Ontogenetic niche shift

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The metamorphosis exhibited in frogs is one of the many examples of the ontogenetic niche shifting. Metamorphosis frog Meyers.png
The metamorphosis exhibited in frogs is one of the many examples of the ontogenetic niche shifting.

Ontogenetic niche shift (abbreviated ONS) [1] is an ecological phenomenon where an organism (usually an animal) changes its diet or habitat during its ontogeny (development). [2] During the ontogenetic niche shifting an ecological niche of an individual changes its breadth and position. [3] The best known representatives of taxa that exhibit some kind of the ontogenetic niche shift are fish (e.g. migration of so-called diadromous fish between saltwater and freshwater for purpose of breeding [2] ), insects (e.g. metamorphosis between different life stages; such as larva, pupa and imago [2] ) and amphibians (e.g. metamorphosis from tadpole to adult frog [2] ). [4] A niche shift is thought to be determined genetically, while also being irreversible. [5] Important aspect of the ONS is the fact, that individuals of different stages of a population (e.g. of various age or size) utilize different kind of resources and habitats. [6] [7] The term was introduced in a 1984 paper by biologists Earl E. Werner and James F. Gilliam. [1] [8]

Contents

Characteristics

The ontogenetic niche shift is thought to be determined genetically, while also being irreversible. [5] In complex natural systems the ONS happens multiple times in lifetime of an individual (in some examples the ontogenetic niche shifting can occur continuously). [4] The ontogenetic niche shift varies across species; in some it is hardly visible and gradual (for example a change in diet or in size in mammals and reptiles), while in others it is obvious and abrupt (the metamorphosis of insects, which often results in changing habitat, diet and other ecological conditions). [5] [9] One of the studies suggests that differences in the ONS across species could be (at least to some degree) explained by diversity of traits and functional roles of a species. As a consequence differences in ontogenetic niche shifting are thought to follow some general patterns. [10]

Importance

For communities

The ONS, which divides a population of the same species into distinct life-history stages, can affect food web of a community. Aquatic food web.jpg
The ONS, which divides a population of the same species into distinct life-history stages, can affect food web of a community.

It is thought that almost every organism shows some kind of ontogenetic niche shift. The ONS, which is responsible for causing a noticeable phenotypic variation among individuals of the same species, plays important role in structuring communities and influencing their inside dynamics. [4] In some cases individuals undergoing the ONS, in which they change their habitat, become a (mobile) link between two different communities (for example via flow of energy, matter and nutrients). [11] A stage structure of a population can result in various stages interacting with different representatives of a community or even with individuals of other communities, [2] [12] thus having a distinct ecological role from other life-history stages of the same population. [13] Theoretical models, where communities are stage-structured, propose the ontogenetic niche shifting of studied organisms is influencing the whole community (especially its resilience and disturbance responses). [4]

For population

The most apparent consequence of the ontogenetic niche shifting is a reduction of competition between different stages of the same population. Because of the ONS individuals of different age or size do not compete for food, materials and other habitat resources. [6] Different stages of the same population also have different trophic effects on food web of a community. [7] A division of a population on distinct life-history stages is useful and evident, when there is a lack of resources for one stage (for example when juveniles do not get enough resources for themselves). In that case a lacking stage will have higher mortality rate. [6]

The ONS is of great importance for survival of populations. Researchers noticed that many species exhibit the ontogenetic niche shifting at different times and in a lot of examples the ONS occurred as a response to various abiotic and biotic environmental factors. It is thought that the ontogenetic niche shift could be an adaptive response to changing conditions in individual's habitat. Authors of the life history theory predicted that organisms can affect the time of their ontogenetic niche shifting. While individuals living in favorable conditions would usually delay their ONS to successive ecological niche, organisms living in a niche with poor conditions typically advance to a further niche. [2]

Understanding the ontogenetic niche shifting in different species and its impact on the whole community is important when studying a biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. [4] It is thought to be useful when dealing with populations threatened by anthropogenic disturbances [4] [13] and environmental changes. [10] [13]

Representative taxa

The extreme ONS can be seen among insects. On the picture above are shown a pupa and an imago of Rhopalomyia solidaginis. Emergent midge. Rhopalomyia solidaginis.jpg
The extreme ONS can be seen among insects. On the picture above are shown a pupa and an imago of Rhopalomyia solidaginis.
Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus) is an anadromous fish species that exhibits a drastic habitat niche shift. Finding the homes of wild salmon.jpg
Pacific salmon ( Oncorhynchus ) is an anadromous fish species that exhibits a drastic habitat niche shift.
Skull of a juvenile Tyrannosaurus. Juveniles of megatheropods proposedly occupied mesocarnivoran ecological niche. Nanotyrannus lancensis skull.jpg
Skull of a juvenile Tyrannosaurus . Juveniles of megatheropods proposedly occupied mesocarnivoran ecological niche.

Even though the occurrence of ontogenetic niche shifting is thought to be widely distributed, the best known representative taxa with extensively studied ONS are insects and a few groups of vertebrates, especially fish and amphibians, where individuals often change their habitat as well as a lot of other aspects of their niche during the development. The less pronounced ontogenetic niche shifting can be seen in many other taxa, where their habitat stays the same. Usually the ONS in those species is evident, when looking at resources being used by organisms of the same species but various ages or size classes (for example a change in their diet). [2]

Invertebrates

The ontogenetic niche shifting, which is connected with extreme habitat changes, can be seen among insects. [2] Individuals of taxon Insecta are known to exhibit one of the various types of metamorphosis, the best studied being hemimetabolism (where an insect passes three life stages; egg, nymph and imago) and holometabolism (characterized with four life stages of an insect; egg, larva, pupa and imago). [14] Nutritional niches and their shifting during a ontogeny can be accurately measured by using a stable isotopic signature of animals. [15] [16] Such method has been used in studying the ONS in gastropods, such as field slugs. [15]

Vertebrates

The ONS similar to that among insects happens in amphibian taxa, [2] the best known being frogs, which start as an egg and then hatch into a larval stage called the tadpole. [17] Tadpoles exhibit many differences that distinguish them from an adult stage of a frog; most species' tadpoles are aquatic, they usually possess external gills and primarily feed with plant material (even though there are some exceptions that consume dead animal flesh or mixed diet). [18] Another well studied example of the ONS occurs in fish, that exhibit diadromous behaviour. Diadromous fish species drastically change their habitat, when they set out on a journey from sea (saltwater) to rivers (freshwater) and vice versa. [2] A lot of freshwater fish species show the ONS in their diet, when they switch from preying on plankton to performing benthivory. [5]

The ONS may not be so visible in reptiles, even though these vertebrates do utilize it. The ontogenetic niche shifting was studied in American alligator ( Alligator mississippiensis ), which is ideal for studying ecological aspects of ONS because of many distinct size stages in a population. Alligators were switching their habitat niche between hydrologically isolated, seasonal wetlands and riverine systems. The study has shown that riverine systems were populated primarily with adults and subadults of both sexes, that used the area as a non-nesting habitat. On the other hand, juveniles and adult females were found on seasonal wetlands, which served as a nursery and nesting sites respectively. [11]

Good example of the ONS in birds are big seabirds, such as albatrosses, which spend some of their time as fully oceanic birds and when sexually mature begin to visit breeding grounds. Immature juveniles usually stay in subtropical water, where they occupy high trophic levels. Researchers noticed that young birds progressively direct towards lower trophic positions when they are coming closer to sexual maturity. After time they take on an isotopic niche of an adult bird. [19]

The ontogenetic niche shifting is a concept widely studied in paleontology and paleozoology. Large non-avian dinosaurs are known to have had exhibited one of the most intensive ontogenetic niche shifting, as they were hatched from an egg and had to experience big size shifts during their ontogeny. [20] One of the problems, connected with understanding Mesozoic dinosaur fauna was lack of so-called mesocarnivores. It is predicted the ontogenetic niche shift is an answer, because carnivorous dinosaurs started out as small hatchlings and progressed towards adult size, while occupying different successive niches and limiting trophic species diversity. Juvenile individuals of megatheropods are thought to occupy mesocarnivore niche. [21]

Plants

The ontogenetic niche shifting is primarily studied in animals, but there are some studies that deal with the ONS in plants. [3] [22] [23] One of the ONSs studied in plants is changing of a regeneration niche. Authors of the paper noticed that during the ontogeny the regeneration niche of Acer opalus , the Italian maple, had shrinked. It is thought such ontogenetic niche shift was mainly a consequence of herbivory, the depth of the litter layer and presence of other plants (especially adult trees and shrubs). [23]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Metamorphosis</span> Profound change in body structure during the postembryonic development of an organism

Metamorphosis is a biological process by which an animal physically develops including birth or hatching, involving a conspicuous and relatively abrupt change in the animal's body structure through cell growth and differentiation. Some insects, fish, amphibians, mollusks, crustaceans, cnidarians, echinoderms, and tunicates undergo metamorphosis, which is often accompanied by a change of nutrition source or behavior. Animals can be divided into species that undergo complete metamorphosis ("holometaboly"), incomplete metamorphosis ("hemimetaboly"), or no metamorphosis ("ametaboly").

Neoteny, also called juvenilization, is the delaying or slowing of the physiological, or somatic, development of an organism, typically an animal. Neoteny is found in modern humans compared to other primates. In progenesis or paedogenesis, sexual development is accelerated.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ontogeny</span> Origination and development of an organism

Ontogeny is the origination and development of an organism, usually from the time of fertilization of the egg to adult. The term can also be used to refer to the study of the entirety of an organism's lifespan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ecological niche</span> Fit of a species living under specific environmental conditions

In ecology, a niche is the match of a species to a specific environmental condition. It describes how an organism or population responds to the distribution of resources and competitors and how it in turn alters those same factors. "The type and number of variables comprising the dimensions of an environmental niche vary from one species to another [and] the relative importance of particular environmental variables for a species may vary according to the geographic and biotic contexts".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Common frog</span> Species of amphibian

The common frog or grass frog, also known as the European common frog, European common brown frog, European grass frog, European Holarctic true frog, European pond frog or European brown frog, is a semi-aquatic amphibian of the family Ranidae, found throughout much of Europe as far north as Scandinavia and as far east as the Urals, except for most of Iberia, Southern Italy, and the southern Balkans. The farthest west it can be found is Ireland. It is also found in Asia, and eastward to Japan. The nominative, and most common, subspecies Rana temporaria temporaria is a largely terrestrial frog native to Europe. It is distributed throughout northern Europe and can be found in Ireland, the Isle of Lewis and as far east as Japan.

<i>Orthacanthus</i> Extinct genus of sharks

Orthacanthus is an extinct genus of fresh-water xenacanthid sharks, named by Louis Agassiz in 1836, ranging from the Upper Carboniferous until the Lower Permian. Orthacanthus had a nektobenthic life habitat, with a carnivorous diet. Multiple sources have also discovered evidence of cannibalism in the diet of Orthacanthus and of "filial cannibalism" where adult Orthacanthus preyed upon juvenile Orthacanthus. The genus Orthacanthus has been synonymized with Dittodus, Didymodus, and Diplodus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Heterochrony</span> Evolutionary change in the rates or durations of developmental events, leading to structural changes

In evolutionary developmental biology, heterochrony is any genetically controlled difference in the timing, rate, or duration of a developmental process in an organism compared to its ancestors or other organisms. This leads to changes in the size, shape, characteristics and even presence of certain organs and features. It is contrasted with heterotopy, a change in spatial positioning of some process in the embryo, which can also create morphological innovation. Heterochrony can be divided into intraspecific heterochrony, variation within a species, and interspecific heterochrony, phylogenetic variation, i.e. variation of a descendant species with respect to an ancestral species.

Holometabolism, also called complete metamorphosis, is a form of insect development which includes four life stages: egg, larva, pupa, and imago. Holometabolism is a synapomorphic trait of all insects in the superorder Endopterygota. Immature stages of holometabolous insects are very different from the mature stage. In some species the holometabolous life cycle prevents larvae from competing with adults because they inhabit different ecological niches. The morphology and behavior of each stage are adapted for different activities. For example, larval traits maximize feeding, growth, and development, while adult traits enable dispersal, mating, and egg laying. Some species of holometabolous insects protect and feed their offspring. Other insect developmental strategies include ametabolism and hemimetabolism.

In ecology, niche differentiation refers to the process by which competing species use the environment differently in a way that helps them to coexist. The competitive exclusion principle states that if two species with identical niches compete, then one will inevitably drive the other to extinction. This rule also states that two species cannot occupy the same exact niche in a habitat and coexist together, at least in a stable manner. When two species differentiate their niches, they tend to compete less strongly, and are thus more likely to coexist. Species can differentiate their niches in many ways, such as by consuming different foods, or using different areas of the environment.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Common parsley frog</span> Species of amphibian

Pelodytes punctatus, or the common parsley frog, lives across the Iberian region in south-western Europe. It is one of several other parsley frog species, and part of the Family Pelodytida and the Genus Pelodytes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Competition (biology)</span> Interaction where the fitness of one organism is lowered by the presence of another organism

Competition is an interaction between organisms or species in which both require a resource that is in limited supply. Competition lowers the fitness of both organisms involved, since the presence of one of the organisms always reduces the amount of the resource available to the other.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Boreal toad</span> Subspecies of amphibian

The boreal toad is the nominate subspecies of the western toad. They are commonly found in the Southern Rocky Mountains, and their population has recently been on the decline due to an emerging amphibian disease, chytrid fungus. The boreal toad is currently listed as an endangered species by Colorado and New Mexico. It is known in Colorado as the only alpine species of toad.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Juvenile (organism)</span> Individual organism that has not yet reached its adult form

A juvenile is an individual organism that has not yet reached its adult form, sexual maturity or size. Juveniles can look very different from the adult form, particularly in colour, and may not fill the same niche as the adult form. In many organisms the juvenile has a different name from the adult.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Community (ecology)</span> Associated populations of species in a given area

In ecology, a community is a group or association of populations of two or more different species occupying the same geographical area at the same time, also known as a biocoenosis, biotic community, biological community, ecological community, or life assemblage. The term community has a variety of uses. In its simplest form it refers to groups of organisms in a specific place or time, for example, "the fish community of Lake Ontario before industrialization".

Source–sink dynamics is a theoretical model used by ecologists to describe how variation in habitat quality may affect the population growth or decline of organisms.

A guild is any group of species that exploit the same resources, or that exploit different resources in related ways. It is not necessary that the species within a guild occupy the same, or even similar, ecological niches.

<i>Rhineceps</i> Genus of amphibians (fossil)

Rhineceps is an extinct genus of temnospondyl amphibian in the family Rhinesuchidae. Rhineceps was found in Northern Malawi in Southern Africa known only from its type species R. nyasaensis. Rhineceps was a late Permian semi-aquatic carnivore that lived in streams, rivers, lakes or lagoons. Rhineceps is an early divergent Stereopondyl within the family Rhinesuchidae, which only existed in the late Permian (Lopingian) and failed to survive the Permian-Triassic extinction unlike other stereospondyl families.

Island ecology is the study of island organisms and their interactions with each other and the environment. Islands account for nearly 1/6 of earth’s total land area, yet the ecology of island ecosystems is vastly different from that of mainland communities. Their isolation and high availability of empty niches lead to increased speciation. As a result, island ecosystems comprise 30% of the world’s biodiversity hotspots, 50% of marine tropical diversity, and some of the most unusual and rare species. Many species still remain unknown.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ecological fitting</span> Biological process

Ecological fitting is "the process whereby organisms colonize and persist in novel environments, use novel resources or form novel associations with other species as a result of the suites of traits that they carry at the time they encounter the novel condition". It can be understood as a situation in which a species' interactions with its biotic and abiotic environment seem to indicate a history of coevolution, when in actuality the relevant traits evolved in response to a different set of biotic and abiotic conditions.

This glossary of evolutionary biology is a list of definitions of terms and concepts used in the study of evolutionary biology, population biology, speciation, and phylogenetics, as well as sub-disciplines and related fields. For additional terms from related glossaries, see Glossary of genetics, Glossary of ecology, and Glossary of biology.

References

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