Insect farming

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Farming of crickets in Thailand Bolikhamxay Thabok Crickets.JPG
Farming of crickets in Thailand

Insect farming is the practice of raising and breeding insects as livestock, also referred to as minilivestock or micro stock. Insects may be farmed for the commodities they produce (like silk, honey, lac or insect tea), or for them themselves; to be used as food, as feed, as a dye, and otherwise.

Contents

Silkworms

Silkworms, the caterpillars of the domestic silkmoth, are kept to produce silk, an elastic fiber made when they are in the process of creating a cocoon. Silk is commonly regarded as a major cash crop and is used in the crafting of many textiles.

Mealworms

The mealworm (Tenebrio molitor L.) is the larvae form of a species of darkling beetles (Coleoptera). The optimum incubation temperature is 25 ̊C - 27 ̊C and its embryonic development lasts 4 – 6 days. It has a long larval period of about half a year with the optimum temperature and low moisture terminates.[ citation needed ] The protein content of Tenebrio molitor larvae, adult, exuvium and excreta are 46.44, 63.34, 32.87, and 18.51% respectively. [1]

Buffaloworms

Buffaloworms, also called lesser mealworms, is the common name of Alphitobius diaperinus . Its larvae superficially resemble small wireworms or true mealworms (Tenebrio spp.). They are approximately 7 to 11 mm in length at the last instar. Freshly emerged larvae are a milky color. The pale color tinge returns to that of the first/second instar larva when preparing to molt, while a yellowish-brown appearance after molting.[ citation needed ] In addition, it was reported that it has the highest level of iron bioavailability. [2]

Honeybees

Commodities harvested from honeybees include beeswax, bee bread, bee pollen, propolis, royal jelly, brood, and honey. All of the aforementioned are mostly used in food, however, being wax, beeswax has many other uses, such as being used in candles, and propolis may be used as a wood finish. However, the presence of honeybees can negatively affect abundance and diversity of wild bees, with consequences for pollination of crops. [3]

Lac insects

Lac insects secrete a resinous substance called lac. Lac is used in many applications, from its use in food to being used as a colorant or as a wood finish. The majority of lac farming takes place in India and Thailand, with over 2 million residential employees.

Cochineal

Made into a red dye known as carmine, cochineal are incorporated into many products, including cosmetics, food, paint, and fabric. About 100,000 insects are needed to make a single kilogram of dye. The shade of red the dye yields depends on how the insect is processed. France is the world's largest importer of carmine.

Crickets

Cricket Shelter Modular Edible Insect Farm, designed by Terreform ONE Cricket Shelter Modular Edible Insect Farm IMG 20200219 163454590.jpg
Cricket Shelter Modular Edible Insect Farm, designed by Terreform ONE

Among the hundreds of different types of crickets, the house cricket (Acheta domesticus) is the most common type used for human consumption. [4] The cricket is one of the most nutritious edible insects, and in many parts of the world, crickets are consumed dry-roasted, baked, deep-fried, and boiled. Cricket consumption may take the form of cricket flour, a powder of dried and ground crickets, which is easily integrated into many food recipes. Crickets are commonly farmed for non-human animal food, as they provide much nutrition to the many species of reptiles, fish, birds and other mammals that consume them. Crickets are normally killed by deep freezing.

Waxworms

Waxworms are the larvae of wax moths. These caterpillars are used widely across the world for food, fish bait, animal testing and plastic degradation. Low in protein but high in fat content, they are a valuable source of fat for many insectivorous organisms. Waxworms are popular in many parts of the world, due to their ability to live in low temperatures and their simplicity in production. [5]

Cockroaches

Cockroaches are farmed by the million in China, where they are used in traditional medicine and in cosmetics. The main species farmed is the American cockroach (Periplaneta americana). The cockroaches are reared on food such as potato and pumpkin peeling waste from restaurants, then scooped or vacuumed from their nests, killed in boiling water and dried in the sun. [6]

As feed and food

Insects show promise as animal feed. For instance, fly larvae can replace fish meal due to the similar amino acid composition. It is possible to formulate fish meal to increase unsaturated fatty acid. [7] Wild birds and free-range poultry can consume insects in the adult, larval and pupal forms naturally. [8] Grasshoppers and moths, as well as houseflies, have been used as feed supplements for poultry. [9] Apart from that, insects have potential as feed for reptiles, fish, mammals, as well as birds. [10]

Hundreds of species of crickets, grasshoppers, beetles, moths and various other insects are considered edible. Selected species are farmed for human consumption. [4] Humans have been eating insects for as long as (according to some sources) 30,000 years. [11] Although the insect farming industry offers environmental benefits if positioned as an alternative to meat, there is currently little focus on this market. [12] Insects bred in captivity offer a low space-intensive, [13] highly feed-efficient, [4] relatively pollution-free, [14] high-protein source of food for both humans and non-human animals. Insects have a high nutritional value, dense protein content and micronutrient and probiotic potential. Insects such as crickets and mealworms have high concentrations of complete protein, vitamin B12, riboflavin and vitamin A. [4] Insects offer an economical solution to increasingly pressing food security and environmental issues concerning the production and distribution of protein to feed a growing world population [4] , although a number of recent industrial failures call these advantages into question. [15] [16] [17]

The supposed environmental benefits of insects farming rely on the assumption that it replaces traditional animal farming, which is more polluting. But part of the production is used to feed livestock instead of humans. Additionally, insects that are intensively farmed are usually fed with cereals and soya that could feed humans. According to Time , "Black soldier flies and Argentinian cockroaches are among the most efficient insect species, with food conversion ratios of between 1.4 and 2.7 to one, which means that even they eat more food than they produce", implying that "it's far better to use croplands to feed people directly than to feed farmed insects." [18]

Benefits

Purported benefits of the use of insects as food include:

Reduced feed

Cattle use 12 times the amount of feed that crickets do to produce an equal amount of protein. [4] Crickets also only use a quarter of the feed of sheep and one-half the amount of feed given to swine and chicken to produce an equivalent amount of protein. [4] Crickets require only two pounds of feed to produce one pound of the finished product. [4] Much of this efficiency is a result of crickets being ectothermic, as in they get their heat from the environment instead of having to expend energy to create their own body heat as typical mammals do.

Nutrient efficiency

Insects are nutrient-efficient compared to other meat sources. The insect protein content is comparable to most meat products. Likewise, the fatty acid composition of edible insects is comparable to fish lipids, with high levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). In addition, all parts of edible insect are efficiently used whereas some parts of conventional livestock are not directly available for human consumption. [7] The nutritional contents of insects vary with species as well as within species, depending on their metamorphic stage, habitat, and diet. For instance, the lipid composition of insects is largely dependent on their diet and metamorphic stage. Insects are abundant in other nutrients. Locusts, for example, contain between 8 and 20 mg of iron in every 100 grams of raw locust. Beef, on the other hand, contains roughly 6 mg of iron in the same amount of meat. Crickets are also very nutrient-efficient. For every 100 grams of substance, crickets contain 12.9 grams of protein, 121 calories, and 5.5 grams of fat. Beef contains more protein, with 23.5 grams in 100 grams of substance, but also has roughly three times the calories and four times the amount of fat as crickets do in 100 grams. Therefore, per 100 grams of substance, crickets contain only half the nutrients of beef, except for iron. High levels of iron are implicated in bowel cancer [22] and heart disease. [23] When considering the protein transition, cold-blooded insects can convert food more efficiently: crickets only need 2.1 kg feed for 1 kg 'meat', while poultry and cows need more than 2 times and 12 times of the feed, respectively. [24]

Greenhouse gas emissions

The raising of livestock is responsible for 18% of all greenhouse gases emitted. [4] Alternative sources of protein, such as insects, replace protein sourced from livestock and help decrease the number of greenhouse gases emitted from food production. Insects produce less carbon dioxide, ammonia and methane than livestock such as pigs and cattle, with no farmed insect species besides cockroaches releasing methane at all. [14]

Land usage

Livestock raising accounts for 70% of agricultural land use. [13] This results in a land-cover change that destroys local ecosystems and displaces people and wildlife. Insect farming is minimally space-intensive compared to other conventional livestock, and can even take place in populated urban centers. [13]

Challenges

Environmental issues

Insect production presents several unresolved environmental challenges. For instance, insect farms require consistent heating to maintain temperatures of around 25-30°C, leading to significant energy consumption in Western countries. [25]

Moreover, insects emit 5 to 13 times more greenhouse gases than soybean meal, even when fed organic waste. [26] Recent studies have also indicated that the water usage for insect farming is higher per kilogram than that of pork, chicken, or beef, complicating the environmental benefits of this sector. [27]

Additionally, many insect farms use high-quality agricultural by-products for feed, which puts them in competition with food sources for both humans and animals, potentially negating the positive environmental impact. [28]

Finally, the use of insect-derived fertilizers and the risks associated with insects escaping into the wild [29] remain sources of environmental concern. [30]

Competitiveness issues

The insect-based protein industry has struggled to demonstrate positive economic outcomes . The sector remains heavily reliant on public funding, with several commercial failures highlighting these challenges. [31] For example, the Canadian company Aspire Food Group, which received over $35 million in public support, laid off 66% of its workforce in November 2024. [32] Similarly, the French company Ynsect, despite securing €600 million in investment (half of which came from public funds), whas been in judicial liquidation since December 2025. [33]

Additionally, the cost of insect-based feed remains significantly higher than traditional alternatives, with prices estimated to be 2 to 10 times more expensive than conventional feeds like fish meal or soybean meal. [34]

This economic vulnerability is further exacerbated in Europe, where the colder climate and higher labor costs reduce competitiveness compared to tropical regions like Southeast Asia, where insect farming benefits from more favorable temperatures (25-30°C) for insect growth. [35]

Acceptability issue

Difficulties in terms of consumer acceptability are also to be reported. A comprehensive review of 91 studies by Onwezen et al. found that insect-based proteins ranked lowest in acceptance among meat substitutes, below cultured meat, while plant-based options achieved the highest acceptance rates, reaching up to 91%. [36]

Insect welfare

There is uncertainty on whether insects are sentient and have the ability to feel pain. [37]

One question is whether insects have the ability to sense noxious stimuli, known as nociception. According to Lars Chittka, "almost every time scientists search for insect nociception, they find it." Insects shown to have nociception include flies, bees and beetles. [37]

Another question is whether these noxious stimuli can lead to a subjective experience of pain, notably when processed inside a brain. Scientists often look for behavioral cues, such as how animals react when injured. [38] [39] Research on insect sentience is relatively overlooked. Additionally, the findings may not generalize well, as some types of insects are more likely to exhibit sentience, or to a greater degree, than others. [37]

According to Jonathan Birch, "If we're going to farm animals that are candidates for sentience, then there should be welfare standards". Professor Bob Fischer also argued that "If there are welfare concerns, you've got to intervene at the planning stages, when those facilities are being designed and constructed". [37]

Relevant environmental factors include "temperature, moisture levels, lighting, how crowded the insects are, and what they eat." [37]

Processing methods

With the concern for pain tolerance in animal health and welfare, processing the insects can be mainly concluded as: harvesting and cleaning, inactivation, heating and drying, depending on the final product and rearing methods. [40] [7]

Harvesting and cleaning

Insects at different life stages can be collected by sieving followed by water cleaning when it is necessary to remove biomass or excretion. Before processing, the insects are sieved and stored alive at 4 °C for about one day without any feed. [41]

Inactivation

An inactivation step is needed to inactive any enzymes and microbes on the insects. The enzymatic browning reaction (mainly phenolase or phenol oxidase [42] ) can cause the brown or black color on the insect, which leads to discoloration and an off-flavor.

Heat-treatment

Sufficient heat treatment is required to kill enterobacteriaceae so that the product can meet safety requirements. D-value and Z-value can be used to estimate the effectiveness of heat treatments. The temperature and duration of the heating will cause insect proteins' denaturation and changes the functional properties of proteins.

Drying

To prevent spoilage, the products are dried to lower moisture content and prolong shelf life. Longer drying time results from a low evaporation rate due to the chitin layer, which can prevent the insect from dehydrating during their lifetime. So the product being in granule form gives the advantage of further drying. In general, insects have a moisture level in the range of 55-65%. A drying process decreasing the moisture content to a level of <10% is good for preservation.

Besides the moisture level, oxidation of lipids can cause high levels of unsaturated fatty acids. Hence the processing steps influencing the final fat stability in products are necessary to be considered during drying.

Regulations in Europe

The use of insect meal as feed and food is limited by legislation. Insects can be used in novel food according to the European Union guidelines for market authorization of products. [43] The European Union Commission accepted the use of insects for fish feed in July 2017. [44] However, the power to promote the scale-up of insect production becomes difficult when few participate in this market to change the rules. In Europe, safety documents for certain insects and accompanying products are required by the European Union (EFSA) and NVWA. [45]

Footnotes

  1. ↑ Ravzanaadii, Nergui; Kim, Seong-Hyun; Choi, Won-Ho; Hong, Seong-Jin; Kim, Nam-Jung (2012). "Nutritional Value of Mealworm, Tenebrio molitor as Food Source". International Journal of Industrial Entomology. 25: 93–98. doi: 10.7852/ijie.2012.25.1.093 .
  2. ↑ Dobermann, D.; Swift, J. A.; Field, L. M. (2017). "Opportunities and hurdles of edible insects for food and feed". Nutrition Bulletin. 42 (4): 293–308. doi: 10.1111/nbu.12291 .
  3. ↑ Angelella, G. M.; McCullough, C. T.; O'Rourke, M. E. (2021-02-05). "Honey bee hives decrease wild bee abundance, species richness, and fruit count on farms regardless of wildflower strips". Scientific Reports. 11 (1): 3202. Bibcode:2021NatSR..11.3202A. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-81967-1. ISSN   2045-2322. PMC   7865060 . PMID   33547371.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Joost, Van Itterbeeck; Harmke, Klunder; Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, (FAO) (2013). Edible insects: future prospects for food and feed security. Food and agriculture organization of the United nations (FAO). ISBN   978-92-5-107596-8. OCLC   893013301.
  5. ↑ Martin, Daniella (2011-07-18). "What Do Bugs Taste Like, Anyway?". Huffington Post. Retrieved 2017-04-17.
  6. ↑ "Cockroach farms multiplying in China". Los Angeles Times. 2013-10-15. Retrieved 2022-06-29.
  7. 1 2 3 "New trends in sustainable and healthy food sources: land shrimps and sea crickets". Archived from the original on 2019-04-15. Retrieved 2019-04-15.
  8. ↑ Sánchez-Muros, M. J. (2014). "Insect meal as renewable source of food for animal feeding: a review". Journal of Cleaner Production. 65 (65): 16–27. Bibcode:2014JCPro..65...16S. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.11.068.
  9. ↑ Rumpold, B. A. (2013). "Potential and challenges of insects as an innovative source for food and feed production". Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies. 17 (17): 1–11. doi:10.1016/j.ifset.2012.11.005.
  10. ↑ "insect product". New Generation Nutrition.
  11. ↑ Encyclopedia of entomology. Springer. 2006-01-01. ISBN   978-0-7923-8670-4. OCLC   964770230.
  12. ↑ Biteau, Corentin; Bry-Chevalier, Tom; Crummett, Dustin; Ryba, Ren; Jules, Michael St (2025-06-23). "Beyond the buzz: insect-based foods are unlikely to significantly reduce meat consumption". npj Sustainable Agriculture. 3 (1): 35. doi:10.1038/s44264-025-00075-z. ISSN   2731-9202.
  13. 1 2 3 van Huis, A.; Dicke, M.; Loon, J.J.A. van (2015). "Insects to feed the world". Journal of Insects as Food and Feed. 1 (1): 3–5. doi:10.3920/jiff2015.x002.
  14. 1 2 Oonincx, Dennis G. A. B.; Itterbeeck, Joost van; Heetkamp, Marcel J. W.; Brand, Henry van den; Loon, Joop J. A. van; Huis, Arnold van (2010-12-29). "An Exploration on Greenhouse Gas and Ammonia Production by Insect Species Suitable for Animal or Human Consumption". PLOS ONE. 5 (12) e14445. Bibcode:2010PLoSO...514445O. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0014445 . ISSN   1932-6203. PMC   3012052 . PMID   21206900.
  15. ↑ Biteau, Corentin; Bry-Chevalier, Tom; Crummett, Dustin; Ryba, Ren; Jules, Michael St. (2024-12-01). "Insect-based livestock feeds are unlikely to become economically viable in the near future". Food and Humanity. 3: 100383. doi:10.1016/j.foohum.2024.100383. ISSN   2949-8244.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: article number as page number (link)
  16. ↑ Bijvoet, Jop (2022-06-27). Creating the Triple Bottom Line in the Insect Rearing Industry: Current and Future Perspective (m thesis).
  17. ↑ Lelièvre, Adrien (October 16, 2024). "De l'espoir fou à la peur du crash : comment Ynsect en est arrivé là ?". Les Echos.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  18. ↑ Lymbery, Philip (2023-07-27). "Insect Farming Isn't Going to Save the Planet". Time. Retrieved 2024-06-07.
  19. 1 2 3 4 "HuffPost is now a part of Verizon Media". HuffPost . 10 February 2014.
  20. ↑ "List of Non-Fiber Foods".
  21. ↑ Capinera, John L. (2004). Encyclopedia of Entomology. Kluwer Academic Publishers. ISBN   978-0-7923-8670-4.
  22. ↑ "Dietary Iron and Cancer". Medscape.
  23. ↑ "Too Much Iron May Lead to Heart Attack".
  24. ↑ "Resources for our Future: Key issues and best practices in Resource Efficiency" (PDF). The Hague Centre for Strategic Studies (HCSS) and TNO. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 April 2019. Retrieved 15 April 2019.
  25. ↑ "The benefits of climatization technology in BSF farming". 2025-02-03. Retrieved 2025-12-12.
  26. ↑ "One moment, please..." www.feedandadditive.com. Archived from the original on 2025-06-20. Retrieved 2025-12-12.
  27. ↑ Smetana, Sergiy; Bhatia, Anita; Batta, Uday; Mouhrim, Nisrine; Tonda, Alberto (2023-08-14). "Environmental impact potential of insect production chains for food and feed in Europe". Animal Frontiers. 13 (4): 112–120. doi:10.1093/af/vfad033. ISSN   2160-6056. PMC   10425145 . PMID   37583796.
  28. ↑ Biteau, Corentin; Bry-Chevalier, Tom; Crummett, Dustin; Loewy, Katrina; Ryba, Ren; St. Jules, Michael. "Have the environmental benefits of insect farming been overstated? A critical review". Biological Reviews. n/a (n/a). doi:10.1111/brv.70076. ISSN   1469-185X.
  29. ↑ Berggren, Åsa; Jansson, Anna; Low, Matthew (2019-02-01). "Approaching Ecological Sustainability in the Emerging Insects-as-Food Industry". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 34 (2): 132–138. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2018.11.005. ISSN   0169-5347. PMID   30655013.
  30. ↑ Biteau, Corentin; Bry-Chevalier, Tom; Crummett, Dustin; Loewy, Katrina; Ryba, Ren; St. Jules, Michael. "Have the environmental benefits of insect farming been overstated? A critical review". Biological Reviews. n/a (n/a). doi:10.1111/brv.70076. ISSN   1469-185X.
  31. ↑ "De l'espoir fou à la peur du crash : comment Ynsect en est arrivé là ?". Les Echos (in French). 2024-10-16. Archived from the original on 2024-10-20. Retrieved 2025-12-12.
  32. ↑ "World's biggest cricket factory placed in receivership". FarmersForum.com. Archived from the original on 2025-05-16. Retrieved 2025-12-12.
  33. ↑ "Clap de fin pour Ynsect, la start-up de protéines animales nourrie aux levées de fonds et aux subventions" (in French). 2025-12-03. Retrieved 2025-12-12.
  34. ↑ Biteau, Corentin; Bry-Chevalier, Tom; Crummett, Dustin; Ryba, Ren; Jules, Michael St. (2024-12-01). "Insect-based livestock feeds are unlikely to become economically viable in the near future". Food and Humanity. 3: 100383. doi:10.1016/j.foohum.2024.100383. ISSN   2949-8244.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: article number as page number (link)
  35. ↑ Ryba, Ren (2024-01). "Offshoring insect farms may jeopardize Europe's food sovereignty". Global Sustainability. 7: e31. doi:10.1017/sus.2024.35. ISSN   2059-4798.{{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  36. ↑ Onwezen, M. C.; Bouwman, E. P.; Reinders, M. J.; Dagevos, H. (2021-04-01). "A systematic review on consumer acceptance of alternative proteins: Pulses, algae, insects, plant-based meat alternatives, and cultured meat". Appetite. 159: 105058. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2020.105058. ISSN   0195-6663.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: article number as page number (link)
  37. 1 2 3 4 5 Reynolds, Matt. "Insect Farming Is Booming. But Is It Cruel?". Wired. ISSN   1059-1028 . Retrieved 2024-06-06.
  38. ↑ Chittka, Lars (2023-07-01). "Do Insects Feel Joy and Pain?". Scientific American. Retrieved 2024-06-06.
  39. ↑ Gorvett, Zaria (29 November 2021). "Why insects are more sensitive than they seem". BBC. Retrieved 2024-06-06.
  40. ↑ Hakman, Peters & van Huis (1 September 2013). Admission procedure for insects such as mini-cattle (Dutch version).
  41. ↑ Yi, Liya; Lakemond, Catriona M.M.; Sagis, Leonard M.C.; Eisner-Schadler, Verena; Van Huis, Arnold; Van Boekel, Martinus A.J.S. (2013). "Extraction and characterisation of protein fractions from five insect species". Food Chemistry. 141 (4): 3341–3348. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2013.05.115. PMID   23993491.
  42. ↑ Janssen, Renske H.; Lakemond, Catriona M. M.; Fogliano, Vincenzo; Renzone, Giovanni; Scaloni, Andrea; Vincken, Jean-Paul (2017). "Involvement of phenoloxidase in browning during grinding of Tenebrio molitor larvae". PLOS ONE. 12 (12) e0189685. Bibcode:2017PLoSO..1289685J. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0189685 . PMC   5731683 . PMID   29244828.
  43. ↑ "Food Safety First – First time Right Regulatory roadmap for insect products in Feed and Food applications" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-04-15. Retrieved 2019-04-15.
  44. ↑ "Green light for insect protein in fish feed in EU". 14 December 2016.
  45. ↑ "Mealworms and foods: Food for people and fish" (PDF).

References

See also

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