Agroecology

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Agroecology is an academic discipline that studies ecological processes applied to agricultural production systems. Bringing ecological principles to bear can suggest new management approaches in agroecosystems. The term can refer to a science, a movement, or an agricultural practice. [1] Agroecologists study a variety of agroecosystems. The field of agroecology is not associated with any one particular method of farming, whether it be organic, regenerative, integrated, or industrial, intensive or extensive, although some use the name specifically for alternative agriculture.

Contents

Definition

Agroecology is defined by the OECD as "the study of the relation of agricultural crops and environment." [2] Dalgaard et al. refer to agroecology as the study of the interactions between plants, animals, humans and the environment within agricultural systems. [3] Francis et al. also use the definition in the same way, but thought it should be restricted to growing food. [4]

Agroecology is a holistic approach that seeks to reconcile agriculture and local communities with natural processes for the common benefit of nature and livelihoods. [5]

Agroecology is inherently multidisciplinary, including sciences such as agronomy, ecology, environmental science, sociology, economics, history and others. [3] Agroecology uses different sciences to understand elements of ecosystems such as soil properties and plant-insect interactions, as well as using social sciences to understand the effects of farming practices on rural communities, economic constraints to developing new production methods, or cultural factors determining farming practices.[ citation needed ] The system properties of agroecosystems studied may include: productivity, stability, sustainability and equitability. [6] Agroecology is not limited to any one scale; it can range from an individual gene to an entire population, or from a single field in a given farm to global systems. [3]

Wojtkowski differentiates the ecology of natural ecosystems from agroecology inasmuch as in natural ecosystems there is no role for economics, whereas in agroecology, focusing as it does on organisms within planned and managed environments, it is human activities, and hence economics, that are the primary governing forces that ultimately control the field. [7] [8] Wojtkowski discusses the application of agroecology in agriculture, forestry and agroforestry in his 2002 book. [7]

Varieties

Buttel identifies four varieties of agroecology in a 2003 conference paper. The main varieties he calls ecosystem agroecology which he claims derives from the ecosystem ecology of Howard T. Odum and focuses less on the rural sociology, and agronomic agroecology which he identifies as being oriented towards developing knowledge and practices to agriculture more sustainable. The third long-standing variety Buttel calls ecological political economy which he defines as critiquing the politics and economy of agriculture and weighted to radical politics. The smallest and newest variety Buttel coins agro-population ecology, which he says is very similar to the first, but is derived from the science of ecology primarily based on the more modern theories of population ecology such as population dynamics of constituent species, and their relationships to climate and biogeochemistry, and the role of genetics. [9]

Dalgaard et al. identify different points of view: what they call early "integrative" agroecology, such as the investigations of Henry Gleason or Frederic Clements. The second version they cite Hecht (1995) as coining "hard" agroecology which they identify as more reactive to environmental politics but rooted in measurable units and technology. They themselves name "soft" agroecology which they define as trying to measure agroecology in terms of "soft capital" such as culture or experience. [3]

The term agroecology may used by people for a science, movement or practice. [1] [10] Using the name as a movement became more common in the 1990s, especially in the Americas. [10] [11] [12] Miguel Altieri, whom Buttel groups with the "political" agroecologists, [9] has published prolifically in this sense. [10] He has applied agroecology to sustainable agriculture, [13] alternative agriculture [14] [15] and traditional knowledge. [16]

History

Overview

The history of agroecology depends on whether you are referring to it as a body of thought or a method of practice, as many indigenous cultures around the world historically used and currently use practices we would now consider utilizing knowledge of agroecology. Examples include Maori, Nahuatl, and many other indigenous peoples. [17] The Mexica people that inhabited Tenochtitlan pre-colonization of the Americas used a process called chinampas that in many ways mirrors the use of composting in sustainable agriculture today. [18] The use of agroecological practices such as nutrient cycling and intercropping occurs across hundreds of years and many different cultures. [19] Indigenous peoples also currently make up a large proportion of people using agroecological practices, and those involved in the movement to move more farming into an agroecological paradigm. [20]

Pre-WWII academic thought

According to Gliessman and Francis et al., agronomy and ecology were first linked with the study of crop ecology by Klages in 1928. This work is a study of where crops can best be grown. [4] [21] [22]

Wezel et al. say the first mention of the term agroecology was in 1928, with the publication of the term by Basil Bensin. [10] Dalgaard et al. claim the German zoologist Friederichs was the first to use the name in 1930 in his book on the zoology of agriculture and forestry, [3] [23] followed by American crop physiologist Hansen in 1939, both using the word for the application of ecology within agriculture. [3]

Post-WWII academic thought

Tischler's 1965 book Agrarökologie may be the first to be titled 'agroecology'. He analyzed the different components (plants, animals, soils and climate) and their interactions within an agroecosystem as well as the impact of human agricultural management on these components. [24]

Gliessman describes that post-WWII ecologists gave more focus to experiments in the natural environment, while agronomists dedicated their attention to the cultivated systems in agriculture, but in the 1970s agronomists saw the value of ecology, and ecologists began to use the agricultural systems as study plots, studies in agroecology grew more rapidly. [21] More books and articles using the concept of agroecosystems and the word agroecology started to appear in 1970s. [10] According to Dalgaard et al., it probably was the concept of "process ecology" such as studied by Arthur Tansley in the 1930s which inspired Harper's 1974 concept of agroecosystems, which they consider the foundation of modern agroecology. [3] Dalgaard et al. claim Frederic Clements's investigations on ecology using social sciences, community ecology and a "landscape perspective" is agroecology, as well as Henry Gleason's investigations of the population ecology of plants using different scientific disciplines. [3] Ethnobotanist Efraim Hernandez X.'s work on traditional knowledge in Mexico in the 1970s led to new education programs in agroecology. [4]

Works such as Silent Spring and The Limits to Growth caused the public to be aware of the environmental costs of agricultural production, which caused more research in sustainability starting in the 1980s. [3] The view that the socio-economic context are fundamental was used in the 1982 article Agroecologia del Tropico Americano by Montaldo, who argues that this context cannot be separated from agriculture when designing agricultural practices. [4] In 1985 Miguel Altieri studied how the consolidation of the farms and cropping systems impact pest populations, and Gliessman how socio-economic, technological, and ecological components gave rise to producer choices of food production systems. [4]

In 1995, Edens et al. in Sustainable Agriculture and Integrated Farming Systems considered the economics of systems, ecological impacts, and ethics and values in agriculture. [4]

Social movements

Several social movements have adopted agroecology as part of their larger organizing strategy. Groups like La Via Campesina have used agroecology as a method for achieving food sovereignty. [25] Agroecology has also been utilized by farmers to resist global agricultural development patterns associated with the green revolution. [25]

By region

Latin America

This section is an excerpt from Agroecology in Latin America.[ edit ]

Agroecology is an applied science that involves the adaptation of ecological concepts to the structure, performance, and management of sustainable agroecosystems. [26] In Latin America, agroecological practices have a long history and vary between regions but share three main approaches or levels: plot scale, farm scale, and food system scale. [27] Agroecology in Latin American countries can be used as a tool for providing both ecological, economic, and social benefits to the communities that practice it, [28] as well as maintaining high biodiversity and providing refuges for flora and fauna in these countries. [29] Due to its broad scope and versatility, it is often referred to as "a science, a movement, a practice." [27]

Overlooking a large shade cacao plantation where the Ixcacao Mayan Belizean Chocolate company grows and produces chocolate using Mayan techniques. Shade Cacao Plantation, Ixcacao Mayan Chocolate, Belize.JPG
Overlooking a large shade cacao plantation where the Ixcacao Mayan Belizean Chocolate company grows and produces chocolate using Mayan techniques.

Africa

Garí wrote two papers for the FAO in the early 2000s about using an agroecological approach which he called "agrobiodiversity" to empower farmers to cope with the impacts of the AIDS on rural areas in Africa. [30] [31]

In 2011, the first encounter of agroecology trainers took place in Zimbabwe and issued the Shashe Declaration.

Europe

The European Commission supports the use of sustainable practices, such as precision agriculture, organic farming, agroecology, agroforestry and stricter animal welfare standards through the Green Deal and the Farm to Fork Strategy. [32]

Debate

Within academic research areas that focus on topics related to agriculture or ecology, such as agronomy, veterinarian science, environmental science, and others, there is much debate regarding what model of agriculture or agroecology should be supported through policy. Agricultural departments of different countries support agroecology to varying degrees, with the UN perhaps its biggest proponent.

See also

Related Research Articles

Agricultural science is a broad multidisciplinary field of biology that encompasses the parts of exact, natural, economic and social sciences that are used in the practice and understanding of agriculture. Professionals of the agricultural science are called agricultural scientists or agriculturists.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Monoculture</span> Farms producing only one crop at a time

In agriculture, monoculture is the practice of growing one crop species in a field at a time. Monocultures increase ease and efficiency in planting, managing, and harvesting crops short-term, often with the help of machinery. However, monocultures are more susceptible to diseases or pest outbreaks long-term due to localized reductions in biodiversity and nutrient depletion. Crop diversity can be added both in time, as with a crop rotation or sequence, or in space, with a polyculture or intercropping.

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to agriculture:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Permaculture</span> Approach to agriculture and land management

Permaculture is an approach to land management and settlement design that adopts arrangements observed in flourishing natural ecosystems. It includes a set of design principles derived using whole-systems thinking. It applies these principles in fields such as regenerative agriculture, town planning, rewilding, and community resilience. The term was coined in 1978 by Bill Mollison and David Holmgren, who formulated the concept in opposition to modern industrialized methods, instead adopting a more traditional or "natural" approach to agriculture.

Agronomy is the science and technology of producing and using plants by agriculture for food, fuel, fiber, chemicals, recreation, or land conservation. Agronomy has come to include research of plant genetics, plant physiology, meteorology, and soil science. It is the application of a combination of sciences such as biology, chemistry, economics, ecology, earth science, and genetics. Professionals of agronomy are termed agronomists.

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to sustainable agriculture:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sustainable agriculture</span> Farming approach that balances environmental, economic and social factors in the long term

Sustainable agriculture is farming in sustainable ways meeting society's present food and textile needs, without compromising the ability for current or future generations to meet their needs. It can be based on an understanding of ecosystem services. There are many methods to increase the sustainability of agriculture. When developing agriculture within sustainable food systems, it is important to develop flexible business processes and farming practices. Agriculture has an enormous environmental footprint, playing a significant role in causing climate change, water scarcity, water pollution, land degradation, deforestation and other processes; it is simultaneously causing environmental changes and being impacted by these changes. Sustainable agriculture consists of environment friendly methods of farming that allow the production of crops or livestock without causing damage to human or natural systems. It involves preventing adverse effects on soil, water, biodiversity, and surrounding or downstream resources, as well as to those working or living on the farm or in neighboring areas. Elements of sustainable agriculture can include permaculture, agroforestry, mixed farming, multiple cropping, and crop rotation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Agroecosystem</span>

Agroecosystems are the ecosystems supporting the food production systems in farms and gardens. As the name implies, at the core of an agroecosystem lies the human activity of agriculture. As such they are the basic unit of study in Agroecology, and Regenerative Agriculture using ecological approaches.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Polyculture</span> Growing multiple crops together in agriculture

In agriculture, polyculture is the practice of growing more than one crop species together in the same place at the same time, in contrast to monoculture, which had become the dominant approach in developed countries by 1950. Traditional examples include the intercropping of the Three Sisters, namely maize, beans, and squashes, by indigenous peoples of Central and North America, the rice-fish systems of Asia, and the complex mixed cropping systems of Nigeria.

Wild farming is a growing alternative to "factory farming" that consists of planting crops that are highly associated and supportive to the natural ecosystem. This includes intercropping with native plants, following the contours and geography of the land, and supporting local food chains. The goal is to produce large crop yields, while still promoting a healthy environment. Wild farming is a backlash against the dominance of factory farming which is a dominant factor in the food industry and has a 'myth' that industrial agriculture is more efficient. Up until the mid 20th century, agricultural crop yields relied on natural inputs such as rainfall patterns, natural soil resources, recycling of organic matter, and built-in biological control mechanisms. Currently, agricultural practices have been conventionalized to include large monocropped fields and the use of synthetic pesticides and fertilizers. Avoiding the conventional farming practices, wild farming adopts many practices from sustainable agricultural systems such as agroecology, permaculture, forest farming, and greywater systems.

Agroecosystem analysis is a thorough analysis of an agricultural environment which considers aspects from ecology, sociology, economics, and politics with equal weight. There are many aspects to consider; however, it is literally impossible to account for all of them. This is one of the issues when trying to conduct an analysis of an agricultural environment.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Agroecology in Latin America</span> Agroecological practices in Latin America

Agroecology is an applied science that involves the adaptation of ecological concepts to the structure, performance, and management of sustainable agroecosystems. In Latin America, agroecological practices have a long history and vary between regions but share three main approaches or levels: plot scale, farm scale, and food system scale. Agroecology in Latin American countries can be used as a tool for providing both ecological, economic, and social benefits to the communities that practice it, as well as maintaining high biodiversity and providing refuges for flora and fauna in these countries. Due to its broad scope and versatility, it is often referred to as "a science, a movement, a practice."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biodiversity in agriculture</span> Increasing biodiversity in agriculture

Biodiversity in agriculture is the measure of biodiversity found on agricultural land. Biodiversity is the total diversity of species present in an area at all levels of biological organization. It is characterized by heterogeneous habitats that support the diverse ecological structure. In agricultural areas, biodiversity decreases as varying landscapes are lost and native plants are replaced with cultivated crops. Increasing biodiversity in agriculture can increase the sustainability of farms through the restoration of ecosystem services that aid in regulating agricultural lands. Biodiversity in agriculture can be increased through the process of agroecological restoration, as farm biodiversity is an aspect of agroecology.

Miguel Altieri is a Chilean born agronomist and entomologist. He is a Professor of Agroecology at the University of California, Berkeley in the Department of Environmental Science, Policy and Management.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nutrient cycle</span> Set of processes exchanging nutrients between parts of a system

A nutrient cycle is the movement and exchange of inorganic and organic matter back into the production of matter. Energy flow is a unidirectional and noncyclic pathway, whereas the movement of mineral nutrients is cyclic. Mineral cycles include the carbon cycle, sulfur cycle, nitrogen cycle, water cycle, phosphorus cycle, oxygen cycle, among others that continually recycle along with other mineral nutrients into productive ecological nutrition.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Regenerative agriculture</span> Conservation and rehabilitation approach to food and farming systems

Regenerative agriculture is a conservation and rehabilitation approach to food and farming systems. It focuses on topsoil regeneration, increasing biodiversity, improving the water cycle, enhancing ecosystem services, supporting biosequestration, increasing resilience to climate change, and strengthening the health and vitality of farm soil.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ivette Perfecto</span> Puerto Rican ecologist

Ivette Perfecto is an ecologist and professor at the University of Michigan. Her work focuses on complex ecosystem dynamics and the application of ecological theories to agricultural systems.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">P. K. Ramachandran Nair</span>

P. K. Ramachandran Nair is an Indian American agricultural scientist, Distinguished Professor of Agroforestry and International Forestry at the School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences (SFFGS), Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (IFAS), University of Florida. He is known for his pioneering contributions to the science of agroforestry, for which he received global recognition including the Humboldt Prize (2006). The specific areas of his research include agroforestry in the tropics and subtropics, integrated farming systems, soil carbon sequestration and climate change mitigation, ecosystem services, and soil fertility management. He has written over 200 peer-reviewed articles, 17 books and over 80 book chapters.

A number of movements seek to expand the practice of agroecology in West Africa. Agroecology is a scientific discipline, movement and practice that integrates ecology in agriculture with strong emphasis on diversification, food sovereignty, energy efficiency and sustainability. Agroecological practices apply the systems and knowledge that traditional farmers in the region have developed and inherited. The agroecological social movement empowers smallholder farmers that hold the knowledge of indigenous farming systems, however are recently engulfed by larger farms or are migrating to urban areas, looking for better paying jobs.

The International Panel of Experts on Sustainable Food Systems (IPES-Food) is an international non-profit association, with the goal to promote transition to sustainable food systems around the world and it was registered in Belgium in the year 2015. It was founded by Daniel et Nina Carasso, Olivier De Schutter, former UN special rapporteur on the right to food, and Emile Frison, former Director General of Bioversity International to inform debates on food system reforms around the world. It conducts research focused in the domains of political economy, nutrition, climate change, ecology, agronomy, agroecology, and economics, as well as direct involvement in political processes.

References

  1. 1 2 Wezel, A., Bellon, S., Doré, T., Francis, C., Vallod, D., David, C. (2009). Agroecology as a science, a movement or a practice Archived 2019-10-30 at the Wayback Machine . A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development
  2. ↑ "Agro-ecology". Glossary of Statistical Terms. OECD. February 22, 2003.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Dalgaard, Tommy, and Nicholas Hutchings, John Porter. "Agroecology, Scaling and Interdisciplinarity." Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment 100(2003): 39-51.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Francis; et al. (2003). "Agroecology: the ecology of food systems". Journal of Sustainable Agriculture. 22 (3): 99–118. Bibcode:2003JSusA..22c..99F. doi:10.1300/J064v22n03_10. S2CID   4138242.
  5. ↑ Ewert, Frank; Baatz, Roland; Finger, Robert (5 October 2023). "Agroecology for a Sustainable Agriculture and Food System: From Local Solutions to Large-Scale Adoption". Annual Review of Resource Economics. 15 (1): 351–381. doi:10.1146/annurev-resource-102422-090105. hdl: 20.500.11850/621594 . ISSN   1941-1340 . Retrieved 5 June 2024.
  6. ↑ Conway, Gordon R. 1985. Agroecosystem analysis. Agricultural Administration, 20, 31-55.
  7. 1 2 Wojtkowski, Paul A. (2002) Agroecological Perspectives in Agronomy, Forestry and Agroforestry. Science Publishers Inc., Enfield, New Hampshire, 356p.
  8. ↑ Wojtkowski, Paul A. (2006) Introduction to Agroecology: Principles and Practices. Haworth Press, Binghamton, NY, 404p.
  9. 1 2 Buttel, Frederick H. (2003). "Envisioning the Future Development of Farming in the USA: Agroecology between Extinction and Multifunctionality?" (PDF). New Directions in Agroecology Research and Education. University of Wisconsin-Madison. pp. 1–14.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 Wezel, A., Soldat, V. (2009). A quantitative and qualitative historical analysis of the scientific discipline agroecology. International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability 7 (1): 3-18. |doi=10.3763/ijas.2009.040
  11. ↑ Wibblemann et al. (2013) Mainstreaming Agroecology: Implications for Global Food and Farming Systems. "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-05-22. Retrieved 2015-05-19.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  12. ↑ Vandermeer, J. 1995. The ecological basis of alternative agriculture. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 26: 201-224
  13. ↑ "Agroecology.org". Archived from the original on April 22, 2006.
  14. ↑ Altieri, M.A. 1987. Agroecology: the scientific basis of alternative agriculture. Boulder: Westview Press
  15. ↑ Altieri, M.A. 1992. Agroecological foundations of alternative agriculture in California. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 39: 23-53
  16. ↑ Miguel Altieri Applying Agroecology to Enhance the Productivity of Peasant Farming Systems in Latin America
  17. ↑ "Indigenous Agroecology". Maramatanga.
  18. ↑ "Chinampa Agricultural System of Mexico City" (PDF). FAO.org. July 7, 2017.
  19. ↑ Garí, Josep (2001). "Biodiversity and Indigenous Agroecology in Amazonia: The Indigenous Peoples of Pastaza". Etnoecologica. 5: 21–37.
  20. ↑ Suárez-Torres, J., Suárez-López, J. R., López-Paredes, D., Morocho, H., Cachiguango-Cachiguango, L. E., & Dellai, W. (2017, June 1). Agroecology and Health: Lessons from Indigenous Populations. Current Environmental Health Reports. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40572-017-0146-z
  21. 1 2 Gliessman, Stephen. R Agroecology: Ecological Processes in Sustainable Agriculture. Ann Arbor: Sleeping Bear Press, 1998.
  22. ↑ Klages, K.H.W. 1928. Crop ecology and ecological crop geography in the agronomic curriculum. J. Amer. Soc. Agron. 20:336-353.
  23. ↑ Friederichs, K. (1930) Die Grundfragen und Gesetzmäßigkeiten der land- und forstwirtschaftlichen Zoologie. Vol. 1: Ökologischer Teil, Vol. 2: Wirtschaftlicher Teil. Verlagsbuchhandlung Paul Parey, Berlin, Germany, 417 and 443 pp.
  24. ↑ Tischler, W. (1965). Agrarökologie. Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena, Germany, 499 pp.
  25. 1 2 Giraldo, Omar Felipe; Rosset, Peter M. (2018-03-19). "Agroecology as a territory in dispute: between institutionality and social movements". The Journal of Peasant Studies. 45 (3): 545–564. doi:10.1080/03066150.2017.1353496. ISSN   0306-6150. S2CID   149061121.
  26. ↑ Altieri, Miguel A., Peter Rosset, and Lori Ann Thrupp. "The Potential of Agroecology to Combat Hunger in the Developing World." A 2020 Vision for Food, Agriculture, and the Environment.(1998). Brief 55. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United States.
  27. 1 2 Wezel, A.; Bellon, S.; Doré, T.; Francis, C.; Vallod, D.; David, C. (2009). "Agroecology as a science, a movement and a practice. A review". Agronomy for Sustainable Development. 29 (4): 503–515. doi:10.1051/agro/2009004. S2CID   22947720.
  28. ↑ Perfecto, Ivette; Rice, Robert A.; Greenberg, Russell; Van Der Voort, Martha E. (1996). "Shade Coffee: A Disappearing Refuge for Biodiversity". BioScience. 46 (8): 598–608. doi: 10.2307/1312989 . JSTOR   1312989.
  29. ↑ Altieri, Miguel A. "Part 1." Agroecological Innovations: Increasing Food Production with Participatory Development. By Norman Thomas. Uphoff. London: Earthscan Publications. (2002): 3-71.
  30. ↑ Garí, Josep A. (2003). Agrobiodiversity strategies to combat food insecurity and HIV/AIDS impact in rural Africa Archived 2019-07-30 at the Wayback Machine . FAO / Population and Development Service, Rome.
  31. ↑ Garí, Josep A. (2004). Plant diversity, sustainable rural livelihoods and the HIV/AIDS crisis. Bangkok: UNDP & FAO, 2004. Published in English and Chinese. ISBN   974-92021-4-7.
  32. ↑ "EUR-Lex - 52019DC0640 - EN - EUR-Lex". eur-lex.europa.eu. Retrieved 2020-06-24.

Further reading

Advances in Agroecology Book Series

Topic

Organisations

Courses

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