Wetland.[ edit ]

A wetland is a distinct ecosystem that is flooded or saturated by water, either permanently for years or decades or seasonally for a shorter periods. Flooding results in oxygen-free anoxic processes prevailing, especially in the soils. [17] The primary factor that distinguishes wetlands from terrestrial land forms or water bodies is the characteristic vegetation of aquatic plants, adapted to the unique anoxic hydric soils. [18] Wetlands are considered among the most biologically diverse of all ecosystems, serving as home to a wide range of plant and animal species. Methods for assessing wetland functions, wetland ecological health, and general wetland condition have been developed for many regions of the world. These methods have contributed to wetland conservation partly by raising public awareness of the functions some wetlands provide. [19] Constructed wetlands are designed and built to treat municipal and industrial wastewater as well as to divert stormwater runoff. Constructed wetlands may also play a role in water-sensitive urban design.

Wetlands occur naturally on every continent. [20] The water in wetlands is either freshwater, brackish or saltwater. [18] The main wetland types are classified based on the dominant plants and/or the source of the water. For example, marshes are wetlands dominated by emergent vegetation such as reeds, cattails and sedges; swamps are ones dominated by woody vegetation such as trees and shrubs (although reed swamps in Europe are dominated by reeds, not trees).

Besides being prominent and abundant modern environments and ecosystems, wetlands were also very common throughout Earth history and many sedimentary rock units have been interpreted as representing the geological record of ancient freshwater [21] or coastal wetlands. [22]

Threats

Biodiversity

Five broad threats to freshwater biodiversity include overexploitation, water pollution, flow modification, destruction or degradation of habitat, and invasion by exotic species. [7] Recent extinction trends can be attributed largely to sedimentation, stream fragmentation, chemical and organic pollutants, dams, and invasive species. [23] Common chemical stresses on freshwater ecosystem health include acidification, eutrophication and copper and pesticide contamination. [24]

Freshwater biodiversity faces many threats. [25] The World Wide Fund for Nature's Living Planet Index noted an 83% decline in the populations of freshwater vertebrates between 1970 and 2014. [26] These declines continue to outpace contemporaneous declines in marine or terrestrial systems. The causes of these declines are related to: [27] [25]

  1. A rapidly changing climate
  2. Online wildlife trade and invasive species
  3. Infectious disease
  4. Toxic algae blooms
  5. Hydropower damming and fragmenting of half the world's rivers
  6. Emerging contaminants, such as hormones
  7. Engineered nanomaterials
  8. Microplastic pollution
  9. Light and noise interference
  10. Saltier coastal freshwaters due to sea level rise
  11. Calcium concentrations falling below the needs of some freshwater organisms
  12. The additive—and possibly synergistic—effects of these threats

Extinction of freshwater fauna

Over 123 freshwater fauna species have gone extinct in North America since 1900. Of North American freshwater species, an estimated 48.5% of mussels, 22.8% of gastropods, 32.7% of crayfishes, 25.9% of amphibians, and 21.2% of fish are either endangered or threatened. [23] Extinction rates of many species may increase severely into the next century because of invasive species, loss of keystone species, and species which are already functionally extinct (e.g., species which are not reproducing). [23] Even using conservative estimates, freshwater fish extinction rates in North America are 877 times higher than background extinction rates (1 in 3,000,000 years). [28] Projected extinction rates for freshwater animals are around five times greater than for land animals, and are comparable to the rates for rainforest communities. [23] Given the dire state of freshwater biodiversity, a team of scientists and practitioners from around the globe recently drafted an Emergency Action plan to try and restore freshwater biodiversity. [29]

Current freshwater biomonitoring techniques focus primarily on community structure, but some programs measure functional indicators like biochemical (or biological) oxygen demand, sediment oxygen demand, and dissolved oxygen. [6] Macroinvertebrate community structure is commonly monitored because of the diverse taxonomy, ease of collection, sensitivity to a range of stressors, and overall value to the ecosystem. [30] Additionally, algal community structure (often using diatoms) is measured in biomonitoring programs. Algae are also taxonomically diverse, easily collected, sensitive to a range of stressors, and overall valuable to the ecosystem. [31] Algae grow very quickly and communities may represent fast changes in environmental conditions. [31]

In addition to community structure, responses to freshwater stressors are investigated by experimental studies that measure organism behavioural changes, altered rates of growth, reproduction or mortality. [6] Experimental results on single species under controlled conditions may not always reflect natural conditions and multi-species communities. [6]

The use of reference sites is common when defining the idealized "health" of a freshwater ecosystem. Reference sites can be selected spatially by choosing sites with minimal impacts from human disturbance and influence. [6] However, reference conditions may also be established temporally by using preserved indicators such as diatom valves, macrophyte pollen, insect chitin and fish scales can be used to determine conditions prior to large scale human disturbance. [6] These temporal reference conditions are often easier to reconstruct in standing water than moving water because stable sediments can better preserve biological indicator materials.

Climate change

The effects of climate change greatly complicate and frequently exacerbate the impacts of other stressors that threaten many fish, [32] invertebrates, [33] phytoplankton, [34] and other organisms. Climate change is increasing the average temperature of water bodies, and worsening other issues such as changes in substrate composition, oxygen concentration, and other system changes that have ripple effects on the biology of the system. [8] Water temperatures have already increased by around 1 °C, and significant declines in ice coverage have caused subsequent ecosystem stresses. [8]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wetland</span> Land area that is permanently, or seasonally saturated with water

A wetland is a distinct ecosystem that is flooded or saturated by water, either permanently for years or decades or seasonally for a shorter periods. Flooding results in oxygen-free anoxic processes prevailing, especially in the soils. The primary factor that distinguishes wetlands from terrestrial land forms or water bodies is the characteristic vegetation of aquatic plants, adapted to the unique anoxic hydric soils. Wetlands are considered among the most biologically diverse of all ecosystems, serving as home to a wide range of plant and animal species. Methods for assessing wetland functions, wetland ecological health, and general wetland condition have been developed for many regions of the world. These methods have contributed to wetland conservation partly by raising public awareness of the functions some wetlands provide. Constructed wetlands are designed and built to treat municipal and industrial wastewater as well as to divert stormwater runoff. Constructed wetlands may also play a role in water-sensitive urban design.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Limnology</span> Science of inland aquatic ecosystems

Limnology is the study of inland aquatic ecosystems. The study of limnology includes aspects of the biological, chemical, physical, and geological characteristics of fresh and saline, natural and man-made bodies of water. This includes the study of lakes, reservoirs, ponds, rivers, springs, streams, wetlands, and groundwater. Water systems are often categorized as either running (lotic) or standing (lentic).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marsh</span> Low-lying and seasonally waterlogged land

A marsh is — according to ecological definitions — a wetland that is dominated by herbaceous rather than woody plant species. More in general, the word can be used for any low-lying and seasonally waterlogged terrain. In Europe and in agricultural literature low-lying meadows that require draining and embanked polderlands are also referred to as marshes or marshland.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Habitat</span> Type of environment in which an organism lives

In ecology, habitat refers to the array of resources, physical and biotic factors that are present in an area, such as to support the survival and reproduction of a particular species. A species habitat can be seen as the physical manifestation of its ecological niche. Thus "habitat" is a species-specific term, fundamentally different from concepts such as environment or vegetation assemblages, for which the term "habitat-type" is more appropriate.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aquatic ecosystem</span> Ecosystem in a body of water

An aquatic ecosystem is an ecosystem found in and around a body of water, in contrast to land-based terrestrial ecosystems. Aquatic ecosystems contain communities of organisms—aquatic life—that are dependent on each other and on their environment. The two main types of aquatic ecosystems are marine ecosystems and freshwater ecosystems. Freshwater ecosystems may be lentic ; lotic ; and wetlands.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aquatic biomonitoring</span>

Aquatic biomonitoring is the science of inferring the ecological condition of rivers, lakes, streams, and wetlands by examining the organisms that live there. While aquatic biomonitoring is the most common form of biomonitoring, any ecosystem can be studied in this manner.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">River ecosystem</span> Type of aquatic ecosystem with flowing freshwater

River ecosystems are flowing waters that drain the landscape, and include the biotic (living) interactions amongst plants, animals and micro-organisms, as well as abiotic (nonliving) physical and chemical interactions of its many parts. River ecosystems are part of larger watershed networks or catchments, where smaller headwater streams drain into mid-size streams, which progressively drain into larger river networks. The major zones in river ecosystems are determined by the river bed's gradient or by the velocity of the current. Faster moving turbulent water typically contains greater concentrations of dissolved oxygen, which supports greater biodiversity than the slow-moving water of pools. These distinctions form the basis for the division of rivers into upland and lowland rivers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lake ecosystem</span> Type of ecosystem

A lake ecosystem or lacustrine ecosystem includes biotic (living) plants, animals and micro-organisms, as well as abiotic (non-living) physical and chemical interactions. Lake ecosystems are a prime example of lentic ecosystems, which include ponds, lakes and wetlands, and much of this article applies to lentic ecosystems in general. Lentic ecosystems can be compared with lotic ecosystems, which involve flowing terrestrial waters such as rivers and streams. Together, these two ecosystems are examples of freshwater ecosystems.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Freshwater fish</span> Fish that mostly live in freshwater

Freshwater fish are those that spend some or all of their lives in fresh water, such as rivers and lakes, with a salinity of less than 1.05%. These environments differ from marine conditions in many ways, especially the difference in levels of salinity. To survive fresh water, the fish need a range of physiological adaptations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Intermittent river</span> River that periodically ceases to flow

Intermittent, temporary or seasonal rivers or streams cease to flow every year or at least twice every five years. Such rivers drain large arid and semi-arid areas, covering approximately a third of the Earth's surface. The extent of temporary rivers is increasing, as many formerly perennial rivers are becoming temporary because of increasing water demand, particularly for irrigation. Despite inconsistent water flow, intermittent rivers are considered land-forming agents in arid regions, as they are agents of significant deposition and erosion during flood events. The combination of dry crusted soils and the highly erosive energy of the rain cause sediment resuspension and transport to the coastal areas. They are among the aquatic habitats most altered by human activities. During the summer even under no flow conditions the point sources are still active such as the wastewater effluents, resulting in nutrients and organic pollutants accumulating in the sediment. Sediment operates as a pollution inventory and pollutants are moved to the next basin with the first flush. Their vulnerability is intensified by the conflict between water use demand and aquatic ecosystem conservation. Advanced modelling tools have been developed to better describe intermittent flow dynamic changes such as the tempQsim model.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wild fisheries</span> Area containing fish that are harvested commercially

A wild fishery is a natural body of water with a sizeable free-ranging fish or other aquatic animal population that can be harvested for its commercial value. Wild fisheries can be marine (saltwater) or lacustrine/riverine (freshwater), and rely heavily on the carrying capacity of the local aquatic ecosystem.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pond</span> Relatively small body of standing water

A pond is a small, still, land-based body of water formed by pooling inside a depression, either naturally or artificially. A pond is smaller than a lake and there are no official criteria distinguishing the two, although defining a pond to be less than 5 hectares in area, less than 5 metres (16 ft) in depth and with less than 30% with emergent vegetation helps in distinguishing the ecology of ponds from those of lakes and wetlands. Ponds can be created by a wide variety of natural processes, or they can simply be isolated depressions filled by runoff, groundwater, or precipitation, or all three of these. They can be further divided into four zones: vegetation zone, open water, bottom mud and surface film. The size and depth of ponds often varies greatly with the time of year; many ponds are produced by spring flooding from rivers. Ponds are usually freshwater but may be brackish in nature. Saltwater pools, with a direct connection to the sea to maintain full salinity, may sometimes be called 'ponds' but these are normally regarded as part of the marine environment. They do not support fresh or brackish water-based organisms, and are rather tidal pools or lagoons.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Freshwater biology</span> The scientific study of freshwater ecosystems and biology

Freshwater biology is the scientific biological study of freshwater ecosystems and is a branch of limnology. This field seeks to understand the relationships between living organisms in their physical environment. These physical environments may include rivers, lakes, streams, ponds, lakes, reservoirs, or wetlands. Knowledge from this discipline is also widely used in industrial processes to make use of biological processes involved with sewage treatment and water purification. Water presence and flow is an essential aspect to species distribution and influences when and where species interact in freshwater environments.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Brackish marsh</span> Marsh with brackish level of salinity

Brackish marshes develop from salt marshes where a significant freshwater influx dilutes the seawater to brackish levels of salinity. This commonly happens upstream from salt marshes by estuaries of coastal rivers or near the mouths of coastal rivers with heavy freshwater discharges in the conditions of low tidal ranges.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wetland conservation</span> Conservation of wet areas

Wetland conservation is aimed at protecting and preserving areas of land including marshes, swamps, bogs, and fens that are covered by water seasonally or permanently due to a variety of threats from both natural and anthropogenic hazards. Some examples of these hazards include habitat loss, pollution, and invasive species. Wetland vary widely in their salinity levels, climate zones, and surrounding geography and play a crucial role in maintaining biodiversity, ecosystem services, and support human communities. Wetlands cover at least six percent of the Earth and have become a focal issue for conservation due to the ecosystem services they provide. More than three billion people, around half the world's population, obtain their basic water needs from inland freshwater wetlands. They provide essential habitats for fish and various wildlife species, playing a vital role in purifying polluted waters and mitigating the damaging effects of floods and storms. Furthermore, they offer a diverse range of recreational activities, including fishing, hunting, photography, and wildlife observation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Paroo-Darling National Park</span> Protected area in New South Wales, Australia

The Paroo-Darling National Park is a protected national park that is located in the Far West region of New South Wales, in eastern Australia. The 178,053-hectare (439,980-acre) national park spans two distinct regions in the outback area. This region covers the arid catchments of the Paroo River and the Paroo-Darling confluence to the south.

Landscape limnology is the spatially explicit study of lakes, streams, and wetlands as they interact with freshwater, terrestrial, and human landscapes to determine the effects of pattern on ecosystem processes across temporal and spatial scales. Limnology is the study of inland water bodies inclusive of rivers, lakes, and wetlands; landscape limnology seeks to integrate all of these ecosystem types.

A drought refuge is a site that provides permanent fresh water or moist conditions for plants and animals, acting as a refuge habitat when surrounding areas are affected by drought and allowing ecosystems and core species populations to survive until the drought breaks. Drought refuges are important for conserving ecosystems in places where the effects of climatic variability are exacerbated by human activities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bradley Cardinale</span>

Bradley Cardinale is an American ecologist, conservation biologist, academic and researcher. He is Head of the Department of Ecosystem Science and Management and Penn State University.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fresh water</span> Naturally occurring water with low amounts of dissolved salts

Fresh water or freshwater is any naturally occurring liquid or frozen water containing low concentrations of dissolved salts and other total dissolved solids. Although the term specifically excludes seawater and brackish water, it does include non-salty mineral-rich waters such as chalybeate springs. Fresh water may encompass frozen and meltwater in ice sheets, ice caps, glaciers, snowfields and icebergs, natural precipitations such as rainfall, snowfall, hail/sleet and graupel, and surface runoffs that form inland bodies of water such as wetlands, ponds, lakes, rivers, streams, as well as groundwater contained in aquifers, subterranean rivers and lakes. Fresh water is the water resource that is of the most and immediate use to humans.

References

  1. 1 2 3 Wetzel, Robert G. (2001). Limnology : lake and river ecosystems (3rd ed.). San Diego: Academic Press. ISBN   978-0127447605. OCLC   46393244.
  2. ↑ Vaccari, David A. (8 November 2005). Environmental Biology for Engineers and Scientists. Wiley-Interscience. ISBN   0-471-74178-7.
  3. ↑ Daily, Gretchen C. (1 February 1997). Nature's Services . Island Press. ISBN   1-55963-476-6.
  4. ↑ Carpenter, Stephen R.; Stanley, Emily H.; Vander Zanden, M. Jake (2011). "State of the World's Freshwater Ecosystems: Physical, Chemical, and Biological Changes". Annual Review of Environment and Resources. 36 (1): 75–99. doi: 10.1146/annurev-environ-021810-094524 . ISSN   1543-5938.
  5. ↑ Rudolfs, Willem; Falk, Lloyd L.; Ragotzkie, R. A. (1950). "Literature Review on the Occurrence and Survival of Enteric, Pathogenic, and Relative Organisms in Soil, Water, Sewage, and Sludges, and on Vegetation: I. Bacterial and Virus Diseases". Sewage and Industrial Wastes. 22 (10): 1261–1281. JSTOR   25031419.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Friberg, Nikolai; Bonada, Núria; Bradley, David C.; Dunbar, Michael J.; Edwards, Francois K.; Grey, Jonathan; Hayes, Richard B.; Hildrew, Alan G.; Lamouroux, Nicolas (2011), "Biomonitoring of Human Impacts in Freshwater Ecosystems", Advances in Ecological Research, Elsevier, pp. 1–68, doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-374794-5.00001-8, ISBN   9780123747945
  7. 1 2 Dudgeon, David; Arthington, Angela H.; Gessner, Mark O.; Kawabata, Zen-Ichiro; Knowler, Duncan J.; Lévêque, Christian; Naiman, Robert J.; Prieur-Richard, Anne-Hélène; Soto, Doris (2005-12-12). "Freshwater biodiversity: importance, threats, status and conservation challenges". Biological Reviews. 81 (2): 163–82. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.568.4047 . doi:10.1017/s1464793105006950. ISSN   1464-7931. PMID   16336747. S2CID   15921269.
  8. 1 2 3 Parmesan, Camille; Morecroft, Mike; Trisurat, Yongyut; et al. "Chapter 2: Terrestrial and Freshwater Ecosystems and their Services" (PDF). Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2022-02-28. Retrieved 2022-03-03.
  9. 1 2 3 Brown, A. L. (1987). Freshwater Ecology. Heinimann Educational Books, London. p. 163. ISBN   0435606220.
  10. ↑ Brönmark, C.; L. A. Hansson (2005). The Biology of Lakes and Ponds. Oxford University Press, Oxford. p. 285. ISBN   0198516134.
  11. ↑ Kalff, J. (2002). Limnology. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle, NJ. p. 592. ISBN   0130337757.
  12. ↑ Angelier, E. 2003. Ecology of Streams and Rivers. Science Publishers, Inc., Enfield. Pp. 215.
  13. ↑ "Biology Concepts & Connections Sixth Edition", Campbell, Neil A. (2009), page 2, 3 and G-9. Retrieved 2010-06-14.
  14. ↑ Alexander, David E. (1 May 1999). Encyclopedia of Environmental Science. Springer. ISBN   0-412-74050-8.
  15. ↑ Keddy, Paul A. (2010). Wetland Ecology. Principles and Conservation. Cambridge University Press. p. 497. ISBN   978-0-521-51940-3.
  16. ↑ Allan, J.D. 1995. Stream Ecology: structure and function of running waters. Chapman and Hall, London. Pp. 388.
  17. ↑ Keddy, P.A. (2010). Wetland ecology: principles and conservation (2nd ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN   978-0521519403. Archived 2013-04-11 at the Wayback Machine
  18. 1 2 "Official page of the Ramsar Convention" . Retrieved 2011-09-25.
  19. ↑ Dorney, J.; Savage, R.; Adamus, P.; Tiner, R., eds. (2018). Wetland and Stream Rapid Assessments: Development, Validation, and Application. London; San Diego, CA: Academic Press. ISBN   978-0-12-805091-0. OCLC   1017607532.
  20. ↑ Davidson, N.C. (2014). "How much wetland has the world lost? Long-term and recent trends in global wetland area". Marine and Freshwater Research. 65 (10): 934–941. doi:10.1071/MF14173. S2CID   85617334.
  21. ↑ Wright, V. P.; Platt, N. H. (1995-10-01). "Seasonal wetland carbonate sequences and dynamic catenas: a re-appraisal of palustrine limestones". Sedimentary Geology. 99 (2): 65–71. Bibcode:1995SedG...99...65W. doi:10.1016/0037-0738(95)00080-R. ISSN   0037-0738.
  22. ↑ Suarez-Gonzalez, P.; Quijada, I. E.; Benito, M. I.; Mas, R. (2015-01-27). "Sedimentology of Ancient Coastal Wetlands: Insights From A Cretaceous Multifaceted Depositional System". Journal of Sedimentary Research. 85 (2): 95–117. Bibcode:2015JSedR..85...95S. doi:10.2110/jsr.2015.07. ISSN   1527-1404.
  23. 1 2 3 4 Ricciardi, Anthony; Rasmussen, Joseph B. (1999-10-23). "Extinction Rates of North American Freshwater Fauna". Conservation Biology. 13 (5): 1220–1222. Bibcode:1999ConBi..13.1220R. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1999.98380.x. ISSN   0888-8892. S2CID   85338348.
  24. ↑ Xu, F (September 2001). "Lake Ecosystem Health Assessment: Indicators and Methods". Water Research. 35 (13): 3157–3167. Bibcode:2001WatRe..35.3157X. doi:10.1016/s0043-1354(01)00040-9. ISSN   0043-1354. PMID   11487113.
  25. 1 2 Reid, AJ; et al. (2019). "Emerging threats and persistent conservation challenges for freshwater biodiversity". Biological Reviews. 94 (3): 849–873. doi: 10.1111/brv.12480 . PMID   30467930.
  26. ↑ "Living Planet Report 2018 | WWF". wwf.panda.org. Retrieved 2019-04-09.
  27. ↑ Reid, Andrea Jane; Cooke, Steven J. (22 January 2019). "Freshwater wildlife face an uncertain future". The Conversation. Retrieved 2019-04-09.
  28. ↑ Burkhead, Noel M. (September 2012). "Extinction Rates in North American Freshwater Fishes, 1900–2010". BioScience. 62 (9): 798–808. doi: 10.1525/bio.2012.62.9.5 . ISSN   1525-3244.
  29. ↑ Tickner, David; Opperman, Jeffrey J; Abell, Robin; Acreman, Mike; Arthington, Angela H; Bunn, Stuart E; Cooke, Steven J; Dalton, James; Darwall, Will; Edwards, Gavin; Harrison, Ian (2020-04-01). "Bending the Curve of Global Freshwater Biodiversity Loss: An Emergency Recovery Plan". BioScience. 70 (4): 330–342. doi:10.1093/biosci/biaa002. ISSN   0006-3568. PMC   7138689 . PMID   32284631.
  30. ↑ Johnson, R. K.; Wiederholm, T.; Rosenberg, D. M. (1993). Freshwater biomonitoring and benthic macroinvertebrates, 40-158. pp. 40–158.
  31. 1 2 Stevenson, R. Jan; Smol, John P. (2003), "Use of Algae in Environmental Assessments", Freshwater Algae of North America, Elsevier, pp. 775–804, doi:10.1016/b978-012741550-5/50024-6, ISBN   9780127415505
  32. ↑ Arthington, Angela H.; Dulvy, Nicholas K.; Gladstone, William; Winfield, Ian J. (2016). "Fish conservation in freshwater and marine realms: status, threats and management". Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems. 26 (5): 838–857. Bibcode:2016ACMFE..26..838A. doi: 10.1002/aqc.2712 . hdl: 10072/143075 . ISSN   1099-0755.
  33. ↑ Prather, Chelse M.; Pelini, Shannon L.; Laws, Angela; Rivest, Emily; Woltz, Megan; Bloch, Christopher P.; Del Toro, Israel; Ho, Chuan-Kai; Kominoski, John; Newbold, T. A. Scott; Parsons, Sheena; Joern, A. (2012). "Invertebrates, ecosystem services and climate change: Invertebrates, ecosystems and climate change". Biological Reviews. 88 (2): 327–348. doi:10.1111/brv.12002. PMID   23217156. S2CID   23578609.
  34. ↑ Winder, Monika; Sommer, Ulrich (2012). "Phytoplankton response to a changing climate". Hydrobiologia. 698 (1): 5–16. doi:10.1007/s10750-012-1149-2. ISSN   0018-8158. S2CID   16907349.



This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.