Social ecology (academic field)

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Social ecology studies relationships between people and their environment, often the interdependence of people, collectives and institutions. It is the concept of how people interact with their surroundings, how they respond to it, and how these interactions impact society and the environment at large. [1] Evolving out of biological ecology, human ecology, systems theory and ecological psychology, social ecology takes a “broad, interdisciplinary perspective that gives greater attention to the social, psychological, institutional, and cultural contexts of people-environment relations than did earlier versions of human ecology.” [2] The concept has been employed to study a diverse array of social problems and policies within the behavioural and social sciences. [3]

Contents

Social ecologists examine the larger picture of our "system" by examining how individuals, collectives, and institutions interact and depend on one another. This perspective enables a more efficient method of addressing the collective issues facing society [4] [5]

Conceptual orientation

As described by Stokols, [6] the core principles of social ecology include:

Philosophy and ethics

American environmental activist Murray Bookchin introduced the idea of social ecology. [8] He makes the case that environmentalists should be less concerned with addressing the idea that humans can and should manage nature, and more with focusing on the specific symptoms of a problem [8] [9] Social ecology was built on top of this philosophy. According to Bookchin, society's divisions are detrimental to it as a whole. Human-made hierarchies are the root cause of all social and environmental problems and dysfunctions in human society. [10] Bookchin thought that society and life should be viewed as an ecosystem, where all the components are equally vital to a stable, healthy, and sustainable environment, as opposed to a hierarchy [11]

Murray Bookchin contends that rather than existing outside of nature, humans is a part of it. Bookchin distinguished between two types of nature: the first, or biotic, and the second, or human. [12] For Bookchin, nature in its whole is an ever-evolving evolutionary process rather than a static condition like a breathtaking panorama. [13] Not only the human organism but also human civilization is the product of this continuous evolutionary endeavor. [14] It is not the intention of human reason or social structure to be freak mutations apart from the rest of nature. Rather, they are designed to interact with nature and advance its evolution in ways that other species cannot. [15] Humans can assume their proper place in the ecosystem if the desire for supremacy is subdued. [16] In a nutshell, Bookchin lays out the fundamental political framework that would enable this: a global order devoid of nation states, where political life is centered around towns linked by weak institutions that forbid them from taking advantage of one another. [12] These municipalities would foster a real type of citizenship where the barriers between individual and group interests, as well as between human and ecological interests, would be eliminated. They would also naturally become part of their local ecosystems. [17]

Bookchin's main advantage is that he provides strong arguments for why people should care about ecology in addition to self-preservation. [18] The idea of "biocentrism," which prioritizes the needs of the environment over human needs and views humans as having equal value with non humans, and "anthropocentrism," which places an absolute emphasis on human interests, are two main points of contention in environmental ethics. [19] Biocentrism is predicated on the idea that humans and the rest of nature are identical, whereas anthropocentrism is predicated on the idea that humans are superior to and distinct from nature. [20] According to Bookchin, although being distinct from the rest of nature, people are nevertheless an essential component of it. [20] Thus, in his opinion, neither biocentrism nor anthropocentrism is sufficient. [12] This is particularly fascinating because it eliminates any notions that humans is completely separated from the natural world, allowing humanity to still recognize something unique about itself and find value in civilization and technological advancement. It also instills a sense of duty towards the natural world. [21]

It is thought that if these values are applied to every aspect of society, there will be more equality and cooperation and hierarchies won't determine who wins and who loses. [22] An essential component of a competent social worker's perspective is appreciating the significance of each "piece" to the system as a whole. [23]

Relationship to similar philosophies

Communalism

Social ecology promotes autonomous individual communities built on mutual assistance and cooperation. But Bookchin set himself apart from communalism by stressing decentralization and participatory democracy. [24] This democratic deliberation purposefully promotes autonomy and self-reliance, as opposed to centralized state politics [25]

Marxism

Social class and power dynamics are the main lenses through which social ecology views society. Bookchin, however, took issue with Marxism's primary focus on economic inequality and its disregard for ecological issues. [26]

Environmentalism

Concern for the environment and the necessity of sustainable practices are shared by social ecology and environmentalism. But social ecology goes beyond conventional environmentalism, contending that social problems such as inequality, dominance, and hierarchy cannot be solved in a vacuum when it comes to ecological issues. [27]

Deep ecology

Deep ecology and social ecology promote a biocentric worldview and highlight the inherent value of nature. Bookchin, however, criticizes deep ecology for frequently focusing on individualistic solutions rather than taking into account the social causes of environmental problems. [28]

Anarchism

Anarchism and social ecology are both movements that support individual and collective autonomy while criticizing hierarchical power structures. [29] Bookchin, however, was not in agreement with many anarchists regarding the significance of democratic decision-making and social organization.

Academic programs

Several academic programs combine a broad definition of “environmental studies” with analyses of social processes, biological considerations, and the physical environment. A number of social ecology degree-granting programs and research institutes shape the global evolution of the social ecological paradigm. For example, see:

Most of the 120 listed programs at the link below are in human ecology, but many overlap with social ecology:

See also

Related Research Articles

Green anarchism, also known as ecological anarchism or eco-anarchism, is an anarchist school of thought that focuses on ecology and environmental issues. It is an anti-capitalist and anti-authoritarian form of radical environmentalism, which emphasises social organization, freedom and self-fulfillment.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nature conservation</span> Movement to protect the biosphere

Nature conservation is the moral philosophy and conservation movement focused on protecting species from extinction, maintaining and restoring habitats, enhancing ecosystem services, and protecting biological diversity. A range of values underlie conservation, which can be guided by biocentrism, anthropocentrism, ecocentrism, and sentientism, environmental ideologies that inform ecocultural practices and identities. There has recently been a movement towards evidence-based conservation which calls for greater use of scientific evidence to improve the effectiveness of conservation efforts. As of 2018 15% of land and 7.3% of the oceans were protected. Many environmentalists set a target of protecting 30% of land and marine territory by 2030. In 2021, 16.64% of land and 7.9% of the oceans were protected. The 2022 IPCC report on climate impacts and adaptation, underlines the need to conserve 30% to 50% of the Earth's land, freshwater and ocean areas – echoing the 30% goal of the U.N.'s Convention on Biodiversity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Murray Bookchin</span> American social theorist (1921–2006)

Murray Bookchin was an American social theorist, author, orator, historian, and political philosopher. Influenced by G. W. F. Hegel, Karl Marx, and Peter Kropotkin, he was a pioneer in the environmental movement. Bookchin formulated and developed the theory of social ecology and urban planning within anarchist, libertarian socialist, and ecological thought. He was the author of two dozen books covering topics in politics, philosophy, history, urban affairs, and social ecology. Among the most important were Our Synthetic Environment (1962), Post-Scarcity Anarchism (1971), The Ecology of Freedom (1982), and Urbanization Without Cities (1987). In the late 1990s, he became disenchanted with what he saw as an increasingly apolitical "lifestylism" of the contemporary anarchist movement, stopped referring to himself as an anarchist, and founded his own libertarian socialist ideology called "communalism", which seeks to reconcile and expand Marxist, syndicalist, and anarchist thought.

In environmental philosophy, environmental ethics is an established field of practical philosophy "which reconstructs the essential types of argumentation that can be made for protecting natural entities and the sustainable use of natural resources." The main competing paradigms are anthropocentrism, physiocentrism, and theocentrism. Environmental ethics exerts influence on a large range of disciplines including environmental law, environmental sociology, ecotheology, ecological economics, ecology and environmental geography.

Anthropocentrism is the belief that human beings are the central or most important entity on the planet. The term can be used interchangeably with humanocentrism, and some refer to the concept as human supremacy or human exceptionalism. From an anthropocentric perspective, humankind is seen as separate from nature and superior to it, and other entities are viewed as resources for humans to use.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bioregionalism</span> Ecological philosophy

Bioregionalism is a philosophy that suggests that political, cultural, and economic systems are more sustainable and just if they are organized around naturally defined areas called bioregions, similar to ecoregions. Bioregions are defined through physical and environmental features, including watershed boundaries and soil and terrain characteristics. Bioregionalism stresses that the determination of a bioregion is also a cultural phenomenon, and emphasizes local populations, knowledge, and solutions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental resource management</span> Type of resource management

Environmental resource management or environmental management is the management of the interaction and impact of human societies on the environment. It is not, as the phrase might suggest, the management of the environment itself. Environmental resources management aims to ensure that ecosystem services are protected and maintained for future human generations, and also maintain ecosystem integrity through considering ethical, economic, and scientific (ecological) variables. Environmental resource management tries to identify factors between meeting needs and protecting resources. It is thus linked to environmental protection, resource management, sustainability, integrated landscape management, natural resource management, fisheries management, forest management, wildlife management, environmental management systems, and others.

Ecocentrism is a term used by environmental philosophers and ecologists to denote a nature-centered, as opposed to human-centered, system of values. The justification for ecocentrism usually consists in an ontological belief and subsequent ethical claim. The ontological belief denies that there are any existential divisions between human and non-human nature sufficient to claim that humans are either (a) the sole bearers of intrinsic value or (b) possess greater intrinsic value than non-human nature. Thus the subsequent ethical claim is for an equality of intrinsic value across human and non-human nature, or biospherical egalitarianism.

Ecocriticism is the study of literature and ecology from an interdisciplinary point of view, where literature scholars analyze texts that illustrate environmental concerns and examine the various ways literature treats the subject of nature. It was first originated by Joseph Meeker as an idea called "literary ecology" in his The Comedy of Survival: Studies in Literary Ecology (1972).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental philosophy</span> Branch of philosophy

Environmental philosophy is the branch of philosophy that is concerned with the natural environment and humans' place within it. It asks crucial questions about human environmental relations such as "What do we mean when we talk about nature?" "What is the value of the natural, that is non-human environment to us, or in itself?" "How should we respond to environmental challenges such as environmental degradation, pollution and climate change?" "How can we best understand the relationship between the natural world and human technology and development?" and "What is our place in the natural world?" Environmental philosophy includes environmental ethics, environmental aesthetics, ecofeminism, environmental hermeneutics, and environmental theology. Some of the main areas of interest for environmental philosophers are:

Theocentrism is the belief that God is the central aspect to existence, as opposed to anthropocentrism, existentialism and sentientism. In this view, meaning and value of actions done to people or the environment are attributed to God. The tenets of theocentrism, such as humility, respect, moderations, selflessness, and mindfulness, can lend themselves towards a form of environmentalism. In modern theology, theocentrism is often linked with stewardship and environmental ethics or Creation care. It is the belief that human beings should look after the world as guardians and therefore in the way God wants them to. Humans should be considerate to all, from animals to plants to humans themselves. It maintains that human beings are merely here for a short time and should be looking after the world for future generations.

Deep ecology is an environmental philosophy that promotes the inherent worth of all living beings regardless of their instrumental utility to human needs, and argues that modern human societies should be restructured in accordance with such ideas.

Biocentrism, in a political and ecological sense, as well as literally, is an ethical point of view that extends equal inherent value to all living things. It is an understanding of how the earth works, particularly as it relates to its biosphere or biodiversity. It stands in contrast to anthropocentrism, which centers on the value of humans. The related ecocentrism extends inherent value to the whole of nature.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eco-socialism</span> Ideology merging aspects of socialism with green politics, ecology and alter-globalization

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ecofeminism</span> Approach to feminism influenced by ecologist movement

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The Ecology of Freedom: The Emergence and Dissolution of Hierarchy is a 1982 book by the American libertarian socialist and ecologist Murray Bookchin, in which the author describes his concept of social ecology, the idea that human social problems cause ecological problems and can be solved only by reorganizing society along ecological and ethical lines. The book is considered Bookchin's magnum opus, but it has also been criticized as utopian.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Democratic confederalism</span> Political ideology and government structure

Democratic confederalism, also known as Kurdish communalism or Apoism, is a political concept theorized by Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK) leader Abdullah Öcalan about a system of democratic self-organization with the features of a confederation based on the principles of autonomy, direct democracy, political ecology, feminism, multiculturalism, self-defense, self-governance and elements of a cooperative economy. Influenced by social ecology, libertarian municipalism, Middle Eastern history and general state theory, Öcalan presents the concept as a political solution to Kurdish national aspirations, as well as other fundamental problems in countries in the region deeply rooted in class society, and as a route to freedom and democratization for people around the world.

Queer ecology/ Queer ecologies is an endeavor to understand nature, biology, and sexuality in the light of queer theory, rejecting the presumptions that heterosexuality and cisgenderedness constitute any objective standard. It draws from science studies, ecofeminism, environmental justice, and queer geography. These perspectives break apart various "dualisms" that exist within human understandings of nature and culture.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Philosophy of ecology</span> Branch of philosophy

Philosophy of ecology is a concept under the philosophy of science, which is a subfield of philosophy. Its main concerns centre on the practice and application of ecology, its moral issues, and the intersectionality between the position of humans and other entities. This topic also overlaps with metaphysics, ontology, and epistemology, for example, as it attempts to answer metaphysical, epistemic and moral issues surrounding environmental ethics and public policy.

Libertarian municipalism is a political theory that advocates for establishing direct democratic systems within municipalities, such as towns and cities. It envisions these local communities as the foundation for an ecological society, where citizens actively manage social and economic affairs directly rather than relying on representatives. This approach encourages municipalities to join in confederations to collectively address larger regional issues, creating a network of interconnected communities focused on cooperation and mutual aid. Rooted in principles of direct democracy, decentralization, and libertarian communalism, this system is intended to serve as an alternative to centralized nation-states and corporate capitalism.

References

  1. ↑ "Social Ecology: Definition, Examples & Differnece | StudySmarter". StudySmarter UK. Retrieved 2024-02-19.
  2. ↑ Stokols, Daniel. "Establishing and maintaining healthy environments: toward a social ecology of health promotion." American Psychologist 47.1 (1992): 6. Available at: https://webfiles.uci.edu/dstokols/Pubs/Est%20%26%20Maintain%20Hlthy%20Envts.pdf
  3. ↑ Caves, R. W. (2004). Encyclopedia of the City . Routledge. pp.  609. ISBN   9780415252256.
  4. ↑ Skeggs, Beverley; Yuill, Simon (2016-10-02). "The methodology of a multi-model project examining how facebook infrastructures social relations". Information, Communication & Society. 19 (10): 1356–1372. doi:10.1080/1369118X.2015.1091026. ISSN   1369-118X.
  5. ↑ "What is Social Ecology?". CORP-MSW1 (OMSWP). Retrieved 2024-02-19.
  6. ↑ Stokols, Daniel. "Translating social ecological theory into guidelines for community health promotion." American journal of health promotion 10.4 (1996): 282-298. Available at: https://webfiles.uci.edu/dstokols/Pubs/Translating.PDF?uniq=-z4kp10
  7. ↑ Nash, Justin M. "Transdisciplinary training: key components and prerequisites for success." American Journal of Preventive Medicine 35.2 (2008): S133-S140.
  8. 1 2 "What is Social Ecology?". CORP-MSW1 (OMSWP). Retrieved 2024-02-19.
  9. ↑ Andersson, David; Nässén, Jonas (December 2016). "Should environmentalists be concerned about materialism? An analysis of attitudes, behaviours and greenhouse gas emissions". Journal of Environmental Psychology. 48: 1–11. doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2016.08.002.
  10. ↑ Liu, Gengyuan; Yang, Zhifeng; Chen, Bin; Zhang, Lixiao (March 2013). "Modelling a thermodynamic-based comparative framework for urban sustainability: Incorporating economic and ecological losses into emergy analysis". Ecological Modelling. 252: 280–287. doi:10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2013.02.002. ISSN   0304-3800.
  11. ↑ Lushombo, Leocadie; Philosophy Documentation Center (2021). "Sustainable Abundance for All: Catholic Social Thought and Action in a Risky Runaway World". Journal of the Society of Christian Ethics. 41 (1): 197–198. doi:10.5840/jsce202141114. ISSN   1540-7942. S2CID   238790978.
  12. 1 2 3 Sullivan, James (2020-10-26). "Domination and Utopianism in Bookchin's "What is Social Ecology?"". Medium. Retrieved 2024-02-19.
  13. ↑ Blackman, Andrew (2011-09-27). ""Social Ecology and Communalism" by Murray Bookchin". Andrew Blackman. Retrieved 2024-02-19.
  14. ↑ Sullivan, James (2020-10-26). "Domination and Utopianism in Bookchin's "What is Social Ecology?"". Medium. Retrieved 2024-02-19.
  15. ↑ Forsyth, Scott Brodie (2024-01-25). "Murray Bookchin's Social Ecology". Medium. Retrieved 2024-02-19.
  16. ↑ Public Opinion. Public Opinion Company. 1889.
  17. ↑ Sullivan, James (2020-10-26). "Domination and Utopianism in Bookchin's "What is Social Ecology?"". Medium. Retrieved 2024-02-19.
  18. ↑ Sullivan, James (2020-10-26). "Domination and Utopianism in Bookchin's "What is Social Ecology?"". Medium. Retrieved 2024-02-19.
  19. ↑ Svoboda (2011). "Why there is no Evidence for the Intrinsic Value of Non-Humans". Ethics and the Environment. 16 (2): 25. doi:10.2979/ethicsenviro.16.2.25. S2CID   41105512.
  20. 1 2 "What is Social Ecology?". CORP-MSW1 (OMSWP). Retrieved 2024-02-19.
  21. ↑ Sullivan, James (2020-10-26). "Domination and Utopianism in Bookchin's "What is Social Ecology?"". Medium. Retrieved 2024-02-19.
  22. ↑ "What is Social Ecology?". CORP-MSW1 (OMSWP). Retrieved 2024-02-19.
  23. ↑ Deichman, Elizabeth Squire (1981-08-19). "The Whole of Each Piece and the Piece as a Whole". Activities, Adaptation & Aging. 1 (2): 3–6. doi:10.1300/J016v01n02_02. ISSN   0192-4788.
  24. ↑ Venturin, Federico (2019). Social Ecology and the Right to the City (1st ed.). Black Rose Books. ISBN   9781551646817.
  25. ↑ "Murray Bookchin", Wikipedia, 2024-02-08, retrieved 2024-02-19
  26. ↑ Zelezny, Lynnette C.; Schultz, P. Wesley (January 2000). "Psychology of Promoting Environmentalism: Promoting Environmentalism". Journal of Social Issues. 56 (3): 365–371. doi:10.1111/0022-4537.00172. ISSN   0022-4537.
  27. ↑ Gare, Arran. "Environmental Destruction and the Metaphysics of Sustainability". Nihilism Inc.
  28. ↑ Humphrey, Mathew (June 2000). "'Nature' in deep ecology and social ecology: Contesting the core". Journal of Political Ideologies. 5 (2): 247–268. doi:10.1080/713682940. ISSN   1356-9317. S2CID   143892848.
  29. ↑ Tartakowsky, Danielle; Tarrow, Sidney (April 1997). "Power in Movement: Social Movements, Collective Action and Politics". Le Mouvement Social (179): 123. doi:10.2307/3778937. JSTOR   3778937.
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