Royal jelly is a honey bee secretion that is used in the nutrition of larvae and adult queens.[1] It is secreted from the glands in the hypopharynx of nurse bees, and fed to all larvae in the colony, regardless of sex or caste.[2]
During the process of creating new queens, the workers construct special queen cells. The larvae in these cells are fed with copious amounts of royal jelly. This type of feeding in part triggers the development of queen morphology, including the fully developed ovaries needed to lay eggs.[3] Note however that some newer research shows it is not solely the presence of royal jelly that develops the queen but rather the absence of certain other nutrients fed to worker bees.[4]
Royal jelly is sometimes used in alternative medicine under the category apitherapy. It is often sold as a dietary supplement for humans, but the European Food Safety Authority concluded in 2011 that evidence does not support the claim that consuming royal jelly offers health benefits to humans.[5] In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration has taken legal action against companies that have marketed royal jelly products using unfounded claims of health benefits.[6][7]
Since the 2011 assessment by the European Food Safety Authority, additional research has examined royal jelly in preclinical models and limited human clinical studies.[8] This body of work has explored potential effects related to wound healing, skin health, antioxidant activity, metabolic markers, and physical performance. However, the overall quality and clinical relevance of the evidence remain limited, and findings are not sufficient to support broad health claims.[9]
Topical application of royal jelly has been studied in wound-healing contexts, including diabetic foot ulcers, where small clinical trials and experimental studies have reported improved wound closure and tissue repair.[10] Proposed mechanisms include antibacterial activity, modulation of inflammation, and effects on keratinocyte and fibroblast migration.[11] More recent research has identified extracellular vesicle fractions of royal jelly that appear to modulate inflammatory pathways and enhance wound closure in diabetic models.[12]
Research into skin health has included small human studies and laboratory investigations suggesting that royal jelly or its components may influence skin hydration, pigmentation, and cellular responses to environmental stress.[13] Most evidence for anti-aging or rejuvenation effects derives from in vitro or animal studies, with relatively few controlled human trials and limited sample sizes.[13] Emerging research has also investigated royal jelly supplementation in athletic and physiological performance contexts, with isolated trials reporting increases in endurance measures and changes in gene expression related to energy metabolism.[14] These findings remain preliminary and require replication in larger trials.
Overall, while research interest in royal jelly has increased, major reviews conclude that existing evidence is insufficient to establish clear therapeutic benefits in humans.[15] Commonly cited limitations include small study populations, short intervention periods, heterogeneous formulations, and reliance on surrogate biomarkers rather than clinically meaningful endpoints.[16] As a result, royal jelly continues to be regarded primarily as a dietary supplement rather than an evidence-based medical treatment.
Production
Royal jelly is secreted from the hypopharyngeal and mandibular glands in the heads of nurse worker bees and is fed to all bee larvae during the early stages of development, regardless of whether they are destined to become drones (males), workers (sterile females), or queens (fertile females). After approximately three days, larvae destined to become workers or drones are transitioned to a diet consisting primarily of worker jelly, pollen, and honey, whereas larvae selected to become queens continue to be fed royal jelly exclusively throughout their larval development.[17]
Prolonged feeding of royal jelly plays a critical role in queen differentiation by influencing growth rate, body size, ovarian development, and lifespan. Royal jelly contains a distinct profile of proteins, fatty acids, and other bioactive compounds that affect endocrine signaling and gene expression during larval development. More recent research indicates that queen development is not driven solely by the presence of royal jelly, but also by the absence of certain compounds present in worker diets. Differences in nutritional composition have been shown to regulate epigenetic mechanisms, including DNA methylation, which determine caste-specific developmental pathways in honey bees.[18][19]
Major royal jelly proteins (MRJPs) are a family of proteins secreted by honey bees. The family consists of nine proteins, of which MRJP1 (also called royalactin), MRJP2, MRJP3, MRJP4, and MRJP5 are present in the royal jelly secreted by worker bees. MRJP1 is the most abundant, and largest in size. The five proteins constitute 83–90% of the total proteins in royal jelly.[21][22] They are synthesised by a family of nine genes (mrjp genes), which are in turn members of the yellow family of genes such as in the fruitfly (Drosophila) and bacteria. They are involved in differential development of queen larvae and worker larvae, thus establishing division of labour in the bee colony.[21]
Epigenetic effects
The honey bee queens and workers represent one of the most striking examples of environmentally controlled phenotypicpolymorphism. Even if two larvae had identical DNA, one raised to be a worker, the other a queen, the two adults would be strongly differentiated across a wide range of characteristics including anatomical and physiological differences, longevity, and reproductive capacity.[23] Queens constitute the female sexual caste and have large active ovaries, whereas female workers have only rudimentary, inactive ovaries and are functionally sterile. The queen–worker developmental divide is controlled epigenetically by differential feeding with royal jelly; this appears to be due specifically to the protein royalactin. A female larva destined to become a queen is fed large quantities of royal jelly; this triggers a cascade of molecular events resulting in development of a queen.[3] It has been shown that this phenomenon is mediated by an epigenetic modification of DNA known as CpG methylation.[24] Silencing the expression of an enzyme that methylates DNA in newly hatched larvae led to a royal jelly-like effect on the larval developmental trajectory; the majority of individuals with reduced DNA methylation levels emerged as queens with fully developed ovaries. This finding suggests that DNA methylation in honey bees allows the expression of epigenetic information to be differentially altered by nutritional input.[25]
Research and potential therapeutic effects
Royal jelly has been investigated for a range of biological effects in humans and in preclinical models, though high-quality clinical evidence remains limited. Some clinical studies and meta-analyses suggest potential benefits in areas such as antioxidant status, wound healing, skin health, metabolic markers, and athletic performance; however, further rigorous trials are required to confirm these findings and determine their clinical relevance.[26]
Wound healing and tissue repair
Topical application of royal jelly has shown promising effects in wound healing in both preclinical models and early clinical contexts. In diabetic foot ulcers, topical treatment with royal jelly has been associated with improved healing, potentially due to its enzymatic, antibacterial, and anti-inflammatory properties.[27] Preclinical and mechanistic studies demonstrate accelerated keratinocyte and fibroblast migration and enhanced collagen formation, processes integral to wound repair.[28] More recent research has identified extracellular vesicle fractions of royal jelly that appear to modulate inflammation and enhance wound closure in diabetic models.[29]
Skin health and aging
Some clinical and preliminary studies indicate that royal jelly may improve certain aspects of skin health. Oral consumption of royal jelly has been linked to enhanced skin hydration and pigmentation outcomes in human trials, although these studies generally involve small sample sizes and short durations.[30] Topical and in vitro studies suggest that royal jelly extracts can influence dermal cell behavior related to extracellular matrix production and cellular stress resistance, which has led to interest in its potential anti-aging effects. At present, most evidence supporting anti-aging claims is derived from mechanistic or preclinical research rather than large-scale clinical trials.[31]
Antioxidant and metabolic effects
A 2025 meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials reported that supplemental royal jelly may increase antioxidant capacity and reduce oxidative stress, particularly in non-diabetic individuals with normal body mass index.[26] These effects are consistent with the known presence of bioactive compounds in royal jelly, including peptides, fatty acids, and polyphenols.[32] Additional human studies have explored potential effects on lipid profiles, glycemic control, menopausal symptoms, and other metabolic parameters; however, findings across these studies are mixed and not yet conclusive.
Other clinical areas
Emerging clinical research has examined royal jelly supplementation in additional contexts, including athletic endurance performance. In a controlled human trial, supplementation was associated with increased time to exhaustion and changes in gene expression related to energy metabolism.[33] Other areas under investigation include immune system markers and recovery from acute conditions, with several randomized controlled trials registered or currently underway.[34]
Use by humans
Cultivation
Royal jelly is harvested by stimulating colonies with movable frame hives to produce queen bees. Royal jelly is collected from each individual queen cell (honeycomb) when the queen larvae are about four days old. These are the only cells in which large amounts are deposited. This is because when royal jelly is fed to worker larvae, it is fed directly to them, and they consume it as it is produced, while the cells of queen larvae are "stocked" with royal jelly much faster than the larvae can consume it. Therefore, only in queen cells is the harvest of royal jelly practical.
A well-managed hive during a season of 5–6 months can produce approximately 500g (18oz) of royal jelly.[35] Since the product is perishable, producers must have immediate access to proper cold storage (e.g., a household refrigerator or freezer) in which the royal jelly is stored until it is sold or conveyed to a collection center. Sometimes honey or beeswax is added to the royal jelly, which is thought to aid its preservation.[35]
Royal jelly may cause allergic reactions in humans, ranging from hives or asthma (or both), to even fatal anaphylaxis.[37][38][39][40][41][42] The incidence of allergic side effects in people who consume royal jelly is unknown. The risk of having an allergy to royal jelly is higher in people who have other allergies.[37]
↑Jung-Hoffmann, L (1966). "Die Determination von Königin und Arbeiterin der Honigbiene". Z Bienenforsch. 8: 296–322.
12Graham, J. (ed.) (1992) The Hive and the Honey Bee (Revised Edition). Dadant & Sons.[pageneeded]
12Maleszka, Ryszard (27 October 2014). "Epigenetic integration of environmental and genomic signals in honey bees: the critical interplay of nutritional, brain and reproductive networks". Epigenetics. 3 (4): 188–192. doi:10.4161/epi.3.4.6697. PMID18719401.
12Buttstedt, Anja; Moritz, Robin F. A.; Erler, Silvio (May 2014). "Origin and function of the major royal jelly proteins of the honeybee (Apis mellifera) as members of the yellow gene family". Biological Reviews. 89 (2): 255–269. doi:10.1111/brv.12052. PMID23855350. S2CID29361726.
↑Albert, Stefan; Bhattacharya, Debashish; Klaudiny, Jaroslav; Schmitzová, Jana; Simúth, Jozef (August 1999). "The Family of Major Royal Jelly Proteins and Its Evolution". Journal of Molecular Evolution. 49 (2): 290–297. Bibcode:1999JMolE..49..290A. doi:10.1007/pl00006551. PMID10441680. S2CID27316541.
↑Winston, M, The Biology of the Honey Bee, 1987, Harvard University Press[pageneeded]
↑Lombardi C, Senna GE, Gatti B, Feligioni M, Riva G, Bonadonna P, Dama AR, Canonica GW, Passalacqua G (1998). "Allergic reactions to honey and royal jelly and their relationship with sensitization to compositae". Allergol. Immunopathol. 26 (6): 288–290. PMID9934408.
Inoue, T. (1986). The use and utilization of royal jelly and the evaluation of the medical efficacy of royal jelly in Japan. Proceedings of the XXXth International Congress of Apiculture, Nagoya, 1985, Apimondia, 444-447
Jean, E (1956). "A process of royal jelly absorption for its incorporation into assimilable substances". Fr. Pat. 1 (118): 123.
Jacoli, G (1956). "Ricerche sperimentali su alcune proprieta' biologiche della gelatina reale". Apicoltore d'Italia. 23 (9–10): 211–214.
Jung-Hoffmann, L (1966). "Die Determination von Königin und Arbeiterin der Honigbiene". Z. Bienenforsch. 8: 296–322.
Kucharski R, Maleszka, J, Foret, S, Maleszka, R, Nutritional Control of Reproductive Status in Honeybees via DNA Methylation. Science. 2008 Mar 28;319(5871):1827-3
Lercker, G.; Capella, P.; Conte, L.S.; Ruini, F.; Giordani, G. (1982). "Components of royal jelly: II. The lipid fraction, hydrocarbons and sterols". J. Apic. Res. 21 (3): 178–184. Bibcode:1982JApiR..21..178L. doi:10.1080/00218839.1982.11100538.
Lercker, G.; Vecchi, M.A.; Sabatini, A.G.; Nanetti, A. (1984). "Controllo chimicoanalitico della gelatina reale". Riv. Merceol. 23 (1): 83–94.
Lercker, G.; Caboni, M.F.; Vecchi, M.A.; Sabatini, A.G.; Nanetti, A. (1992). "Caratterizzazione dei principali costituenti della gelatina reale". Apicoltura. 8: 11–21.
Maleszka, R (2008). "Epigenetic integration of environmental and genomic signals in honey bees: the critical interplay of nutritional, brain and reproductive networks". Epigenetics. 3 (4): 188–192. doi:10.4161/epi.3.4.6697. PMID18719401.
Nakamura, T. (1986) Quality standards of royal jelly for medical use. proceedings of the XXXth International Congress of Apiculture, Nagoya, 1985 Apimondia (1986) 462–464.
Takenaka, T. Nitrogen components and carboxylic acids of royal jelly. In Chemistry and biology of social insects (edited by Eder, J., Rembold, H.). Munich, German Federal Republic, Verlag J. Papemy (1987): 162–163.
Wagner, H.; Dobler, I.; Thiem, I. (1970). "Effect of royal jelly on the peirpheral blood and survival rate of mice after irradiation of the entire body with X-rays". Radiobiologia Radiotherapia. 11 (3): 323–328.
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