Microbial ecology

Last updated

The great plate count anomaly. Counts of cells obtained via cultivation are orders of magnitude lower than those directly observed under the microscope. This is because microbiologists are able to cultivate only a minority of naturally occurring microbes using current laboratory techniques, depending on the environment. Great-plate-count-anomaly.svg
The great plate count anomaly. Counts of cells obtained via cultivation are orders of magnitude lower than those directly observed under the microscope. This is because microbiologists are able to cultivate only a minority of naturally occurring microbes using current laboratory techniques, depending on the environment.

Microbial ecology (or environmental microbiology) is a discipline where the interaction of microorganisms and their environment are studied. [2] Microorganisms are known to have important and harmful ecological relationships within their species and other species. [2] Many scientists have studied the relationship between nature and microorganisms: Martinus Beijerinck, Sergei Winogradsky, Louis Pasteur, Robert Koch, Lorenz Hiltner, Dionicia Gamboa and many more; [3] [4] [5] [6] to understand the specific roles that these microorganisms have in biological and chemical pathways and how microorganisms have evolved. Currently, there are several types of biotechnologies that have allowed scientists to analyze the biological/chemical properties of these microorganisms also. [7]

Contents

Many of these microorganisms have been known to form different symbiotic relationships with other organisms in their environment. [8] Some symbiotic relationships include mutualism, commensalism, amensalism, and parasitism. [9] [10]

In addition, it has been discovered that certain substances in the environment can kill microorganisms, thus preventing them from interacting with their environment. These substances are called antimicrobial substances. These can be antibiotic, antifungal, or antiviral. [11]

Influential Scientists

Louis Pasteur Louis Pasteur.jpg
Louis Pasteur

Martinus Beijerinck invented the enrichment culture, a fundamental method of studying microbes from the environment. Sergei Winogradsky was one of the first researchers to attempt to understand microorganisms outside of the medical context—making him among the first students of microbial ecology and environmental microbiology—discovering chemosynthesis and developing the Winogradsky column in the process. [12] : 644 

Louis Pasteur was a French chemist who derived key microbial principles that we use today: microbial fermentation, pasteurization, germ theory, and vaccines. [13] These principles have served as a foundation for scientists in viewing the relationship between microbes and their environment. [13] For example, Pasteur disproved the theory of spontaneous generation, the belief of life arising from nonliving materials. [14] Pasteur stated that life can only come from life and not nonliving materials. [15] This led to the idea that microorganisms were responsible for the microbial growth in any environment. [15]

Robert Koch was a physician-scientist who implemented oil-immersion lens and a condenser while using microscopes, to increase the imagery of viewing bacteria. [16] This led Koch to be the first publisher of bacteria photographs. As a result, Koch was able to study wound infections in animals at the microscopic level. [16] He was able to distinguish distinct bacteria species, which led him to believe that the best way to study a certain disease is to focus on a specific pathogen. [16] In 1879, Koch started to develop "pure" cultures to grow bacteria colonies. [16] These advancements led Koch to solve the Cholera endemic in India during the year 1883. [16] Koch's laboratory techniques and materials led him to conclude that the use of unfiltered water was causing the Cholera endemic, since it contained bacteria causing intestinal harm in humans. [16]

Lorenz Hiltner is known as one of the pioneers in "microbial ecology." [4] His research focused on how microbials in the rhizosphere provided nutrients to plants. Hiltner stated that the quality of plant products was a result of the plant's roots microflora. [4] One of Hiltner contributions to the study of plant nutrition and soil bacteriology was creating antimicrobial seeds covered with mercury chloride. [4] The sole purpose of creating the antimicrobial seeds were to protect the seeds from the harmful effects of pathogenic fungi. In addition, he recognized the known bacteria that were responsible for the nitrogen cycle: denitrification, nitrification, and nitrogen fixation. [4]

Dionicia Gamboa is a prime example of how scientists are still trying to understand the relationship between microorganisms and nature. [6] Gamboa is a Peruvian biologist who has dedicated her career towards treating malaria and leishmaniasis microorganisms. [6] In 2009, Gamboa and her colleagues published a paper on treating different strains of malaria and leishmaniasis microorganisms, using plant extracts from the amazon. [6] To add on, Gamboa has studied different ways to accurately detect malaria and leishmaniasis microorganisms in humans, using PCR and serology. [17] Her studies have helped understand the epidemiology of these microorganisms, to reduce the interaction with them in nature and their harmful effects. [17]

Important Microbial Roles in The Environment

Microorganisms are the backbone of all ecosystems, even in areas where photosynthesis cannot take place. For example, chemosynthetic microorganisms are the primary producers in extreme environments, such as high temperature geothermal environments. [18] In these extreme conditions, the chemosynthetic microbes provide energy and carbon to other organisms. Chemosynthetic microorganisms gain energy by oxidizing inorganic compounds such as hydrogen, nitrite, ammonia, sulfur and iron (II). These organisms can be found in both aerobic and anaerobic environment. [19]

The nitrogen cycle, phosphorus cycle, sulphur cycle, and carbon cycle depend on microorganisms also. Each cycle involves microorganisms in certain processes. [20] For example, nitrogen gas makes up 78% of the Earth's atmosphere, but it is almost chemically inert; as a result, it is unavailable to most organisms. It has to be converted biologically to an available form by microorganism, through nitrogen fixation. [21] Through these biogeochemical cycles, microorganisms are able to make nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium available in the soil. [22] Microorganisms play a role in solubilizing phosphate, improving soil health, and plant growth. [23]

Microbial Applications in Biotechnology

Microbial interactions are found in bioremediation. Bioremediation is a technology that removes contaminants from soil [24] and wastewater [25] using microorganisms. [26] [27] Examples of some microorganisms that play a role in bioremediation are the following: Pseudomonas, Bacillus, Arthrobacter, Corynebacterium, Methosinus, Rhodococcus, Stereum hirsutum, methanogens, Aspergilus niger, Pleurotus ostreatus, Rhizopus arrhizus, Azotobacter, Alcaligenes, Phormidium valderium, and Ganoderma applantus. [28]

Microbial Evolution

Due to high levels of horizontal gene transfer among microbial communities, [29] microbial ecology is also important to the studies of evolution. [30]

Microbial Symbiotic Relationships

Mutualism

Mutualism is a close relationship between two different species in which each has a positive effect on the other . In mutualism, one partner provides service to the other partner and also receives service from the other partner as well. [31] Mutualism in microbial ecology is a relationship between microbial species and other species (example humans) that allows for both sides to benefit. [32] Microorganisms form mutualistic relationship with other microorganism, plants or animals. One example of microbe-microbe interaction would be syntrophy, also known as cross-feeding, [33] of which Methanobacterium omelianskii is a classical example. [34] [35] This consortium is formed by an ethanol fermenting organism and a methanogen. The ethanol-fermenting organism provides the archaeal partner with the H2, which this methanogen needs in order to grow and produce methane. [36] [35] Syntrophy has been hypothesized to play a significant role in energy and nutrient-limited environments, such as deep subsurface, where it can help the microbial community with diverse functional properties to survive, grow and produce maximum amount of energy. [37] [38] Anaerobic oxidation of methane (AOM) is carried out by mutualistic consortium of a sulfate-reducing bacterium and an anaerobic methane-oxidizing archaeon. [39] [40] The reaction used by the bacterial partner for the production of H2 is endergonic (and so thermodynamically unfavored) however, when coupled to the reaction used by archaeal partner, the overall reaction becomes exergonic. [36] Thus the two organisms are in a mutualistic relationship which allows them to grow and thrive in an environment, deadly for either species alone. Lichen is an example of a symbiotic organism. [35]

Microorganisms also engage in mutualistic relationship with plants and a typical example of such relationship is arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) relationship, a symbiotic relationship between plants and fungi. [9] This relationship begins when chemical signals are exchange between the plant and the fungi leading to the metabolic stimulation of the fungus. [41] [42] The fungus then attacks the epidermis of the plant’s root and penetrates its highly branched hyphae into the cortical cells of the plant. [9] In this relationship, the fungi gives the plant phosphate and nitrogen obtained from the soil with the plant in return providing the fungi with carbohydrate and lipids obtained from photosynthesis. [43] Also, microorganisms are involve in mutualistic relationship with mammals such as humans. As the host provides shelter and nutrient to the microorganisms, the microorganisms also provide benefits such as helping in the growth of the gastrointestinal tract of the host and protecting host from other detrimental microorganisms. [44]

Commensalism

Commensalism is very common in microbial world, literally meaning "eating from the same table". [45] It is a relationship between two species where one species benefits with no harm or benefit for the other species. [10] Metabolic products of one microbial population are used by another microbial population without either gain or harm for the first population. There are many "pairs "of microbial species that perform either oxidation or reduction reaction to the same chemical equation. For example, methanogens produce methane by reducing CO2 to CH4, while methanotrophs oxidise methane back to CO2. [46]

Amensalism

Amensalism (also commonly known as antagonism) is a type of symbiotic relationship where one species/organism is harmed while the other remains unaffected. [32] One example of such a relationship that takes place in microbial ecology is between the microbial species Lactobacillus casei and Pseudomonas taetrolens . [47] When co-existing in an environment, Pseudomonas taetrolens shows inhibited growth and decreased production of lactobionic acid (its main product) most likely due to the byproducts created by Lactobacillus casei during its production of lactic acid. [48]

Parasitism

Certain microorganisms are known to have a host-parasite interaction with other organisms. For example, phytopathogenic fungi are known to infect and damage plants. [49] The phytopathogenic fungi is a major issue in agriculture, because it has the capacity to infect its host by their root system. [49] This is a major issue because the symptoms of the infection are not easily detected. [49] Another example of a parasitic microorganism is the nematode. [50] These organisms are known to cause river blindness and lymphatic filariasis in humans. [50] These organisms are transmitted to hosts through different mosquito species from the following groups: Aedes, Anopheles, and Culex. [50]

Antimicrobials

Antimicrobials are substances that are capable of killing microorganism. Antimicrobial can be antibacterial or antibiotic, antifungal or antiviral substance and most of these substance are natural products or may have been obtain from natural products. [11] Natural products are therefore vital in the discovery of pharmaceutical agents. [51] [52] Most of the naturally obtained antibiotics are produced by organism under the phylum Actinobacteria. The genus Streptomyces are responsible for most of the antibiotic substances produced by Actinobacteria. [53] [54] These natural products with antimicrobial properties belong to the terpenoids, spirotetronate, tetracenedione, lactam, and other groups of compounds. Examples include napyradiomycin, nomimicin, formicamycin, and isoikarugamycin, [55] [56] [57] [58] Some metals, particularly copper, silver, and gold also have antimicrobial properties. Using antimicrobial copper-alloy touch surfaces is a technique that has begun to be used in the 21st century to prevent the transmission of bacteria. [59] [60] Silver nanoparticles have also begun to be incorporated into building surfaces and fabrics, although concerns have been raised about the potential side-effects of the tiny particles on human health. [61] Due to the antimicrobial properties certain metals possess, products such as medical devices are made using those metals. [60]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Hugenholtz, P. (2002). "Exploring prokaryotic diversity in the genomic era". Genome Biology. 3 (2): reviews0003.reviews0001. doi: 10.1186/gb-2002-3-2-reviews0003 . PMC   139013 . PMID   11864374.
  2. 1 2 Gray, N. D.; Head, I. M. (January 1, 2008), Jørgensen, Sven Erik; Fath, Brian D. (eds.), "Microbial Ecology", Encyclopedia of Ecology, Oxford: Academic Press, pp. 2357–2368, ISBN   978-0-08-045405-4 , retrieved April 1, 2025
  3. ↑ Kolter, Roberto (October 8, 2021). "The History of Microbiology—A Personal Interpretation" . Annual Review of Microbiology. 75 (1): 1–17. doi:10.1146/annurev-micro-033020-020648. ISSN   0066-4227. PMID   33974804.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 Hartmann, Anton; Rothballer, Michael; Schmid, Michael (November 1, 2008). "Lorenz Hiltner, a pioneer in rhizosphere microbial ecology and soil bacteriology research" . Plant and Soil. 312 (1): 7–14. Bibcode:2008PlSoi.312....7H. doi:10.1007/s11104-007-9514-z. ISSN   1573-5036.
  5. ↑ Céline, Valadeau; Adriana, Pabon; Eric, Deharo; Joaquina, Albán–Castillo; Yannick, Estevez; Augusto, Lores Fransis; Rosario, Rojas; Dionicia, Gamboa; Michel, Sauvain; Denis, Castillo; Geneviève, Bourdy (June 25, 2009). "Medicinal plants from the Yanesha (Peru): Evaluation of the leishmanicidal and antimalarial activity of selected extracts" . Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 123 (3): 413–422. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2009.03.041. ISSN   0378-8741.
  6. 1 2 3 4 Céline, Valadeau; Adriana, Pabon; Eric, Deharo; Joaquina, Albán–Castillo; Yannick, Estevez; Augusto, Lores Fransis; Rosario, Rojas; Dionicia, Gamboa; Michel, Sauvain; Denis, Castillo; Geneviève, Bourdy. "Medicinal plants from the Yanesha (Peru): Evaluation of the leishmanicidal and antimalarial activity of selected extracts" . Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 123 (3): 413–422. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2009.03.041 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  7. ↑ Flavier, Albert B.; Balan, Venkatesh; Khan, Abdul Latif. "– Microbial Biotechnology: Fundamentals and Applications". Microbial Biotechnology: Fundamentals and Applications.
  8. ↑ Glaeser, Jens; Overmann, Jörg (August 2004). "Biogeography, Evolution, and Diversity of Epibionts in Phototrophic Consortia". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 70 (8): 4821–4830. Bibcode:2004ApEnM..70.4821G. doi:10.1128/aem.70.8.4821-4830.2004. ISSN   0099-2240. PMC   492462 . PMID   15294820.
  9. 1 2 3 Smith, Sally E.; Read, David (2008), "INTRODUCTION" , Mycorrhizal Symbiosis, Elsevier, pp. 1–9, doi:10.1016/b978-012370526-6.50002-7, ISBN   978-0-12-370526-6 , retrieved October 12, 2024
  10. 1 2 Mathis, Kaitlyn A.; Bronstein, Judith L. (November 2, 2020). "Our Current Understanding of Commensalism". Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics. 51 (1): 167–189. doi:10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-011720-040844. ISSN   1543-592X.
  11. 1 2 Strohl, William R. (April 9, 2014), Bull, Alan T. (ed.), "Antimicrobials" , Microbial Diversity and Bioprospecting, Washington, DC, USA: ASM Press, pp. 336–355, doi:10.1128/9781555817770.ch31, ISBN   978-1-68367-217-3 , retrieved October 25, 2024
  12. ↑ Madigan, Michael T. (2012). Brock biology of microorganisms (13th ed.). San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings. ISBN   978-0-321-64963-8.
  13. 1 2 Mostowy, Serge (December 1, 2022). "Louis Pasteur continues to shape the future of microbiology". Disease Models & Mechanisms. 15 (12). doi:10.1242/dmm.050011. ISSN   1754-8403. PMC   10655809 . PMID   36504391.
  14. ↑ "1.1C: Pasteur and Spontaneous Generation". Biology LibreTexts. May 6, 2017. Retrieved April 2, 2025.
  15. 1 2 "1.6.2: Pasteur and Spontaneous Generation". Biology LibreTexts. July 22, 2022. Retrieved April 2, 2025.
  16. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Blevins, Steve M.; Bronze, Michael S. (September 1, 2010). "Robert Koch and the 'golden age' of bacteriology". International Journal of Infectious Diseases. 14 (9): e744 –e751. doi: 10.1016/j.ijid.2009.12.003 . ISSN   1201-9712.
  17. 1 2 Rosas-Aguirre, Angel; Gamboa, Dionicia; Manrique, Paulo; Conn, Jan E.; Moreno, Marta; Lescano, Andres G.; Sanchez, Juan F.; Rodriguez, Hugo; Silva, Hermann; Llanos-Cuentas, Alejandro; Vinetz, Joseph M. (December 28, 2016). "Epidemiology of Plasmodium vivax Malaria in Peru". The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 95 (6_Suppl): 133–144. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.16-0268. ISSN   0002-9637. PMC   5201219 . PMID   27799639.
  18. ↑ Inskeep, W. P.; Ackerman, G. G.; Taylor, W. P.; Kozubal, M.; Korf, S.; Macur, R. E. (October 2005). "On the energetics of chemolithotrophy in nonequilibrium systems: case studies of geothermal springs in Yellowstone National Park" . Geobiology. 3 (4): 297–317. doi:10.1111/j.1472-4669.2006.00059.x. ISSN   1472-4677.
  19. ↑ Oren, Aharon (September 15, 2009). "Chemolithotrophy" . Encyclopedia of Life Sciences. doi:10.1002/9780470015902.a0021153. ISBN   978-0-470-01617-6.
  20. ↑ Li, Wenjing; Wang, Jinlong; Jiang, Lamei; Lv, Guanghui; Hu, Dong; Wu, Deyan; Yang, Xiaodong (March 1, 2023). "Rhizosphere effect and water constraint jointly determined the roles of microorganism in soil phosphorus cycling in arid desert regions" . CATENA. 222: 106809. Bibcode:2023Caten.22206809L. doi:10.1016/j.catena.2022.106809. ISSN   0341-8162. S2CID   256786335.
  21. ↑ Delwiche, C. C. (1970). "The Nitrogen Cycle" . Scientific American. 223 (3): 136–147. Bibcode:1970SciAm.223c.136D. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0970-136. ISSN   0036-8733. JSTOR   24925899. PMID   5459723. S2CID   201233849.
  22. ↑ Basu, Sahana; Kumar, Gautam; Chhabra, Sagar; Prasad, Ram (January 1, 2021), Verma, Jay Prakash; Macdonald, Catriona A.; Gupta, Vijai Kumar; Podile, Appa Rao (eds.), "Chapter 13 - Role of soil microbes in biogeochemical cycle for enhancing soil fertility" , New and Future Developments in Microbial Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Elsevier, pp. 149–157, doi:10.1016/b978-0-444-64325-4.00013-4, ISBN   978-0-444-64325-4 , retrieved November 4, 2024
  23. ↑ Tian, Jiang; Ge, Fei; Zhang, Dayi; Deng, Songqiang; Liu, Xingwang (February 17, 2021). "Roles of Phosphate Solubilizing Microorganisms from Managing Soil Phosphorus Deficiency to Mediating Biogeochemical P Cycle". Biology. 10 (2): 158. doi: 10.3390/biology10020158 . ISSN   2079-7737. PMC   7922199 . PMID   33671192.
  24. ↑ Zhao, Yue; Yao, Jun; Yuan, Zhimin; Wang, Tianqi; Zhang, Yiyue; Wang, Fei (October 8, 2016). "Bioremediation of Cd by strain GZ-22 isolated from mine soil based on biosorption and microbially induced carbonate precipitation" . Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 24 (1): 372–380. doi:10.1007/s11356-016-7810-y. ISSN   0944-1344. PMID   27722882.
  25. ↑ Saeed, Muhammad Usama; Hussain, Nazim; Sumrin, Aleena; Shahbaz, Areej; Noor, Saman; Bilal, Muhammad; Aleya, Lotfi; Iqbal, Hafiz M. N. (April 20, 2022). "Microbial bioremediation strategies with wastewater treatment potentialities – A review" . Science of the Total Environment. 818: 151754. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.151754. ISSN   0048-9697. PMID   34800451.
  26. ↑ Bilal, Muhammad; Ashraf, Syed Salman; Iqbal, Hafiz M. N. (2020), "Laccase-Mediated Bioremediation of Dye-Based Hazardous Pollutants" , Environmental Chemistry for a Sustainable World, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 137–160, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-48985-4_6, ISBN   978-3-030-48984-7 , retrieved November 5, 2024
  27. ↑ Zhao, Youkang; Bai, Yang; Guo, Qiu; Li, Zhiling; Qi, Mengyuan; Ma, Xiaodan; Wang, Hao; Kong, Deyong; Wang, Aijie; Liang, Bin (February 2019). "Bioremediation of contaminated urban river sediment with methanol stimulation: Metabolic processes accompanied with microbial community changes" . Science of the Total Environment. 653: 649–657. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.10.396. ISSN   0048-9697.
  28. ↑ Verma, Samakshi; Kuila, Arindam (May 1, 2019). "Bioremediation of heavy metals by microbial process" . Environmental Technology & Innovation. 14: 100369. doi:10.1016/j.eti.2019.100369. ISSN   2352-1864.
  29. ↑ McDaniel, L. D.; Young, E.; Delaney, J.; Ruhnau, F.; Ritchie, K. B.; Paul, J. H. (2010). "High Frequency of Horizontal Gene Transfer in the Oceans". Science. 330 (6000): 50. Bibcode:2010Sci...330...50M. doi:10.1126/science.1192243. PMID   20929803. S2CID   45402114.
  30. ↑ Smets, Barth F.; Barkay, Tamar (2005). "Horizontal gene transfer: Perspectives at a crossroads of scientific disciplines". Nature Reviews Microbiology. 3 (9): 675–8. doi:10.1038/nrmicro1253. PMID   16145755. S2CID   2265315.
  31. ↑ Bronstein, Judith L., ed. (July 1, 2015). Mutualism. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199675654.001.0001. ISBN   978-0-19-180942-2.
  32. 1 2 Sheela, Srivastava (2003). Understanding bacteria. Srivastava, P. S. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. ISBN   978-1-4020-1633-2. OCLC   53231924.
  33. ↑ Faust, Karoline; Raes, Jeroen (July 16, 2012). "Microbial interactions: from networks to models". Nature Reviews. Microbiology. 10 (8): 538–550. doi:10.1038/nrmicro2832. PMID   22796884. S2CID   22872711.
  34. ↑ Bryant, M. P.; Wolin, E. A.; Wolin, M. J.; Wolfe, R. S. (1967). "Methanobacillus omelianskii, a symbiotic association of two species of bacteria". Archiv für Mikrobiologie. 59 (1–3): 20–31. Bibcode:1967ArMic..59...20B. doi:10.1007/bf00406313. ISSN   0302-8933. PMID   5602458. S2CID   10348127.
  35. 1 2 3 López-García, Purificación; Eme, Laura; Moreira, David (December 2017). "Symbiosis in eukaryotic evolution". Journal of Theoretical Biology. The origin of mitosing cells: 50th anniversary of a classic paper by Lynn Sagan (Margulis). 434 (Supplement C): 20–33. Bibcode:2017JThBi.434...20L. doi:10.1016/j.jtbi.2017.02.031. PMC   5638015 . PMID   28254477.
  36. 1 2 Kirchman, David L (2012). Processes in microbial ecology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-958693-6. OCLC   777261246.
  37. ↑ Lau, Maggie C. Y.; Kieft, Thomas L.; Kuloyo, Olukayode; Linage-Alvarez, Borja; van Heerden, Esta; Lindsay, Melody R.; Magnabosco, Cara; Wang, Wei; Wiggins, Jessica B.; Guo, Ling; Perlman, David H. (December 6, 2016). "An oligotrophic deep-subsurface community dependent on syntrophy is dominated by sulphur-driven autotrophic denitrifiers". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 113 (49): E7927 –E7936. Bibcode:2016PNAS..113E7927L. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1612244113 . ISSN   0027-8424. PMC   5150411 . PMID   27872277.
  38. ↑ Schink, Bernhard; Stams, Alfons J. M. (2013), "Syntrophism Among Prokaryotes" , The Prokaryotes, Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 471–493, doi:10.1007/978-3-642-30123-0_59, ISBN   978-3-642-30122-3
  39. ↑ Boetius, Antje; Ravenschlag, Katrin; Schubert, Carsten J.; Rickert, Dirk; Widdel, Friedrich; Gieseke, Armin; Amann, Rudolf; Jørgensen, Bo Barker; Witte, Ursula; Pfannkuche, Olaf (October 2000). "A marine microbial consortium apparently mediating anaerobic oxidation of methane". Nature. 407 (6804): 623–626. Bibcode:2000Natur.407..623B. doi:10.1038/35036572. ISSN   0028-0836. PMID   11034209. S2CID   205009562.
  40. ↑ Raghoebarsing, Ashna A.; Pol, Arjan; van de Pas-Schoonen, Katinka T.; Smolders, Alfons J. P.; Ettwig, Katharina F.; Rijpstra, W. Irene C.; Schouten, Stefan; Damsté, Jaap S. Sinninghe; Op den Camp, Huub J. M.; Jetten, Mike S. M.; Strous, Marc (April 2006). "A microbial consortium couples anaerobic methane oxidation to denitrification" (PDF). Nature. 440 (7086): 918–921. Bibcode:2006Natur.440..918R. doi:10.1038/nature04617. hdl: 1874/22552 . ISSN   0028-0836. PMID   16612380. S2CID   4413069.
  41. ↑ Besserer, Arnaud; Puech-Pagès, Virginie; Kiefer, Patrick; Gomez-Roldan, Victoria; Jauneau, Alain; Roy, Sébastien; Portais, Jean-Charles; Roux, Christophe; Bécard, Guillaume; Séjalon-Delmas, Nathalie (June 27, 2006). "Strigolactones Stimulate Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi by Activating Mitochondria". PLOS Biology. 4 (7): e226. doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.0040226 . ISSN   1545-7885. PMC   1481526 . PMID   16787107.
  42. ↑ Harrison, Maria J. (December 2012). "Cellular programs for arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis" . Current Opinion in Plant Biology. 15 (6): 691–698. Bibcode:2012COPB...15..691H. doi:10.1016/j.pbi.2012.08.010. ISSN   1369-5266. PMID   23036821.
  43. ↑ Shiu, Patrick; Xiao, Hua (May 28, 2021). "Faculty Opinions recommendation of Lipid exchanges drove the evolution of mutualism during plant terrestrialization". Science. doi: 10.3410/f.740146041.793585932 .
  44. ↑ Leser, Thomas D.; Mølbak, Lars (September 2009). "Better living through microbial action: the benefits of the mammalian gastrointestinal microbiota on the host". Environmental Microbiology. 11 (9): 2194–2206. Bibcode:2009EnvMi..11.2194L. doi:10.1111/j.1462-2920.2009.01941.x. ISSN   1462-2912. PMID   19737302.
  45. ↑ Bogitsh, Burton J.; Carter, Clint E.; Oeltmann, Thomas N. (2013), "Symbiosis and Parasitism", Human Parasitology, Elsevier, pp. 1–13, doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-415915-0.00001-7, ISBN   978-0-12-415915-0, S2CID   88750087
  46. ↑ Canfield, Donald E.; Erik Kristensen; Bo Thamdrup (2005), "Structure and Growth of Microbial Populations", Advances in Marine Biology, Elsevier, pp. 23–64, doi:10.1016/s0065-2881(05)48002-5, ISBN   978-0-12-026147-5
  47. ↑ García, Cristina; Rendueles, Manuel; Díaz, Mario (September 2017). "Synbiotic Fermentation for the Co-Production of Lactic and Lactobionic Acids from Residual Dairy Whey". Biotechnology Progress. 33 (5): 1250–1256. doi:10.1002/btpr.2507. hdl: 10651/46356 . PMID   28556559. S2CID   23694837.
  48. ↑ Krasner, Robert I. (2010). The microbial challenge : science, disease, and public health (2nd ed.). Sudbury, Mass.: Jones and Bartlett Publishers. ISBN   978-0-7637-5689-5. OCLC   317664342.
  49. 1 2 3 Coque, Juan José R.; Álvarez-Pérez, José Manuel; Cobos, Rebeca; González-García, Sandra; Ibáñez, Ana M.; Diez Galán, Alba; Calvo-Peña, Carla (January 1, 2020), Gadd, Geoffrey Michael; Sariaslani, Sima (eds.), "Chapter Four - Advances in the control of phytopathogenic fungi that infect crops through their root system", Advances in Applied Microbiology, vol. 111, Academic Press, pp. 123–170, retrieved April 3, 2025
  50. 1 2 3 Castillo, Julio Cesar; Reynolds, Stuart E.; Eleftherianos, Ioannis (December 1, 2011). "Insect immune responses to nematode parasites" . Trends in Parasitology. 27 (12): 537–547. doi:10.1016/j.pt.2011.09.001. ISSN   1471-4922.
  51. ↑ Newman, David J.; Cragg, Gordon M. (February 7, 2016). "Natural Products as Sources of New Drugs from 1981 to 2014". Journal of Natural Products. 79 (3): 629–661. doi:10.1021/acs.jnatprod.5b01055. ISSN   0163-3864. PMID   26852623.
  52. ↑ Jakubiec-Krzesniak, Katarzyna; Rajnisz-Mateusiak, Aleksandra; Guspiel, Adam; Ziemska, Joanna; Solecka, Jolanta (January 1, 2018). "Secondary Metabolites of Actinomycetes and their Antibacterial, Antifungal and Antiviral Properties". Polish Journal of Microbiology. 67 (3): 259–272. doi:10.21307/pjm-2018-048. ISSN   2544-4646. PMC   7256786 . PMID   30451442.
  53. ↑ Chater, Keith F. (November 30, 2016). "Recent advances in understanding Streptomyces". F1000Research. 5: 2795. doi: 10.12688/f1000research.9534.1 . ISSN   2046-1402. PMC   5133688 . PMID   27990276.
  54. ↑ Barka, Essaid Ait; Vatsa, Parul; Sanchez, Lisa; Gaveau-Vaillant, Nathalie; Jacquard, Cedric; Klenk, Hans-Peter; Clément, Christophe; Ouhdouch, Yder; van Wezel, Gilles P. (March 2016). "Taxonomy, Physiology, and Natural Products of Actinobacteria". Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews. 80 (1): 1–43. doi:10.1128/mmbr.00019-15. ISSN   1092-2172. PMC   4711186 . PMID   26609051.
  55. ↑ Wu, Zhengchao; Li, Sumei; Li, Jie; Chen, Yuchan; Saurav, Kumar; Zhang, Qingbo; Zhang, Haibo; Zhang, Wenjun; Zhang, Weimin; Zhang, Si; Zhang, Changsheng (June 14, 2013). "Antibacterial and Cytotoxic New Napyradiomycins from the Marine-Derived Streptomyces sp. SCSIO 10428". Marine Drugs. 11 (6): 2113–2125. doi: 10.3390/md11062113 . ISSN   1660-3397.
  56. ↑ Igarashi, Yasuhiro; Iida, Takako; Oku, Naoya; Watanabe, Hiroyuki; Furihata, Kazuo; Miyanouchi, Koji (April 25, 2012). "Nomimicin, a new spirotetronate-class polyketide from an actinomycete of the genus Actinomadura". The Journal of Antibiotics. 65 (7): 355–359. doi:10.1038/ja.2012.30. ISSN   0021-8820. PMID   22534651.
  57. ↑ Qin, Zhiwei; Munnoch, John T.; Devine, Rebecca; Holmes, Neil A.; Seipke, Ryan F.; Wilkinson, Karl A.; Wilkinson, Barrie; Hutchings, Matthew I. (2017). "Formicamycins, antibacterial polyketides produced by Streptomyces formicae isolated from African Tetraponera plant-ants". Chemical Science. 8 (4): 3218–3227. doi:10.1039/c6sc04265a. ISSN   2041-6520. PMC   5414599 . PMID   28507698.
  58. ↑ Lacret, Rodney; Oves-Costales, Daniel; Gómez, Cristina; Díaz, Caridad; De la Cruz, Mercedes; Pérez-Victoria, Ignacio; Vicente, Francisca; Genilloud, Olga; Reyes, Fernando (December 29, 2014). "New Ikarugamycin Derivatives with Antifungal and Antibacterial Properties from Streptomyces zhaozhouensis". Marine Drugs. 13 (1): 128–140. doi: 10.3390/md13010128 . ISSN   1660-3397. PMC   4306928 . PMID   25551780.
  59. ↑ "The bacteria-fighting super element making a return to hospitals: Copper". Washington Post. Retrieved September 18, 2016.
  60. 1 2 Evans, Andris; Kavanagh, Kevin A. (May 7, 2021). "Evaluation of metal-based antimicrobial compounds for the treatment of bacterial pathogens". Journal of Medical Microbiology. 70 (5): 001363. doi:10.1099/jmm.0.001363. ISSN   0022-2615. PMC   8289199 . PMID   33961541.
  61. ↑ "Silver nanoparticles kill germs, raise health concerns". Archived from the original on February 22, 2014. Retrieved September 18, 2016.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.