Spirulina (dietary supplement)

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Spirulina tablets Spirulina tablets.jpg
Spirulina tablets

Spirulina is the dried biomass of cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) that can be consumed by humans and animals. The three species are Arthrospira platensis , A. fusiformis, and A. maxima.

Contents

Cultivated worldwide, Arthrospira is used as a dietary supplement or whole food. [1] It is also used as a feed supplement in the aquaculture, aquarium, and poultry industries. [2]

Use of the term and differences between species

Spirulina powder at 400x, unstained wet mount Spira400xwetcr.jpg
Spirulina powder at 400×, unstained wet mount

The species A. maxima and A. platensis were once classified in the genus Spirulina. The common name, spirulina, refers to the dried biomass of A. platensis, [3] which belongs to photosynthetic bacteria that cover the groups Cyanobacteria and Prochlorophyta. Scientifically, a distinction exists between spirulina and the genus Arthrospira. Species of Arthrospira have been isolated from alkaline brackish and saline waters in tropical and subtropical regions. Among the various species included in the genus Arthrospira, A. platensis is the most widely distributed and is mainly found in Africa, but also in Asia. A. maxima is believed to be found in California and Mexico. [4] The term spirulina remains in use for historical reasons. [2]

Arthrospira species are free-floating, filamentous cyanobacteria characterized by cylindrical, multicellular trichomes in an open left-handed helix. They occur naturally in tropical and subtropical lakes with high pH and high concentrations of carbonate and bicarbonate. [5] A. platensis occurs in Africa, Asia, and South America, whereas A. maxima is confined to Central America. [2] Most cultivated spirulina is produced in open-channel raceway ponds, with paddle wheels used to agitate the water. [5]

Spirulina thrives at a pH around 8.5 and above and a temperature around 30 °C (86 °F). They are autotrophic, meaning that they are able to make their own food, and do not need a living energy or organic carbon source. A nutrient feed for growing it [6] is:

Spirulina（dried）
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 1,213 kJ (290 kcal)
23.9 g
Sugars 3.1 g
Dietary fiber 3.6 g
Fat
7.72 g
Saturated 2.65 g
Monounsaturated 0.675 g
Polyunsaturated 2.08 g
57.47 g
Tryptophan 0.929 g
Threonine 2.97 g
Isoleucine 3.209 g
Leucine 4.947 g
Lysine 3.025 g
Methionine 1.149 g
Cystine 0.662 g
Phenylalanine 2.777 g
Tyrosine 2.584 g
Valine 3.512 g
Arginine 4.147 g
Histidine 1.085 g
Alanine 4.515 g
Aspartic acid 5.793 g
Glutamic acid 8.386 g
Glycine 3.099 g
Proline 2.382 g
Serine 2.998 g
Vitamins and minerals
Vitamins Quantity
%DV†
Thiamine (B1)
198%
2.38 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
282%
3.67 mg
Niacin (B3)
80%
12.82 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
70%
3.48 mg
Vitamin B6
21%
0.364 mg
Folate (B9)
24%
94 μg
Vitamin B12
0%
0 μg
Choline
12%
66 mg
Vitamin C
11%
10.1 mg
Vitamin D
0%
0 IU
Vitamin E
33%
5 mg
Vitamin K
21%
25.5 μg
Minerals Quantity
%DV†
Calcium
9%
120 mg
Iron
158%
28.5 mg
Magnesium
46%
195 mg
Manganese
83%
1.9 mg
Phosphorus
9%
118 mg
Potassium
45%
1363 mg
Sodium
46%
1048 mg
Zinc
18%
2 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water4.68 g
Link to USDA FoodData Central page
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults, [7] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies. [8]

Historical use

Spirulina was a food source for the Aztecs and other Mesoamericans until the 16th century; the harvest from Lake Texcoco in Mexico and subsequent sale as cakes were described by one of Cortés's soldiers. [9] [10] The Aztecs called it tecuitlatl. [5]

Spirulina was found in abundance at Lake Texcoco by French researchers in the 1960s, but no reference to its use by the Aztecs as a daily food source was made after the 16th century, probably because of the draining of the surrounding lakes for agriculture and urban development. [5] The topic of tecuitlatl, which was discovered in 1520, was not mentioned again until 1940, when the Belgian phycologist Pierre Dangeard mentioned a cake called dihe consumed by the Kanembu tribe, who harvest it from Lake Chad in the African nation of Chad. Dangeard studied the dihe samples and found it to be a dried puree of the spring form of the blue-green algae from the lake. The dihe is used to make broths for meals, and also sold in markets. The spirulina is harvested from small lakes and ponds around Lake Chad. [11]

During 1964 and 1965, the botanist Jean Leonard confirmed that dihe is made up of spirulina, and later studied a bloom of algae in a sodium hydroxide production facility. As a result, the first systematic and detailed study of the growth requirements and physiology of spirulina was performed as a basis for establishing large-scale production in the 1970s. [2] [4]

Food and nutrition

Spirulina is being investigated to address food security and malnutrition, and as dietary support in long-term space flight or Mars missions. [12] [13] Its advantage for food security is that it needs less land and water than livestock to produce protein and energy. [12]

Dried spirulina contains 5% water, 24% carbohydrates, 8% fat, and about 60% (51–71%) protein. [14] [15]

An amount of 100g of spirulina in supplement form as a dried powder supplies 290 kilocalories (1,200 kJ) and is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of numerous essential nutrients, particularly protein, B vitamins (thiamin, riboflavin, and niacin, providing 207%, 306%, and 85% DV, respectively), and dietary minerals, such as iron (219% DV) and manganese (90% DV). The lipid content of spirulina is 8% by weight providing the fatty acids, gamma-linolenic acid, [16] [17] linoleic acid, stearidonic acid, [18] eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and arachidonic acid. [19] In contrast to those 2003 estimates (of DHA and EPA each at 2 to 3% of total fatty acids), 2015 research indicated that spirulina products "contained no detectable omega-3 fatty acids" (less than 0.1%, including DHA and EPA). [20]

Vitamin B12

Spirulina contains no vitamin B12 naturally, and spirulina supplements are not considered a reliable source of vitamin B12, as they contain predominantly pseudovitamin B12 (Coα-[α-(7-adenyl)]-Coβ-cyanocobamide), [21] which is biologically inactive in humans. [22] [23] In a 2009 position paper on vegetarian diets, the American Dietetic Association stated that spirulina is not a reliable source of active vitamin B12. [23] The medical literature similarly advises that spirulina is unsuitable as a source of B12. [22] [24]

Animals and aquaculture

Various studies on spirulina as an alternative feed for animal and aquaculture have been done. [4] Spirulina can be fed up to 10% for poultry [25] and less than 4% for quail. [26] An increase in spirulina content up to 40 g/kg (0.64 oz/lb) for 16 days in 21-day-old broiler male chicks resulted in yellow and red coloration of flesh, possibly due to the accumulation of the yellow pigment zeaxanthin. [27] Pigs [28] and rabbits [29] can receive up to 10% of the feed and increase in the spirulina content in cattle resulted in increase in milk yield and weight. [30] Spirulina has been established [4] as an alternative feedstock and immune booster for bigmouth buffalo, [30] milk fish, [31] cultured striped jack, [32] carp, [33] [34] red sea bream, [35] tilapia, [36] catfish, [37] yellow tail, [38] zebrafish, [39] shrimp, [40] [41] and abalone, [42] and up to 2% spirulina per day in aquaculture feed can be safely recommended. [4]

Research

According to the U.S. National Institutes of Health, scientific evidence is insufficient to recommend spirulina supplementation for any human condition, and more research is needed to clarify whether consumption yields any benefits. [1] Administration of spirulina has been investigated as a way to control glucose in people with diabetes, but the European Food Safety Authority rejected those claims in 2013. [43] Spirulina has been studied as a potential nutritional supplement for adults and children affected by HIV, but there was no conclusive effect on risk of death, body weight, or immune response. [44] [45]

Risks

Spirulina may have adverse interactions when taken with prescription drugs, particularly those affecting the immune system and blood clotting. [1]

Safety and toxicology

A number of cyanobacteria, of which spirulina is one, produce toxins such as microcystins. [46] Some spirulina supplements have been found to be contaminated with microcystins, albeit at levels below the limit set by the Oregon Health Department. [47] Microcystins can cause gastrointestinal upset, such as diarrhea, flatulence, headache, muscle pain, facial flushing, and sweating. [1] [46] Chronic exposure may lead to liver damage. [1] The effects of chronic exposure to even low levels of microcystins are a concern due to the risk of toxicity to several organ systems. [1] [47]

These toxic compounds are not produced by spirulina itself, [48] but can occur if spirulina batches are contaminated with other, toxin-producing, blue-green algae. Because the U.S. considers spirulina a dietary supplement, its government does not regulate its production and enforces no safety standards for its production or purity. [47] The U.S. National Institutes of Health describes spirulina supplements as "possibly safe", provided they are free of microcystin contamination, but "likely unsafe" (especially for children) if contaminated. [1] Given the lack of regulatory standards in the U.S., some public-health researchers have raised the concern that consumers cannot be certain that spirulina and other blue-green algae supplements are free of contamination. [47] In 2016, a review by Health Canada of available literature found that spirulina products contained varying levels of microcystins. Health Canada restricts microcystin-LR levels in products containing cyanobacteria to 0.02 µg per kilogram of body weight per day in finished products, or a maximum of 1 part per million in raw materials. [49]

Heavy-metal contamination of spirulina supplements has also raised concern. The Chinese State Food and Drug Administration reported that lead, mercury, and arsenic contamination was widespread in spirulina supplements marketed in China. [50] One study reported the presence of lead up to 5.1 ppm in a sample from a commercial supplement. [4] Spirulina doses of 10 to 19 grams per day over several months have been used safely. [1]

Safety issues for certain target groups

Like all protein-rich foods, spirulina contains the essential amino acid phenylalanine (2.6–4.1 g/100 g), [5] which should be avoided by people who have phenylketonuria, a rare genetic disorder that prevents the body from metabolizing phenylalanine, which then builds up in the brain, causing damage. [51]

Microcystins have various potential toxicity, especially to children and pregnant women, [52] including liver damage, shock, and death. [1]

In 2024, a literature review on the allergic properties of spirulina was published. It was noted that to date (by July 2023), there have been 5 cases of allergy to spirulina, with 4 out of 5 cases resulting in anaphylaxis according to the classification from the World Allergy Organization's Anaphylaxis Guidance of 2020. Based on their research findings, instances of spirulina allergy are infrequently reported or identified, potentially due to spirulina's ability to inhibit mast cell degranulation, a critical component of allergic reactions. [53]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vitamin</span> Nutrients required by organisms in small amounts

Vitamins are organic molecules that are essential to an organism in small quantities for proper metabolic function. Essential nutrients cannot be synthesized in the organism in sufficient quantities for survival, and therefore must be obtained through the diet. For example, vitamin C can be synthesized by some species but not by others; it is not considered a vitamin in the first instance but is in the second. Most vitamins are not single molecules, but groups of related molecules called vitamers. For example, there are eight vitamers of vitamin E: four tocopherols and four tocotrienols.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pantothenic acid</span> Chemical compound

Pantothenic acid (vitamin B5) is a B vitamin and an essential nutrient. All animals need pantothenic acid in order to synthesize coenzyme A (CoA), which is essential for cellular energy production and for the synthesis and degradation of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Folate</span> Vitamin B9; nutrient essential for DNA synthesis

Folate, also known as vitamin B9 and folacin, is one of the B vitamins. Manufactured folic acid, which is converted into folate by the body, is used as a dietary supplement and in food fortification as it is more stable during processing and storage. Folate is required for the body to make DNA and RNA and metabolise amino acids necessary for cell division and maturation of blood cells. As the human body cannot make folate, it is required in the diet, making it an essential nutrient. It occurs naturally in many foods. The recommended adult daily intake of folate in the U.S. is 400 micrograms from foods or dietary supplements.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Taurine</span> Aminosulfonic acid not incorporated into proteins

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dietary supplement</span> Product providing additional nutrients

A dietary supplement is a manufactured product intended to supplement a person's diet by taking a pill, capsule, tablet, powder, or liquid. A supplement can provide nutrients either extracted from food sources, or that are synthetic. The classes of nutrient compounds in supplements include vitamins, minerals, fiber, fatty acids, and amino acids. Dietary supplements can also contain substances that have not been confirmed as being essential to life, and so are not nutrients per se, but are marketed as having a beneficial biological effect, such as plant pigments or polyphenols. Animals can also be a source of supplement ingredients, such as collagen from chickens or fish for example. These are also sold individually and in combination, and may be combined with nutrient ingredients. The European Commission has also established harmonized rules to help insure that food supplements are safe and appropriately labeled.

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cat food</span> Food for consumption by cats

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  6. ↑ Chang, Yuanyuan; et al. (2013). "Cultivation of Spirulina platensis for biomass production and nutrient removal from synthetic human urine". Applied Energy. 102: 427–431. Bibcode:2013ApEn..102..427C. doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2012.07.024.
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  9. ↑ Diaz Del Castillo, B. The Discovery and Conquest of Mexico, 1517–1521. London: Routledge, 1928, p. 300.
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  15. ↑ Campanella, L.; Russo, M. V.; Avino, P. (April 2002). "Free and total amino acid composition in blue-green algae". Annali di Chimica. 92 (4): 343–352. PMID   12073880.
  16. ↑ Colla, L. M.; Bertolin, T. E.; Costa, J. A. (2003). "Fatty acids profile of Spirulina platensis grown under different temperatures and nitrogen concentrations". Zeitschrift für Naturforschung C. 59 (1–2): 55–59. doi: 10.1515/znc-2004-1-212 . PMID   15018053. S2CID   10084035.
  17. ↑ Golmakani, Mohammad-Taghi; Rezaei, Karamatollah; Mazidi, Sara; Razavi, Seyyed Hadi (March 2012). "γ-Linolenic acid production by Arthrospira platensis using different carbon sources". European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology. 114 (3): 306–314. doi:10.1002/ejlt.201100264.
  18. ↑ Jubie, S.; Ramesh, P. N.; Dhanabal, P.; Kalirajan, R.; Muruganantham, N.; Antony, A. S. (August 2012). "Synthesis, antidepressant and antimicrobial activities of some novel stearic acid analogues". European Journal of Medicinal Chemistry. 54: 931–935. doi:10.1016/j.ejmech.2012.06.025. PMID   22770606.
  19. ↑ Tokusoglu, O.; Unal, M. K. (2003). "Biomass Nutrient Profiles of Three Microalgae: Spirulina platensis, Chlorella vulgaris, and Isochrisis galbana". Journal of Food Science. 68 (4): 2003. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.2003.tb09615.x.
  20. ↑ Kent, Megan; Welladsen, Heather M.; Mangott, Arnold; Li, Yan (2015). "Nutritional Evaluation of Australian Microalgae as Potential Human Health Supplements". PLOS ONE. 10 (2): e0118985. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1018985K. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0118985 . PMC   4344213 . PMID   25723496.
  21. ↑ Watanabe, Fumio; Katsura, Hiromi; Takenaka, Shigeo; Fujita, Tomoyuki; Abe, Katsuo; Tamura, Yoshiyuki; Nakatsuka, Toshiyuki; Nakano, Yoshihisa (November 1999). "Pseudovitamin B12 Is the Predominant Cobamide of an Algal Health Food, Spirulina Tablets". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 47 (11): 4736–4741. doi:10.1021/jf990541b. PMID   10552882.
  22. 1 2 Watanabe, F (2007). "Vitamin B12 sources and bioavailability". Experimental Biology and Medicine. 232 (10): 1266–1274. doi:10.3181/0703-MR-67. PMID   17959839. S2CID   14732788. Most of the edible blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) used for human supplements predominantly contain pseudovitamin B(12), which is inactive in humans. The edible cyanobacteria are not suitable for use as vitamin B(12) sources, especially in vegans.
  23. 1 2 Craig, W. J.; Mangels, A. R. (2009). "Position of the American Dietetic Association: Vegetarian diets". Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 109 (7): 1266–1282. doi:10.1016/j.jada.2009.05.027. PMID   19562864. S2CID   7906168.
  24. ↑ Watanabe, F.; Katsura, H.; Takenaka, S.; et al. (1999). "Pseudovitamin B(12) is the predominant cobamide of an algal health food, spirulina tablets". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 47 (11): 4736–4741. doi:10.1021/jf990541b. PMID   10552882. The results presented here strongly suggest that spirulina tablet algal health food is not suitable for use as a B12 source, especially in vegetarians.
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