Phosphorus

This article is about the chemical element. For other uses, see Phosphorus (disambiguation).

Phosphorus, ₁₅P

Forms of phosphorus Waxy white Light red Dark red and violet Black
Phosphorus
Pronunciation	/ˈfɒsfərəs/ ​(FOS-fər-əs)
Allotropes	white, red, violet, black and others (see Allotropes of phosphorus)
Appearance	white, red and violet are waxy, black is metallic-looking
Standard atomic weight Ar°(P)
	30.973761998±0.000000005 [1] 30.974±0.001 (abridged) [2]
Abundance
in the  Earth's crust	5.2 (silicon = 100)
Phosphorus in the periodic table
Hydrogen Helium Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon Caesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury (element) Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon Francium Radium Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson N ↑ P ↓ As silicon ← phosphorus → sulfur
Atomic number (Z)	15
Group	group 15 (pnictogens)
Period	period 3
Block	p-block
Electron configuration	[ Ne ] 3s2 3p3
Electrons per shell	2, 8, 5
Physical properties
Phase at  STP	solid
Melting point	white: 317.3  K ​(44.15 °C,​111.5 °F) red: ∼860 K (∼590 °C, ∼1090 °F) [3]
Boiling point	white: 553.7 K​(280.5 °C,​536.9 °F)
Sublimation point	red: ≈689.2–863 K​(≈416–590 °C,​≈780.8–1094 °F) violet: 893 K (620 °C, 1148 °F)
Density (near  r.t.)	white: 1.823 g/cm3 red: ≈2.2–2.34 g/cm3 violet: 2.36 g/cm3 black: 2.69 g/cm3
Heat of fusion	white: 0.66  kJ/mol
Heat of vaporisation	white: 51.9 kJ/mol
Molar heat capacity	white: 23.824 J/(mol·K)
Vapour pressure (white) P (Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k at T (K) 279 307 342 388 453 549
Vapour pressure(red) P (Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k at T (K) 455 489 529 576 635 704
Atomic properties
Oxidation states	common: −3, +3, +5 −2, [4] −1, [4] 0, [5] +1, [4] [6] +2, [4] +4 [4]
Electronegativity	Pauling scale: 2.19
Ionisation energies	1st: 1011.8 kJ/mol 2nd: 1907 kJ/mol 3rd: 2914.1 kJ/mol (more)
Covalent radius	107±3  pm
Van der Waals radius	180 pm
Spectral lines of phosphorus
Other properties
Natural occurrence	primordial
Crystal structure	α-white:​ body-centred cubic (bcc)(cI232)
Lattice constant	a = 1.869 nm (at 20 °C) [7]
Crystal structure	black:​ orthorhombic (oS8)
Lattice constants	a = 0.33137 nm b = 1.0477 nm c = 0.43755 nm (at 20 °C) [7]
Thermal conductivity	white: 0.236 W/(m⋅K) black: 12.1 W/(m⋅K)
Magnetic ordering	white, red, violet, black: diamagnetic [8]
Molar magnetic susceptibility	−20.8×10−6 cm3/mol(293 K) [9]
Bulk modulus	white: 5 GPa red: 11 GPa
CAS Number	7723-14-0(red) 12185-10-3 (white)
History
Discovery	Hennig Brand (1669)
Recognised as an element by	Antoine Lavoisier [10] (1777)
Isotopes of phosphorus v e
Main isotopes Decay abun­dance half-life (t1/2) mode pro­duct 31P 100% stable 32P trace 14.269 d β− 32S 33P trace 25.35 d β− 33S
Category: Phosphorus view talk edit | references

Phosphorus is a chemical element; it has symbol P and atomic number 15. Elemental phosphorus exists in two major forms, white phosphorus and red phosphorus, but because it is highly reactive, phosphorus is never found as a free element on Earth. It has a concentration in the Earth's crust of about 0.1%, less abundant than hydrogen but more than manganese. In minerals, phosphorus generally occurs as phosphate.

Elemental phosphorus was first isolated as white phosphorus in 1669. In white phosphorus, phosphorus atoms are arranged in groups of 4, written as P₄. White phosphorus emits a faint glow when exposed to oxygen – hence, a name, taken from Greek mythology, Φωσφόρος meaning 'light-bearer' (Latin Lucifer ), referring to the "Morning Star", the planet Venus. The term phosphorescence , meaning glow after illumination, has its origin in phosphorus, although phosphorus itself does not exhibit phosphorescence: phosphorus glows due to oxidation of the white (but not red) phosphorus – a process now called chemiluminescence. Phosphorus is classified as a pnictogen, together with nitrogen, arsenic, antimony, bismuth, and moscovium.

Phosphorus is an element essential to sustaining life largely through phosphates, compounds containing the phosphate ion, PO₄³⁻. Phosphates are a component of DNA, RNA, ATP, and phospholipids, complex compounds fundamental to cells. Elemental phosphorus was first isolated from human urine, and bone ash was an important early phosphate source. Phosphate mines contain fossils because phosphate is present in the fossilized deposits of animal remains and excreta. Low phosphate levels are an important limit to growth in a number of plant ecosystems. The vast majority of phosphorus compounds mined are consumed as fertilisers. Phosphate is needed to replace the phosphorus that plants remove from the soil, and its annual demand is rising nearly twice as fast as the growth of the human population. Other applications include organophosphorus compounds in detergents, pesticides, and nerve agents.

Characteristics

Allotropes

Main article: Allotropes of phosphorus

Phosphorus has several allotropes that exhibit strikingly diverse properties. ^[11] The two most common allotropes are white phosphorus and red phosphorus. ^[12]

For both pure and applied uses, the most important allotrope is white phosphorus, often abbreviated WP. White phosphorus is a soft, waxy molecular solid composed of P
_⁴ tetrahedra. This P
_⁴ tetrahedron is also present in liquid and gaseous phosphorus up to the temperature of 800 °C (1,500 °F; 1,100 K) when it starts decomposing to P
_² molecules. ^[13] The nature of bonding in this P
_⁴ tetrahedron can be described by spherical aromaticity or cluster bonding, that is the electrons are highly delocalized. This has been illustrated by calculations of the magnetically induced currents, which sum up to 29 nA/T, much more than in the archetypical aromatic molecule benzene (11 nA/T). ^[14]

Crystalline structures of some phosphorus allotropes

White

Red

Violet

Black

White phosphorus exists in two crystalline forms: α (alpha) and β (beta). At room temperature, the α-form is stable. It is more common, has cubic crystal structure and at 195.2 K (−78.0 °C), it transforms into β-form, which has hexagonal crystal structure. These forms differ in terms of the relative orientations of the constituent P₄ tetrahedra. ^{[15] [16]}

White phosphorus is the least stable, the most reactive, the most volatile, the least dense and the most toxic of the allotropes. White phosphorus gradually changes to red phosphorus, accelerated by light and heat. Samples of white phosphorus almost always contain some red phosphorus and accordingly appear yellow. For this reason, white phosphorus that is aged or otherwise impure (e.g., weapons-grade, not lab-grade WP) is also called yellow phosphorus. White phosphorus is highly flammable and pyrophoric (self-igniting) in air; it faintly glows green and blue in the dark when exposed to oxygen. The autoxidation commonly coats samples with white phosphorus pentoxide (P
_⁴O
_¹⁰): P₄ tetrahedra, but with oxygen inserted between the phosphorus atoms and at the vertices. White phosphorus is a napalm additive,^{[ citation needed ]} and the characteristic odour of combustion is garlicky.^{[ why? ]} White phosphorus is insoluble in water but soluble in carbon disulfide. ^[17]

Thermal decomposition of P₄ at 1100 K gives diphosphorus, P₂. This species is not stable as a solid or liquid. The dimeric unit contains a triple bond and is analogous to N₂. It can also be generated as a transient intermediate in solution by thermolysis of organophosphorus precursor reagents. ^[18] At still higher temperatures, P₂ dissociates into atomic P. ^[17]

Properties of some allotropes of phosphorus ^{[11] [19]}

Form	white(α)	white(β)	red	violet	black
Symmetry	Body-centred cubic	Triclinic	Amorphous	Monoclinic	Orthorhombic
Pearson symbol		aP24		mP84	oS8
Space group	I43m	P1 No.2		P2/c No.13	Cmce No.64
Density (g/cm3)	1.828	1.88	~2.2	2.36	2.69
Band gap (eV)	2.1		1.8	1.5	0.34
Refractive index	1.8244			2.6	2.4

Red phosphorus is polymeric in structure. It can be viewed as a derivative of P₄ wherein one P-P bond is broken, and one additional bond is formed with the neighbouring tetrahedron resulting in chains of P₂₁ molecules linked by van der Waals forces. ^[20] Red phosphorus may be formed by heating white phosphorus to 250 °C (482 °F) or by exposing white phosphorus to sunlight. ^[21] Phosphorus after this treatment is amorphous. Upon further heating, this material crystallises. In this sense, red phosphorus is not an allotrope, but rather an intermediate phase between the white and violet phosphorus, and most of its properties have a range of values. For example, freshly prepared, bright red phosphorus is highly reactive and ignites at about 300 °C (572 °F), ^[22] though it is more stable than white phosphorus, which ignites at about 30 °C (86 °F). ^[23] After prolonged heating or storage, the color darkens (see infobox images); the resulting product is more stable and does not spontaneously ignite in air. ^[24]

Violet phosphorus is a form of phosphorus that can be produced by day-long annealing of red phosphorus above 550 °C. In 1865, Hittorf discovered that when phosphorus was recrystallised from molten lead, a red/purple form is obtained. Therefore, this form is sometimes known as "Hittorf's phosphorus" (or violet or α-metallic phosphorus). ^[19]

Black phosphorus is the least reactive allotrope and the thermodynamically stable form below 550 °C (1,022 °F). It is also known as β-metallic phosphorus and has a structure somewhat resembling that of graphite. ^{[25] [26]} It is obtained by heating white phosphorus under high pressures (about 12,000 standard atmospheres or 1.2 gigapascals). It can also be produced at ambient conditions using metal salts, e.g. mercury, as catalysts. ^[27] In appearance, properties, and structure, it resembles graphite, being black and flaky, a conductor of electricity, and has puckered sheets of linked atoms. ^[28]

Another form, scarlet phosphorus, is obtained by allowing a solution of white phosphorus in carbon disulfide to evaporate in sunlight. ^[19]

Chemiluminescence

White phosphorus exposed to air glows in the dark.

When first isolated, it was observed that the green glow emanating from white phosphorus would persist for a time in a stoppered jar, but then cease. Robert Boyle in the 1680s ascribed it to "debilitation" of the air. In fact, this process is caused by the phosphorus reacting with oxygen in the air; in a sealed container, this process will eventually stop when all the oxygen in the container is consumed. By the 18th century, it was known that in pure oxygen, phosphorus does not glow at all; ^[29] there is only a range of partial pressures at which it does. Heat can be applied to drive the reaction at higher pressures. ^[30]

In 1974, the glow was explained by R. J. van Zee and A. U. Khan. ^{[31] [32]} A reaction with oxygen takes place at the surface of the solid (or liquid) phosphorus, forming the short-lived molecules HPO and P
_²O
_² that both emit visible light. The reaction is slow and only very little of the intermediates are required to produce the luminescence, hence the extended time the glow continues in a stoppered jar.

Since its discovery, phosphors and phosphorescence were used loosely to describe substances that shine in the dark without burning. Although the term phosphorescence is derived from phosphorus, the reaction that gives phosphorus its glow is properly called chemiluminescence (glowing due to a cold chemical reaction), not phosphorescence (re-emitting light that previously fell onto a substance and excited it). ^[33]

Isotopes

Main article: Isotopes of phosphorus

There are 22 known isotopes of phosphorus, ^[34] ranging from ²⁶
P to ⁴⁷
P. ^[35] Only ³¹
P is stable and is therefore present at 100% abundance. The half-integer nuclear spin and high abundance of ³¹P make phosphorus-31 NMR spectroscopy a very useful analytical tool in studies of phosphorus-containing samples.

Two radioactive isotopes of phosphorus have half-lives suitable for biological scientific experiments. These are:

• ³²
  P , a beta-emitter (1.71 MeV) with a half-life of 14.3 days, which is used routinely in life-science laboratories, primarily to produce radiolabeled DNA and RNA probes, e.g. for use in Northern blots or Southern blots.
• ³³
  P, a beta-emitter (0.25 MeV) with a half-life of 25.4 days. It is used in life-science laboratories in applications in which lower energy beta emissions are advantageous such as DNA sequencing.

The high-energy beta particles from ³²
P penetrate skin and corneas and any ³²
P ingested, inhaled, or absorbed is readily incorporated into bone and nucleic acids. For these reasons, Occupational Safety and Health Administration in the United States, and similar institutions in other developed countries require personnel working with ³²
P to wear lab coats, disposable gloves, and safety glasses or goggles to protect the eyes, and avoid working directly over open containers. Monitoring personal, clothing, and surface contamination is also required. Shielding requires special consideration. The high energy of the beta particles gives rise to secondary emission of X-rays via Bremsstrahlung (braking radiation) in dense shielding materials such as lead. Therefore, the radiation must be shielded with low density materials such as acrylic or other plastic, water, or (when transparency is not required), even wood. ^[36]

Occurrence

See also: Category:Phosphate minerals

Universe

In 2013, astronomers detected phosphorus in Cassiopeia A, which confirmed that this element is produced in supernovae as a byproduct of supernova nucleosynthesis. The phosphorus-to-iron ratio in material from the supernova remnant could be up to 100 times higher than in the Milky Way in general. ^[37]

In 2020, astronomers analysed ALMA and ROSINA data from the massive star-forming region AFGL 5142, to detect phosphorus-bearing molecules and how they are carried in comets to the early Earth. ^{[38] [39]}

Crust and organic sources

Phosphorus has a concentration in the Earth's crust of about one gram per kilogram (compare copper at about 0.06 grams). It is not found free in nature, but is widely distributed in many minerals, usually as phosphates. ^[12] Inorganic phosphate rock, which is partially made of apatite (a group of minerals being, generally, pentacalcium triorthophosphate fluoride (hydroxide)), is today the chief commercial source of this element. According to the US Geological Survey (USGS), about 50 percent of the global phosphorus reserves are in Amazigh nations like Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. ^[40] 85% of Earth's known reserves are in Morocco with smaller deposits in China, Russia, ^[41] Florida, Idaho, Tennessee, Utah, and elsewhere. ^[42] Albright and Wilson in the UK and their Niagara Falls plant, for instance, were using phosphate rock in the 1890s and 1900s from Tennessee, Florida, and the Îles du Connétable (guano island sources of phosphate); by 1950, they were using phosphate rock mainly from Tennessee and North Africa. ^[43]

Organic sources, namely urine, bone ash and (in the latter 19th century) guano, were historically of importance but had only limited commercial success. ^[44] As urine contains phosphorus, it has fertilising qualities which are still harnessed today in some countries, including Sweden, using methods for reuse of excreta. To this end, urine can be used as a fertiliser in its pure form or part of being mixed with water in the form of sewage or sewage sludge.

Compounds

See also: Phosphorus halides, Category:Phosphate minerals, and Category:Phosphorus compounds

Phosphorus(V)

The tetrahedral structure of P₄O₁₀ and P₄S₁₀

The most prevalent compounds of phosphorus are derivatives of phosphate (PO₄³⁻), a tetrahedral anion. ^[45] Phosphate is the conjugate base of phosphoric acid, which is produced on a massive scale for use in fertilisers. Being triprotic, phosphoric acid converts stepwise to three conjugate bases:

H₃PO₄ + H₂O ⇌ H₃O⁺ + H₂PO₄⁻     K_a1 = 7.25×10⁻³

H₂PO₄⁻ + H₂O ⇌ H₃O⁺ + HPO₄²⁻     K_a2 = 6.31×10⁻⁸

HPO₄²⁻ + H₂O ⇌ H₃O⁺ +  PO₄³⁻      K_a3 = 3.98×10⁻¹³

Phosphate exhibits a tendency to form chains and rings containing P-O-P bonds. Many polyphosphates are known, including ATP. Polyphosphates arise by dehydration of hydrogen phosphates such as HPO₄²⁻ and H₂PO₄⁻. For example, the industrially important pentasodium triphosphate (also known as sodium tripolyphosphate, STPP) is produced industrially by the megatonne by this condensation reaction:

2 Na₂HPO₄ + NaH₂PO₄ → Na₅P₃O₁₀ + 2 H₂O

Phosphorus pentoxide (P₄O₁₀) is the acid anhydride of phosphoric acid, but several intermediates between the two are known. This waxy white solid reacts vigorously with water.

With metal cations, phosphate forms a variety of salts. These solids are polymeric, featuring P-O-M linkages. When the metal cation has a charge of 2+ or 3+, the salts are generally insoluble, hence they exist as common minerals. Many phosphate salts are derived from hydrogen phosphate (HPO₄²⁻).

PCl₅ and PF₅ are common compounds. PF₅ is a colourless gas and the molecules have trigonal bipyramidal geometry. PCl₅ is a colourless solid which has an ionic formulation of PCl₄⁺ PCl₆⁻, but adopts the trigonal bipyramidal geometry when molten or in the vapour phase. ^[17] PBr₅ is an unstable solid formulated as PBr₄⁺Br⁻and PI₅ is not known. ^[17] The pentachloride and pentafluoride are Lewis acids. With fluoride, PF₅ forms PF₆⁻, an anion that is isoelectronic with SF₆. The most important oxyhalide is phosphorus oxychloride, (POCl₃), which is approximately tetrahedral.

Before extensive computer calculations were feasible, it was thought that bonding in phosphorus(V) compounds involved d orbitals. Computer modeling of molecular orbital theory indicates that this bonding involves only s- and p-orbitals. ^[46]

Phosphorus(III)

All four symmetrical trihalides are well known: gaseous PF₃, the yellowish liquids PCl₃ and PBr₃, and the solid PI₃. These materials are moisture sensitive, hydrolysing to give phosphorous acid. The trichloride, a common reagent, is produced by chlorination of white phosphorus:

P₄ + 6 Cl₂ → 4 PCl₃

The trifluoride is produced from the trichloride by halide exchange. PF₃ is toxic because it binds to haemoglobin.

Phosphorus(III) oxide, P₄O₆ (also called tetraphosphorus hexoxide) is the anhydride of P(OH)₃, the minor tautomer of phosphorous acid. The structure of P₄O₆ is like that of P₄O₁₀ without the terminal oxide groups.

Symmetric phosphorus(III) trithioesters (e.g. P(SMe)₃) can be produced from the reaction of white phosphorus and the corresponding disulfide, or phosphorus(III) halides and thiolates. Unlike the corresponding esters, they do not undergo a variant of the Michaelis-Arbuzov reaction with electrophiles, instead reverting to another phosphorus(III) compound through a sulfonium intermediate. ^[47]

Phosphorus(I) and phosphorus(II)

A stable diphosphene, a derivative of phosphorus(I)

These compounds generally feature P–P bonds. ^[17] Examples include catenated derivatives of phosphine and organophosphines. Compounds containing P=P double bonds have also been observed, although they are rare.

Phosphides and phosphines

Phosphides arise by reaction of metals with red phosphorus. The alkali metals (group 1) and alkaline earth metals can form ionic compounds containing the phosphide ion, P³⁻. These compounds react with water to form phosphine. Other phosphides, for example Na₃P₇, are known for these reactive metals. With the transition metals as well as the monophosphides there are metal-rich phosphides, which are generally hard refractory compounds with a metallic lustre, and phosphorus-rich phosphides which are less stable and include semiconductors. ^[17] Schreibersite is a naturally occurring metal-rich phosphide found in meteorites. The structures of the metal-rich and phosphorus-rich phosphides can be complex.

Phosphine (PH₃) and its organic derivatives (PR₃) are structural analogues of ammonia (NH₃), but the bond angles at phosphorus are closer to 90° for phosphine and its organic derivatives. Phosphine is an ill-smelling, toxic gas. Phosphorus has an oxidation number of −3 in phosphine. Phosphine is produced by hydrolysis of calcium phosphide, Ca₃P₂. Unlike ammonia, phosphine is oxidised by air. Phosphine is also far less basic than ammonia. Other phosphines are known which contain chains of up to nine phosphorus atoms and have the formula P_nH_n+2. ^[17] The highly flammable gas diphosphine (P₂H₄) is an analogue of hydrazine.

Oxoacids

Phosphorus oxoacids are extensive, often commercially important, and sometimes structurally complicated. They all have acidic protons bound to oxygen atoms, some have nonacidic protons that are bonded directly to phosphorus and some contain phosphorus–phosphorus bonds. ^[17] Although many oxoacids of phosphorus are formed, only nine are commercially important, and three of them, hypophosphorous acid, phosphorous acid, and phosphoric acid, are particularly important.

Oxidation state	Formula	Name	Acidic protons	Compounds
+1	HH2PO2	hypophosphorous acid	1	acid, salts
+3	H3PO3	phosphorous acid (phosphonic acid)	2	acid, salts
+3	HPO2	metaphosphorous acid	1	salts
+4	H4P2O6	hypophosphoric acid	4	acid, salts
+5	(HPO3)n	metaphosphoric acids	n	salts (n = 3,4,6)
+5	H(HPO3)nOH	polyphosphoric acids	n+2	acids, salts (n = 1-6)
+5	H5P3O10	tripolyphosphoric acid	3	salts
+5	H4P2O7	pyrophosphoric acid	4	acid, salts
+5	H3PO4	(ortho)phosphoric acid	3	acid, salts

Nitrides

The PN molecule is considered unstable, but is a product of crystalline phosphorus nitride decomposition at 1100 K. Similarly, H₂PN is considered unstable, and phosphorus nitride halogens like F₂PN, Cl₂PN, Br₂PN, and I₂PN oligomerise into cyclic polyphosphazenes. For example, compounds of the formula (PNCl₂)_n exist mainly as rings such as the trimer hexachlorophosphazene. The phosphazenes arise by treatment of phosphorus pentachloride with ammonium chloride:

PCl₅ + NH₄Cl → 1/n (NPCl₂)_n + 4 HCl

When the chloride groups are replaced by alkoxide (RO⁻), a family of polymers is produced with potentially useful properties. ^[48]

Sulfides

Main article: phosphorus sulfide

Phosphorus forms a wide range of sulfides, where the phosphorus can be in P(V), P(III) or other oxidation states. The three-fold symmetric P₄S₃ is used in strike-anywhere matches. P₄S₁₀ and P₄O₁₀ have analogous structures. ^[49] Mixed oxyhalides and oxyhydrides of phosphorus(III) are almost unknown.

Organophosphorus compounds

Main article: organophosphorus compounds

Compounds with P-C and P-O-C bonds are often classified as organophosphorus compounds. They are widely used commercially. The PCl₃ serves as a source of P³⁺ in routes to organophosphorus(III) compounds. For example, it is the precursor to triphenylphosphine:

PCl₃ + 6 Na + 3 C₆H₅Cl → P(C₆H₅)₃ + 6 NaCl

Treatment of phosphorus trihalides with alcohols and phenols gives phosphites, e.g. triphenylphosphite:

PCl₃ + 3 C₆H₅OH → P(OC₆H₅)₃ + 3 HCl

Similar reactions occur for phosphorus oxychloride, affording triphenylphosphate:

OPCl₃ + 3 C₆H₅OH → OP(OC₆H₅)₃ + 3 HCl

History

Etymology

The name Phosphorus in Ancient Greece was the name for the planet Venus and is derived from the Greek words (φῶς = light, φέρω = carry), which roughly translates as light-bringer or light carrier. ^[21] (In Greek mythology and tradition, Augerinus (Αυγερινός = morning star, still in use today), Hesperus or Hesperinus (΄Εσπερος or Εσπερινός or Αποσπερίτης = evening star, still in use today) and Eosphorus (Εωσφόρος = dawnbearer, not in use for the planet after Christianity) are close homologues, and also associated with Phosphorus-the-morning-star).

According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the correct spelling of the element is phosphorus. The word phosphorous is the adjectival form of the P³⁺ valence: so, just as sulfur forms sulfurous and sulfuric compounds, phosphorus forms phosphorous compounds (e.g., phosphorous acid) and P⁵⁺ valence phosphoric compounds (e.g., phosphoric acids and phosphates).

Discovery

Robert Boyle

The discovery of phosphorus, the first element to be discovered that was not known since ancient times, ^[50] is credited to the German alchemist Hennig Brand in 1669, although others might have discovered phosphorus around the same time. ^[51] Brand experimented with urine, which contains considerable quantities of dissolved phosphates from normal metabolism. ^[21] Working in Hamburg, Brand attempted to create the fabled philosopher's stone through the distillation of some salts by evaporating urine, and in the process produced a white material that glowed in the dark and burned brilliantly. It was named phosphorus mirabilis ("miraculous bearer of light"). ^[52]

Brand's process originally involved letting urine stand for days until it gave off a terrible stench. Then he boiled it down to a paste, heated this paste to a high temperature, and led the vapours through water, where he hoped they would condense to gold. Instead, he obtained a white, waxy substance that glowed in the dark. Brand had discovered phosphorus. Specifically, Brand produced ammonium sodium hydrogen phosphate, (NH
_⁴)NaHPO
_⁴. While the quantities were essentially correct (it took about 1,100 litres [290 US gal] of urine to make about 60 g of phosphorus), it was unnecessary to allow the urine to rot first. Later scientists discovered that fresh urine yielded the same amount of phosphorus. ^[33]

Brand at first tried to keep the method secret, ^[53] but later sold the recipe for 200 thalers to Johann Daniel Kraft (de) from Dresden. ^[21] Kraft toured much of Europe with it, including England, where he met with Robert Boyle. The secret—that the substance was made from urine—leaked out, and Johann Kunckel (1630–1703) was able to reproduce it in Sweden (1678). Later, Boyle in London (1680) also managed to make phosphorus, possibly with the aid of his assistant, Ambrose Godfrey-Hanckwitz. Godfrey later made a business of the manufacture of phosphorus.

Boyle states that Kraft gave him no information as to the preparation of phosphorus other than that it was derived from "somewhat that belonged to the body of man". This gave Boyle a valuable clue, so that he, too, managed to make phosphorus, and published the method of its manufacture. ^[21] Later he improved Brand's process by using sand in the reaction (still using urine as base material),

4 NaPO
_³ + 2 SiO
_² + 10 C → 2 Na
_²SiO
_³ + 10 CO + P
_⁴

Robert Boyle was the first to use phosphorus to ignite sulfur-tipped wooden splints, forerunners of modern matches, in 1680. ^[54]

Phosphorus was the 13th element to be discovered. Because of its tendency to spontaneously combust when left alone in air, it is sometimes referred to as "the Devil's element". ^[55]

Bone ash and guano

Guano mining in the Central Chincha Islands, c. 1860

Antoine Lavoisier recognized phosphorus as an element in 1777 after Johan Gottlieb Gahn and Carl Wilhelm Scheele, in 1769, showed that calcium phosphate (Ca
_³(PO
_⁴)
_²) is found in bones by obtaining elemental phosphorus from bone ash. ^[10]

Bone ash was the major source of phosphorus until the 1840s. The method started by roasting bones, then employed the use of fire clay retorts encased in a very hot brick furnace to distill out the highly toxic elemental phosphorus product. ^[56] Alternately, precipitated phosphates could be made from ground-up bones that had been de-greased and treated with strong acids. White phosphorus could then be made by heating the precipitated phosphates, mixed with ground coal or charcoal in an iron pot, and distilling off phosphorus vapour in a retort. ^[57] Carbon monoxide and other flammable gases produced during the reduction process were burnt off in a flare stack.

In the 1840s, world phosphate production turned to the mining of tropical island deposits formed from bird and bat guano (see also Guano Islands Act). These became an important source of phosphates for fertiliser in the latter half of the 19th century.^{[ citation needed ]}

Phosphate rock

Phosphate rock, which usually contains calcium phosphate, was first used in 1850 to make phosphorus, and following the introduction of the electric arc furnace by James Burgess Readman in 1888 ^[58] (patented 1889), ^[59] elemental phosphorus production switched from the bone-ash heating, to electric arc production from phosphate rock. After the depletion of world guano sources about the same time, mineral phosphates became the major source of phosphate fertiliser production. Phosphate rock production greatly increased after World War II, and remains the primary global source of phosphorus and phosphorus chemicals today. Phosphate rock remains a feedstock in the fertiliser industry, where it is treated with sulfuric acid to produce various "superphosphate" fertiliser products.

Incendiaries

White phosphorus was first made commercially in the 19th century for the match industry. This used bone ash for a phosphate source, as described above. The bone-ash process became obsolete when the submerged-arc furnace for phosphorus production was introduced to reduce phosphate rock. ^{[60] [61]} The electric furnace method allowed production to increase to the point where phosphorus could be used in weapons of war. ^{[31] [62]} In World War I, it was used in incendiaries, smoke screens and tracer bullets. ^[62] A special incendiary bullet was developed to shoot at hydrogen-filled Zeppelins over Britain (hydrogen being highly flammable). ^[62] During World War II, Molotov cocktails made of phosphorus dissolved in petrol were distributed in Britain to specially selected civilians within the British resistance operation, for defence; and phosphorus incendiary bombs were used in war on a large scale. Burning phosphorus is difficult to extinguish and if it splashes onto human skin it has horrific effects. ^[17]

Early matches used white phosphorus in their composition, which was dangerous due to its toxicity. Murders, suicides and accidental poisonings resulted from its use. (An apocryphal tale tells of a woman attempting to murder her husband with white phosphorus in his food, which was detected by the stew's giving off luminous steam). ^[31] In addition, exposure to the vapours gave match workers a severe necrosis of the bones of the jaw, known as "phossy jaw". When a safe process for manufacturing red phosphorus was discovered, with its far lower flammability and toxicity, laws were enacted, under the Berne Convention (1906), requiring its adoption as a safer alternative for match manufacture. ^[63] The toxicity of white phosphorus led to discontinuation of its use in matches. ^[64] The Allies used phosphorus incendiary bombs in World War II to destroy Hamburg, the place where the "miraculous bearer of light" was first discovered. ^[52]

Production

Mining of phosphate rock in Nauru

In 2017, the USGS estimated 68 billion tons of world reserves, where reserve figures refer to the amount assumed recoverable at current market prices; 0.261 billion tons were mined in 2016. ^[65] Critical to contemporary agriculture, its annual demand is rising nearly twice as fast as the growth of the human population. ^[41] The production of phosphorus may have peaked before 2011 and some scientists predict reserves will be depleted before the end of the 21st century. ^{[66] [41]} Phosphorus comprises about 0.1% by mass of the average rock, and consequently, the Earth's supply is vast, though dilute. ^[17]

Wet process

Most phosphorus-bearing material is for agriculture fertilisers. In this case where the standards of purity are modest, phosphorus is obtained from phosphate rock by what is called the "wet process." The minerals are treated with sulfuric acid to give phosphoric acid. Phosphoric acid is then neutralized to give various phosphate salts, which comprise fertilizers. In the wet process, phosphorus does not undergo redox. ^[67] About five tons of phosphogypsum waste are generated per ton of phosphoric acid production. Annually, the estimated generation of phosphogypsum worldwide is 100 to 280 Mt. ^[68]

Thermal process

For the use of phosphorus in drugs, detergents, and foodstuff, the standards of purity are high, which led to the development of the thermal process. In this process, phosphate minerals are converted to white phosphorus, which can be purified by distillation. The white phosphorus is then oxidised to phosphoric acid and subsequently neutralised with a base to give phosphate salts. The thermal process is conducted in a submerged-arc furnace which is energy intensive. ^[67] Presently, about 1,000,000 short tons (910,000  t ) of elemental phosphorus is produced annually. Calcium phosphate (as phosphate rock), mostly mined in Florida and North Africa, can be heated to 1,200–1,500 °C with sand, which is mostly SiO
_², and coke to produce P
_⁴. The P
_⁴ product, being volatile, is readily isolated: ^[69]

4 Ca₅(PO₄)₃F + 18 SiO₂ + 30 C → 3 P₄ + 30 CO + 18 CaSiO₃ + 2 CaF₂

2 Ca₃(PO₄)₂ + 6 SiO₂ + 10 C → 6 CaSiO₃ + 10 CO + P₄

Side products from the thermal process include ferrophosphorus, a crude form of Fe₂P, resulting from iron impurities in the mineral precursors. The silicate slag is a useful construction material. The fluoride is sometimes recovered for use in water fluoridation. More problematic is a "mud" containing significant amounts of white phosphorus. Production of white phosphorus is conducted in large facilities in part because it is energy intensive. The white phosphorus is transported in molten form. Some major accidents have occurred during transportation. ^[70]

Historical routes

Historically, before the development of mineral-based extractions, white phosphorus was isolated on an industrial scale from bone ash. ^[71] In this process, the tricalcium phosphate in bone ash is converted to monocalcium phosphate with sulfuric acid:

Ca₃(PO₄)₂ + 2 H₂SO₄ → Ca(H₂PO₄)₂ + 2 CaSO₄

Monocalcium phosphate is then dehydrated to the corresponding metaphosphate:

Ca(H₂PO₄)₂ → Ca(PO₃)₂ + 2 H₂O

When ignited to a white heat (~1300 °C) with charcoal, calcium metaphosphate yields two-thirds of its weight of white phosphorus while one-third of the phosphorus remains in the residue as calcium orthophosphate:

3 Ca(PO₃)₂ + 10 C → Ca₃(PO₄)₂ + 10 CO + P₄

Peak phosphorus

Annual global phosphate rock production (megatonnes per yr), 1994–2022 (data from US Geological Survey)

Peak phosphorus is a concept to describe the point in time when humanity reaches the maximum global production rate of phosphorus as an industrial and commercial raw material. The term is used in an equivalent way to the better-known term peak oil. ^[73] The issue was raised as a debate on whether phosphorus shortages might be imminent around 2010, which was largely dismissed after USGS and other organizations ^[74] increased world estimates on available phosphorus resources, mostly in the form of additional resources in Morocco. However, exact reserve quantities remain uncertain, as do the possible impacts of increased phosphate use on future generations. ^[75] This is important because rock phosphate is a key ingredient in many inorganic fertilizers. Hence, a shortage in rock phosphate (or just significant price increases) might negatively affect the world's food security. ^[76]

Phosphorus is a finite (limited) resource that is widespread in the Earth's crust and in living organisms but is relatively scarce in concentrated forms, which are not evenly distributed across the Earth. The only cost-effective production method to date is the mining of phosphate rock, but only a few countries have significant commercial reserves. The top five are Morocco (including reserves located in Western Sahara), China, Egypt, Algeria and Syria. ^[77] Estimates for future production vary significantly depending on modelling and assumptions on extractable volumes, but it is inescapable that future production of phosphate rock will be heavily influenced by Morocco in the foreseeable future. ^[78]

Means of commercial phosphorus production besides mining are few because the phosphorus cycle does not include significant gas-phase transport. ^[79] The predominant source of phosphorus in modern times is phosphate rock (as opposed to the guano that preceded it). According to some researchers, Earth's commercial and affordable phosphorus reserves are expected to be depleted in 50–100 years and peak phosphorus to be reached in approximately 2030. ^{[73] [66]} Others suggest that supplies will last for several hundreds of years. ^[80] As with the timing of peak oil, the question is not settled, and researchers in different fields regularly publish different estimates of the rock phosphate reserves. ^[81]

Background

Phosphate rock mined in the United States, 1900–2015 (data from US Geological Survey)

The peak phosphorus concept is connected with the concept of planetary boundaries. Phosphorus, as part of biogeochemical processes, belongs to one of the nine "Earth system processes" which are known to have boundaries. As long as the boundaries are not crossed, they mark the "safe zone" for the planet. ^[82]

Estimates of world phosphate reserves

Global distribution of commercial reserves of rock phosphate in 2016

The accurate determination of peak phosphorus is dependent on knowing the total world's commercial phosphate reserves and resources, especially in the form of phosphate rock (a summarizing term for over 300 ores of different origin, composition, and phosphate content). "Reserves" refers to the amount assumed recoverable at current market prices and "resources" refers to estimated amounts of such a grade or quality that they have reasonable prospects for economic extraction. ^{[84] [85]}

Unprocessed phosphate rock has a concentration of 1.7–8.7% phosphorus by mass (4–20% phosphorus pentoxide). By comparison, the Earth's crust contains 0.1% phosphorus by mass, ^[86] and vegetation 0.03–0.2%. ^[87] Although quadrillions of tons of phosphorus exist in the Earth's crust, ^[88] these are currently not economically extractable.

In 2023, the United States Geological Survey (USGS) estimated that economically extractable phosphate rock reserves worldwide are 72 billion tons, while world mining production in 2022 was 220 million tons. ^[77] Assuming zero growth, the reserves would thus last for around 300 years. This broadly confirms a 2010 International Fertilizer Development Center (IFDC) report that global reserves would last for several hundred years. ^{[80] [74]} Phosphorus reserve figures are intensely debated. ^{[84] [89] [90]} Gilbert suggest that there has been little external verification of the estimate. ^[91] A 2014 review ^[81] concluded that the IFDC report "presents an inflated picture of global reserves, in particular those of Morocco, where largely hypothetical and inferred resources have simply been relabeled “reserves".

The countries with most phosphate rock commercial reserves (in billion metric tons): Morocco 50, China 3.2, Egypt 2.8, Algeria 2.2, Syria 1.8, Brazil 1.6, Saudi Arabia 1.4, South Africa 1.4, Australia 1.1, United States 1.0, Finland 1.0, Russia 0.6, Jordan 0.8. ^{[92] [77]}

Rock phosphate shortages (or just significant price increases) might negatively affect the world's food security. ^[76] Many agricultural systems depend on supplies of inorganic fertilizer, which use rock phosphate. Under the food production regime in developed countries, shortages of rock phosphate could lead to shortages of inorganic fertilizer, which could in turn reduce the global food production. ^[93]

Economists have pointed out that price fluctuations of rock phosphate do not necessarily indicate peak phosphorus, as these have already occurred due to various demand- and supply-side factors. ^[94]

United States

Further information: Phosphate mining in the United States

US production of phosphate rock peaked in 1980 at 54.4 million metric tons. The United States was the world's largest producer of phosphate rock from at least 1900, up until 2006, when US production was exceeded by that of China. In 2019, the US produced 10 percent of the world's phosphate rock. ^[95]

Exhaustion of guano reserves

Main article: Guano

In 1609 Garcilaso de la Vega wrote the book Comentarios Reales in which he described many of the agricultural practices of the Incas prior to the arrival of the Spaniards and introduced the use of guano as a fertilizer. As Garcilaso described, the Incas near the coast harvested guano. ^[96] In the early 1800s Alexander von Humboldt introduced guano as a source of agricultural fertilizer to Europe after having discovered it on islands off the coast of South America. It has been reported that, at the time of its discovery, the guano on some islands was over 30 meters deep. ^[97] The guano had previously been used by the Moche people as a source of fertilizer by mining it and transporting it back to Peru by boat. International commerce in guano did not start until after 1840. ^[97] By the start of the 20th century guano had been nearly completely depleted and was eventually overtaken with the discovery of methods of production of superphosphate.

Phosphorus conservation and recycling

Phosphate mine on Nauru, once one of the world's major sources of phosphate rock

Overview

Phosphorus can be transferred from the soil in one location to another as food is transported across the world, taking the phosphorus it contains with it. Once consumed by humans, it can end up in the local environment (in the case of open defecation which is still widespread on a global scale) or in rivers or the ocean via sewage systems and sewage treatment plants in the case of cities connected to sewer systems. An example of one crop that takes up large amounts of phosphorus is soy.

In an effort to postpone the onset of peak phosphorus several methods of reducing and reusing phosphorus are in practice, such as in agriculture and in sanitation systems. The Soil Association, the UK organic agriculture certification and pressure group, issued a report in 2010 "A Rock and a Hard Place" encouraging more recycling of phosphorus. ^[98] One potential solution to the shortage of phosphorus is greater recycling of human and animal wastes back into the environment. ^[99]

Agricultural practices

Reducing agricultural runoff and soil erosion can slow the frequency with which farmers have to reapply phosphorus to their fields. Agricultural methods such as no-till farming, terracing, contour tilling, and the use of windbreaks have been shown to reduce the rate of phosphorus depletion from farmland. These methods are still dependent on a periodic application of phosphate rock to the soil and as such methods to recycle the lost phosphorus have also been proposed. Perennial vegetation, such as grassland or forest, is much more efficient in its use of phosphate than arable land. Strips of grassland and/or forest between arable land and rivers can greatly reduce losses of phosphate and other nutrients. ^[100]

Integrated farming systems which use animal sources to supply phosphorus for crops do exist at smaller scales, and application of the system to a larger scale is a potential alternative for supplying the nutrient, although it would require significant changes to the widely adopted modern crop fertilizing methods.

Excreta reuse

Main article: Excreta reuse

The oldest method of recycling phosphorus is through the reuse of animal manure and human excreta in agriculture. Via this method, phosphorus in the foods consumed are excreted, and the animal or human excreta are subsequently collected and re-applied to the fields. Although this method has maintained civilizations for centuries the current system of manure management is not logistically geared towards application to crop fields on a large scale. At present, manure application could not meet the phosphorus needs of large scale agriculture. Despite that, it is still an efficient method of recycling used phosphorus and returning it to the soil. There are concerns with pathogens in manure and human excreta, but those pathogens can be eliminated via suitable treatment. However, especially in the Global South these processes are not always followed, leading to outbreaks of diseases transmitted via the fecal–oral route such as cholera.

Sewage sludge

Sewage treatment plants that have an enhanced biological phosphorus removal step produce a sewage sludge that is rich in phosphorus. Various processes have been developed to extract phosphorus from sewage sludge directly, from the ash after incineration of the sewage sludge or from other products of sewage sludge treatment. This includes the extraction of phosphorus rich materials such as struvite from waste processing plants. ^[91] The struvite can be made by adding magnesium to the waste. Some companies such as Ostara in Canada and NuReSys in Belgium are already using this technique to recover phosphate. ^[101]

Research on phosphorus recovery methods from sewage sludge has been carried out in Sweden and Germany since around 2003, but the technologies currently under development are not yet cost effective, given the current price of phosphorus on the world market. ^{[102] [103]}

Neutron transmutation doping

The above routes refer to "production" in the chemical sense i.e. extracting a desired element or compound from a source without changing the atoms themselves. However, there is a process which produces phosphorus in a nuclear sense in that atoms of another element are turned into phosphorus. While the amount of phosphorus produced this way is minuscule, it is nonetheless a crucial process in semiconductor production.

Neutron transmutation doping (NTD) is an unusual doping method for special applications. Most commonly, it is used to dope silicon n-type in high-power electronics and semiconductor detectors. It is based on the conversion of the ³⁰Si isotope into phosphorus atoms by neutron absorption and beta decay as follows:

$${\displaystyle ^{30}\mathrm {Si} \,(n,\gamma )\,^{31}\mathrm {Si} \rightarrow \,^{31}\mathrm {P} +\beta ^{-}\;(T_{1/2}=2.62\mathrm {h} ).}$$ In practice, the silicon is typically placed near or inside a nuclear reactor (most commonly a research reactor e.g. the one at MIT ^[104] ) to receive the neutrons. As neutrons continue to pass through the silicon, more and more phosphorus atoms are produced by transmutation, and therefore the doping becomes more and more strongly n-type. NTD is a far less common doping method than diffusion or ion implantation, but it has the advantage of creating an extremely uniform dopant distribution. ^{[105] [106]}

Applications

Flame retardant

Phosphorus compounds are used as flame retardants. Flame-retardant materials and coatings are being developed that are both phosphorus- and bio-based. ^[107]

Food additive

Phosphorus is an essential mineral for humans listed in the Dietary Reference Intake (DRI).

Food-grade phosphoric acid (additive E338 ^[108] ) is used to acidify foods and beverages such as various colas and jams, providing a tangy or sour taste. The phosphoric acid also serves as a preservative. ^[109] Soft drinks containing phosphoric acid, including Coca-Cola, are sometimes called phosphate sodas or phosphates. Phosphoric acid in soft drinks has the potential to cause dental erosion. ^[110] Phosphoric acid also has the potential to contribute to the formation of kidney stones, especially in those who have had kidney stones previously. ^[111]

Fertiliser

Main article: Fertiliser

See also: Phosphorus cycle

Phosphorus is an essential plant nutrient (the most often limiting nutrient, after nitrogen), ^[112] and the bulk of all phosphorus production is in concentrated phosphoric acids for agriculture fertilisers, containing as much as 70% to 75% P₂O₅. That led to large increase in phosphate (PO₄³⁻) production in the second half of the 20th century. ^[41] Artificial phosphate fertilisation is necessary because phosphorus is essential to all living organisms; it is involved in energy transfers, strength of root and stems, photosynthesis, the expansion of plant roots, formation of seeds and flowers, and other important factors effecting overall plant health and genetics. ^[112] Heavy use of phosphorus fertilizers and their runoff have resulted in eutrophication (overenrichment) of aquatic ecosystems. ^{[113] [114]}

Natural phosphorus-bearing compounds are mostly inaccessible to plants because of the low solubility and mobility in soil. ^[115] Most phosphorus is very stable in the soil minerals or organic matter of the soil. Even when phosphorus is added in manure or fertilizer it can become fixed in the soil. Therefore, the natural phosphorus cycle is very slow. Some of the fixed phosphorus is released again over time, sustaining wild plant growth, however, more is needed to sustain intensive cultivation of crops. ^[116] Fertiliser is often in the form of superphosphate of lime, a mixture of calcium dihydrogen phosphate (Ca(H₂PO₄)₂), and calcium sulfate dihydrate (CaSO₄·2H₂O) produced reacting sulfuric acid and water with calcium phosphate.

Processing phosphate minerals with sulfuric acid for obtaining fertiliser is so important to the global economy that this is the primary industrial market for sulfuric acid and the greatest industrial use of elemental sulfur. ^[117]

Widely used compounds	Use
Ca(H2PO4)2·H2O	Baking powder and fertilisers
CaHPO4·2H2O	Animal food additive, toothpowder
H3PO4	Manufacture of phosphate fertilisers
PCl3	Manufacture of POCl3 and pesticides
POCl3	Manufacture of plasticiser
P4S10	Manufacturing of additives and pesticides
Na5P3O10	Detergents

Organophosphorus

White phosphorus is widely used to make organophosphorus compounds through intermediate phosphorus chlorides and two phosphorus sulfides, phosphorus pentasulfide and phosphorus sesquisulfide. ^[118] Organophosphorus compounds have many applications, including in plasticisers, flame retardants, pesticides, extraction agents, nerve agents and water treatment. ^{[17] [119]}

Metallurgical aspects

Phosphorus is also an important component in steel production, in the making of phosphor bronze, and in many other related products. ^{[120] [121]} Phosphorus is added to metallic copper during its smelting process to react with oxygen present as an impurity in copper and to produce phosphorus-containing copper (CuOFP) alloys with a higher hydrogen embrittlement resistance than normal copper. ^[122] Phosphate conversion coating is a chemical treatment applied to steel parts to improve their corrosion resistance.

Matches

Match striking surface made of a mixture of red phosphorus, glue and ground glass. The glass powder is used to increase the friction.

Main article: Match

The first striking match with a phosphorus head was invented by Charles Sauria in 1830. These matches (and subsequent modifications) were made with heads of white phosphorus, an oxygen-releasing compound (potassium chlorate, lead dioxide, or sometimes nitrate), and a binder. They were poisonous to the workers in manufacture, ^[123] sensitive to storage conditions, toxic if ingested, and hazardous when accidentally ignited on a rough surface. ^{[124] [125]} Production in several countries was banned between 1872 and 1925. ^[126] The international Berne Convention, ratified in 1906, prohibited the use of white phosphorus in matches.

In consequence, phosphorous matches were gradually replaced by safer alternatives. Around 1900 French chemists Henri Sévène and Emile David Cahen invented the modern strike-anywhere match, wherein the white phosphorus was replaced by phosphorus sesquisulfide (P₄S₃), a non-toxic and non-pyrophoric compound that ignites under friction. For a time these safer strike-anywhere matches were quite popular but in the long run they were superseded by the modern safety match.

Safety matches are very difficult to ignite on any surface other than a special striker strip. The strip contains non-toxic red phosphorus and the match head potassium chlorate, an oxygen-releasing compound. When struck, small amounts of abrasion from match head and striker strip are mixed intimately to make a small quantity of Armstrong's mixture, a very touch sensitive composition. The fine powder ignites immediately and provides the initial spark to set off the match head. Safety matches separate the two components of the ignition mixture until the match is struck. This is the key safety advantage as it prevents accidental ignition. Nonetheless, safety matches, invented in 1844 by Gustaf Erik Pasch and market ready by the 1860s, did not gain consumer acceptance until the prohibition of white phosphorus. Using a dedicated striker strip was considered clumsy. ^{[22] [118] [127]}

Water softening

Sodium tripolyphosphate made from phosphoric acid is used in laundry detergents in some countries, but banned for this use in others. ^[24] This compound softens the water to enhance the performance of the detergents and to prevent pipe/boiler tube corrosion. ^[128]

Miscellaneous

• Phosphates are used to make special glasses for sodium lamps. ^[24]
• Bone-ash (mostly calcium phosphate) is used in the production of fine china. ^[24]
• Phosphoric acid made from elemental phosphorus is used in food applications such as soft drinks, and as a starting point for food grade phosphates. ^[118] These include monocalcium phosphate for baking powder and sodium tripolyphosphate. ^[118] Phosphates are used to improve the characteristics of processed meat and cheese, and in toothpaste. ^[118]
• White phosphorus, called "WP" (slang term "Willie Peter") is used in military applications as incendiary bombs, for smoke-screening as smoke pots and smoke bombs, and in tracer ammunition. It is also a part of an obsolete M34 White Phosphorus US hand grenade. This multipurpose grenade was mostly used for signaling, smoke screens, and inflammation; it could also cause severe burns and had a psychological impact on the enemy. ^[129] Military uses of white phosphorus are constrained by international law.
• ³²P and ³³P are used as radioactive tracers in biochemical laboratories. ^[130]
• Phosphorus is a dopant in n-type semiconductors

Biological role

See also: Calcium metabolism

Inorganic phosphorus in the form of the phosphate PO³⁻
₄ is required for all known forms of life. ^[131] Phosphorus plays a major role in the structural framework of DNA and RNA. Living cells use phosphate to transport cellular energy with adenosine triphosphate (ATP), necessary for every cellular process that uses energy. ATP is also important for phosphorylation, a key regulatory event in cells. Phospholipids are the main structural components of all cellular membranes. Calcium phosphate salts assist in stiffening bones. ^[17] Biochemists commonly use the abbreviation "P_i" to refer to inorganic phosphate. ^[132]

Every living cell is encased in a membrane that separates it from its surroundings. Cellular membranes are composed of a phospholipid matrix and proteins, typically in the form of a bilayer. Phospholipids are derived from glycerol with two of the glycerol hydroxyl (OH) protons replaced by fatty acids as an ester, and the third hydroxyl proton has been replaced with phosphate bonded to another alcohol. ^[133]

An average adult human contains about 0.7 kilograms (1.5 lb) of phosphorus, about 85–90% in bones and teeth in the form of apatite, and the remainder in soft tissues and extracellular fluids. The phosphorus content increases from about 0.5% by mass in infancy to 0.65–1.1% by mass in adults. Average phosphorus concentration in the blood is about 0.4 g/L; about 70% of that is organic and 30% inorganic phosphates. ^[134] An adult with healthy diet consumes and excretes about 1–3 grams of phosphorus per day, with consumption in the form of inorganic phosphate and phosphorus-containing biomolecules such as nucleic acids and phospholipids; and excretion almost exclusively in the form of phosphate ions such as H
_²PO⁻
₄ and HPO²⁻
₄. Only about 0.1% of body phosphate circulates in the blood, paralleling the amount of phosphate available to soft tissue cells.

Bone and teeth enamel

The main component of bone is hydroxyapatite as well as amorphous forms of calcium phosphate, possibly including carbonate. Hydroxyapatite is the main component of tooth enamel. Water fluoridation enhances the resistance of teeth to decay by the partial conversion of this mineral to the still harder material fluorapatite: ^[17]

Ca
_⁵(PO
_⁴)
_³OH + F⁻
→ Ca
_⁵(PO
_⁴)
_³F + OH⁻

Phosphorus deficiency

In medicine, phosphate deficiency syndrome may be caused by malnutrition, by failure to absorb phosphate, and by metabolic syndromes that draw phosphate from the blood (such as in refeeding syndrome after malnutrition ^[135] ) or passing too much of it into the urine. All are characterised by hypophosphatemia, which is a condition of low levels of soluble phosphate levels in the blood serum and inside the cells. Symptoms of hypophosphatemia include neurological dysfunction and disruption of muscle and blood cells due to lack of ATP. Too much phosphate can lead to diarrhoea and calcification (hardening) of organs and soft tissue, and can interfere with the body's ability to use iron, calcium, magnesium, and zinc. ^[136]

Phosphorus is an essential macromineral for plants, which is studied extensively in edaphology to understand plant uptake from soil systems. Phosphorus is a limiting factor in many ecosystems; that is, the scarcity of phosphorus limits the rate of organism growth. An excess of phosphorus can also be problematic, especially in aquatic systems where eutrophication sometimes leads to algal blooms. ^[41]

Nutrition

Dietary recommendations

The U.S. Institute of Medicine (IOM) updated Estimated Average Requirements (EARs) and Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for phosphorus in 1997. If there is not sufficient information to establish EARs and RDAs, an estimate designated Adequate Intake (AI) is used instead. The current EAR for phosphorus for people ages 19 and up is 580 mg/day. The RDA is 700 mg/day. RDAs are higher than EARs so as to identify amounts that will cover people with higher-than-average requirements. RDA for pregnancy and lactation are also 700 mg/day. For people ages 1–18 years, the RDA increases with age from 460 to 1250 mg/day. As for safety, the IOM sets tolerable upper intake levels (ULs) for vitamins and minerals when evidence is sufficient. In the case of phosphorus, the UL is 4000 mg/day. Collectively the EARs, RDAs, AIs and ULs are referred to as Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs). ^[137]

The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) refers to the collective set of information as Dietary Reference Values, with Population Reference Intake (PRI) instead of RDA, and Average Requirement instead of EAR. ^[138] AI and UL are defined the same as in the United States. For people ages 15 and older, including pregnancy and lactation, the AI is set at 550 mg/day. For children ages 4–10, the AI is 440 mg/day, and for ages 11–17 it is 640 mg/day. These AIs are lower than the U.S. RDAs. In both systems, teenagers need more than adults. ^[139] EFSA reviewed the same safety question and decided that there was not sufficient information to set a UL. ^[140]

For U.S. food and dietary supplement labeling purposes, the amount in a serving is expressed as a percent of Daily Value (%DV). For phosphorus labeling purposes, 100% of the Daily Value was 1000 mg, but as of May 27, 2016, it was revised to 1250 mg to bring it into agreement with the RDA. ^{[141] [142]} A table of the old and new adult daily values is provided at Reference Daily Intake.

Food sources

The main food sources for phosphorus are the same as those containing protein, although proteins do not contain phosphorus. For example, milk, meat, and soya typically also have phosphorus. As a rule, if a diet has sufficient protein and calcium, the amount of phosphorus is probably sufficient. ^[143]

Precautions

Phosphorus explosion

Organic compounds of phosphorus form a broad class of materials; many are required for life, but some are highly toxic. Fluorophosphate esters are among the most potent neurotoxins known. A wide range of organophosphorus compounds are used for their toxicity as pesticides (herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, etc.) and weaponised as nerve agents against enemy humans. Most inorganic phosphates are relatively nontoxic and essential nutrients. ^[17]

The white phosphorus allotrope presents a significant hazard because it ignites in the air and produces phosphoric acid residue. Chronic white phosphorus poisoning leads to necrosis of the jaw called "phossy jaw". White phosphorus is toxic, causing severe liver damage on ingestion and may cause a condition known as "Smoking Stool Syndrome". ^[144]

In the past, external exposure to elemental phosphorus was treated by washing the affected area with 2% copper(II) sulfate solution to form harmless compounds that are then washed away. According to the recent US Navy's Treatment of Chemical Agent Casualties and Conventional Military Chemical Injuries: FM8-285: Part 2 Conventional Military Chemical Injuries, "Cupric (copper(II)) sulfate has been used by U.S. personnel in the past and is still being used by some nations. However, copper sulfate is toxic and its use will be discontinued. Copper sulfate may produce kidney and cerebral toxicity as well as intravascular hemolysis." ^[145]

The manual suggests instead "a bicarbonate solution to neutralise phosphoric acid, which will then allow removal of visible white phosphorus. Particles often can be located by their emission of smoke when air strikes them, or by their phosphorescence in the dark. In dark surroundings, fragments are seen as luminescent spots. Promptly debride the burn if the patient's condition will permit removal of bits of WP (white phosphorus) that might be absorbed later and possibly produce systemic poisoning. DO NOT apply oily-based ointments until it is certain that all WP has been removed. Following complete removal of the particles, treat the lesions as thermal burns." ^{[note 1] [145]} As white phosphorus readily mixes with oils, any oily substances or ointments are not recommended until the area is thoroughly cleaned and all white phosphorus removed.

In the workplace, people can be exposed to phosphorus by inhalation, ingestion, skin contact, and eye contact. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the phosphorus exposure limit (Permissible exposure limit) in the workplace at 0.1 mg/m³ over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a Recommended exposure limit (REL) of 0.1 mg/m³ over an 8-hour workday. At levels of 5 mg/m³, phosphorus is immediately dangerous to life and health. ^[146]

US DEA List I status

Phosphorus can reduce elemental iodine to hydroiodic acid, which is a reagent effective for reducing ephedrine or pseudoephedrine to methamphetamine. ^[147] For this reason, red and white phosphorus were designated by the United States Drug Enforcement Administration as List I precursor chemicals under 21 CFR 1310.02 effective on November 17, 2001. ^[148] In the United States, handlers of red or white phosphorus are subject to stringent regulatory controls. ^{[148] [149] [150]}

See also

• Hubbert peak theory

Notes

1. WP, (white phosphorus), exhibits chemoluminescence upon exposure to air and if there is any WP in the wound, covered by tissue or fluids such as blood serum, it will not glow until it is exposed to air, which requires a very dark room and dark-adapted eyes to see clearly

Bibliography

References

1. "Standard Atomic Weights: Phosphorus". CIAAW. 2013.
2. Prohaska, Thomas; Irrgeher, Johanna; Benefield, Jacqueline; Böhlke, John K.; Chesson, Lesley A.; Coplen, Tyler B.; Ding, Tiping; Dunn, Philip J. H.; Gröning, Manfred; Holden, Norman E.; Meijer, Harro A. J. (2022-05-04). "Standard atomic weights of the elements 2021 (IUPAC Technical Report)". Pure and Applied Chemistry. doi:10.1515/pac-2019-0603. ISSN   1365-3075.
3. Phosphorus at the Encyclopædia Britannica
4. Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 28. ISBN   978-0-08-037941-8.
5. Wang, Yuzhong; Xie, Yaoming; Wei, Pingrong; King, R. Bruce; Schaefer, Iii; Schleyer, Paul v. R.; Robinson, Gregory H. (2008). "Carbene-Stabilized Diphosphorus". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 130 (45): 14970–1. doi:10.1021/ja807828t. PMID   18937460.
6. Ellis, Bobby D.; MacDonald, Charles L. B. (2006). "Phosphorus(I) Iodide: A Versatile Metathesis Reagent for the Synthesis of Low Oxidation State Phosphorus Compounds". Inorganic Chemistry. 45 (17): 6864–74. doi:10.1021/ic060186o. PMID   16903744.
7. Arblaster, John W. (2018). Selected Values of the Crystallographic Properties of Elements. Materials Park, Ohio: ASM International. ISBN   978-1-62708-155-9.
8. Lide, D. R., ed. (2005). "Magnetic susceptibility of the elements and inorganic compounds". CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (PDF) (86th ed.). Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press. ISBN   0-8493-0486-5.
9. Weast, Robert (1984). CRC, Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. Boca Raton, Florida: Chemical Rubber Company Publishing. pp. E110. ISBN   0-8493-0464-4.
10. cf. "Memoir on Combustion in General" Mémoires de l'Académie Royale des Sciences 1777, 592–600. from Henry Marshall Leicester and Herbert S. Klickstein, A Source Book in Chemistry 1400–1900 (New York: McGraw Hill, 1952)
11. A. Holleman; N. Wiberg (1985). "XV 2.1.3". Lehrbuch der Anorganischen Chemie (33rd ed.). de Gruyter. ISBN   3-11-012641-9.
12. Abundance. ptable.com
13. Simon, Arndt; Borrmann, Horst; Horakh, Jörg (1997). "On the Polymorphism of White Phosphorus". Chemische Berichte. 130 (9): 1235–1240. doi:10.1002/cber.19971300911.
14. Cossairt, Brandi M.; Cummins, Christopher C.; Head, Ashley R.; Lichtenberger, Dennis L.; Berger, Raphael J. F.; Hayes, Stuart A.; Mitzel, Norbert W.; Wu, Gang (2010-06-01). "On the Molecular and Electronic Structures of AsP3 and P4". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 132 (24): 8459–8465. doi:10.1021/ja102580d. ISSN   0002-7863. PMID   20515032.
15. Welford C. Roberts; William R. Hartley (1992-06-16). Drinking Water Health Advisory: Munitions (illustrated ed.). CRC Press, 1992. p. 399. ISBN   0-87371-754-6.
16. Marie-Thérèse Averbuch-Pouchot; A. Durif (1996). Topics in Phosphate Chemistry. World Scientific, 1996. p. 3. ISBN   981-02-2634-9.
17. Greenwood, N. N.; & Earnshaw, A. (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd Edn.), Oxford:Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN   0-7506-3365-4.
18. Piro, N. A.; Figueroa, J. S.; McKellar, J. T.; Cummins, C. C. (2006). "Triple-Bond Reactivity of Diphosphorus Molecules". Science . 313 (5791): 1276–9. Bibcode:2006Sci...313.1276P. doi:10.1126/science.1129630. PMID   16946068. S2CID   27740669.
19. Berger, L. I. (1996). Semiconductor materials . CRC Press. p.  84. ISBN   0-8493-8912-7.
20. Shen, Z; Yu, JC (2016). "Nanostructured elemental photocatalysts: Development and challenges". In Yamashita, H; Li, H (eds.). Nanostructured Photocatalysts: Advanced Functional Materials. Switzerland: Springer. pp. 295–312 (301). ISBN   978-3-319-26077-8.
21. Parkes & Mellor 1939 , p. 717
22. Egon Wiberg; Nils Wiberg; Arnold Frederick Holleman (2001). Inorganic chemistry. Academic Press. pp. 683–684, 689. ISBN   978-0-12-352651-9 . Retrieved 2011-11-19.
23. Parkes & Mellor 1939 , pp. 721–722
24. Hammond, C. R. (2000). "The Elements". Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (81st ed.). CRC press. ISBN   0-8493-0481-4.
25. A. Brown; S. Runquist (1965). "Refinement of the crystal structure of black phosphorus". Acta Crystallogr. 19 (4): 684–685. Bibcode:1965AcCry..19..684B. doi:10.1107/S0365110X65004140.
26. Cartz, L.; Srinivasa, S.R.; Riedner, R.J.; Jorgensen, J.D.; Worlton, T.G. (1979). "Effect of pressure on bonding in black phosphorus". Journal of Chemical Physics. 71 (4): 1718–1721. Bibcode:1979JChPh..71.1718C. doi:10.1063/1.438523.
27. Lange, Stefan; Schmidt, Peer & Nilges, Tom (2007). "Au3SnP7@Black Phosphorus: An Easy Access to Black Phosphorus". Inorg. Chem. 46 (10): 4028–35. doi:10.1021/ic062192q. PMID   17439206.
28. Robert Engel (2003-12-18). Synthesis of Carbon-Phosphorus Bonds (2 ed.). CRC Press, 2003. p. 11. ISBN   0-203-99824-3.
29. "Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1956 – Presentation Speech by Professor A. Ölander (committee member)" . Retrieved 2009-05-05.
30. "Phosphorus". Lateral Science. Archived from the original on 2009-02-21. Retrieved 2009-05-05.
31. Emsley 2000
32. Vanzee, Richard J.; Khan, Ahsan U. (1976). "The phosphorescence of phosphorus". The Journal of Physical Chemistry. 80 (20): 2240–2242. doi:10.1021/j100561a021.
33. Sommers 2007, p. 25
34. Audi, G.; Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S. (2017). "The NUBASE2016 evaluation of nuclear properties" (PDF). Chinese Physics C. 41 (3): 030001. Bibcode:2017ChPhC..41c0001A. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/41/3/030001.
35. Neufcourt, L.; Cao, Y.; Nazarewicz, W.; Olsen, E.; Viens, F. (2019). "Neutron drip line in the Ca region from Bayesian model averaging". Physical Review Letters. 122 (6): 062502–1–062502–6. arXiv: 1901.07632 . Bibcode:2019PhRvL.122f2502N. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.122.062502. PMID   30822058. S2CID   73508148.
36. "Phosphorus-32" (PDF). University of Michigan Department of Occupational Safety & Environmental Health. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-05-28. Retrieved 2010-11-18.
37. Koo, B.-C.; Lee, Y.-H.; Moon, D.-S.; Yoon, S.-C.; Raymond, J. C. (2013). "Phosphorus in the Young Supernova Remnant Cassiopeia A". Science. 342 (6164): 1346–8. arXiv: 1312.3807 . Bibcode:2013Sci...342.1346K. doi:10.1126/science.1243823. PMID   24337291. S2CID   35593706.
38. Rivilla, V. M.; Drozdovskaya, M. N.; Altwegg, K.; Caselli, P.; Beltrán, M. T.; Fontani, F.; van der Tak, F. F. S.; Cesaroni, R.; Vasyunin, A.; Rubin, M.; Lique, F.; Marinakis, S.; Testi, L. (2019). "ALMA and ROSINA detections of phosphorus-bearing molecules: the interstellar thread between star-forming regions and comets". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 492: 1180–1198. arXiv: 1911.11647 . doi: 10.1093/mnras/stz3336 . S2CID   208290964.
39. ESO (15 January 2020). "Astronomers reveal interstellar thread of one of life's building blocks". Phys.org . Retrieved 16 January 2020.
40. "Phosphate Rock: Statistics and Information". USGS. Retrieved 2009-06-06.
41. Philpott, Tom (March–April 2013). "You Need Phosphorus to Live—and We're Running Out". Mother Jones.
42. Klein, Cornelis and Cornelius S. Hurlbut, Jr., Manual of Mineralogy, Wiley, 1985, 20th ed., p. 360, ISBN   0-471-80580-7
43. Threlfall 1951 , p. 51
44. Toy 1975, p. 389
45. Corbridge 1995.
46. Kutzelnigg, W. (1984). "Chemical Bonding in Higher Main Group Elements" (PDF). Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. 23 (4): 272–295. doi:10.1002/anie.198402721. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-04-16. Retrieved 2009-05-24.
47. Almasi, Lucreţia (1971). "The Sulfur–Phosphorus Bond". In Senning, Alexander (ed.). Sulfur in Organic and Inorganic Chemistry. Vol. 1. New York: Marcel Dekker. pp. 49–55. ISBN   0-8247-1615-9. LCCN   70-154612.
48. Mark, J. E.; Allcock, H. R.; West, R. "Inorganic Polymers" Prentice Hall, Englewood, NJ: 1992. ISBN   0-13-465881-7.
49. Heal, H. G. "The Inorganic Heterocyclic Chemistry of Sulfur, Nitrogen, and Phosphorus" Academic Press: London; 1980. ISBN   0-12-335680-6.
50. Weeks, Mary Elvira (1932). "The discovery of the elements. II. Elements known to the alchemists". Journal of Chemical Education. 9 (1): 11. Bibcode:1932JChEd...9...11W. doi:10.1021/ed009p11.
51. Beatty 2000, p. 7
52. Schmundt, Hilmar (21 April 2010), "Experts Warn of Impending Phosphorus Crisis", Der Spiegel .
53. Stillman, J. M. (1960). The Story of Alchemy and Early Chemistry. New York: Dover. pp. 418–419. ISBN   0-7661-3230-7.
54. Baccini, Peter; Paul H. Brunner (2012-02-10). Metabolism of the Anthroposphere. MIT Press, 2012. p. 288. ISBN   978-0-262-30054-4.
55. Emsley 2002.
56. Thomson, Robert Dundas (1870). Dictionary of chemistry with its applications to mineralogy, physiology and the arts. Rich. Griffin and Company. p. 416.
57. Threlfall 1951 , pp. 49–66
58. Toy 1975.
59. US patent 417943
60. Threlfall 1951 , pp. 81–101
61. Parkes & Mellor 1939 , p. 718–720.
62. Threlfall 1951 , pp. 167–185
63. Lewis R. Goldfrank; Neal Flomenbaum; Mary Ann Howland; Robert S. Hoffman; Neal A. Lewin; Lewis S. Nelson (2006). Goldfrank's toxicologic emergencies. McGraw-Hill Professional. pp. 1486–1489. ISBN   0-07-143763-0.
64. The White Phosphorus Matches Prohibition Act, 1908.
65. "Phosphate Rock" (PDF). USGS. Retrieved 2017-03-20.
66. Lewis, Leo (23 June 2008). "Scientists warn of lack of vital phosphorus as biofuels raise demands" (PDF). The Times . Archived from the original on 23 July 2011.
67. Geeson, Michael B.; Cummins, Christopher C. (2020). "Let's Make White Phosphorus Obsolete". ACS Central Science. 6 (6): 848–860. doi:10.1021/acscentsci.0c00332. PMC   7318074 . PMID   32607432.
68. Tayibi, Hanan; Choura, Mohamed; López, Félix A.; Alguacil, Francisco J.; López-Delgado, Aurora (2009). "Environmental Impact and Management of Phosphogypsum". Journal of Environmental Management. 90 (8): 2377–2386. Bibcode:2009JEnvM..90.2377T. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2009.03.007. hdl: 10261/45241 . PMID   19406560.
69. Shriver, Atkins. Inorganic Chemistry, Fifth Edition. W. H. Freeman and Company, New York; 2010; p. 379.
70. "ERCO and Long Harbour". Memorial University of Newfoundland and the C.R.B. Foundation. Retrieved 2009-06-06.
71. Von Wagner, Rudolf (1897). Manual of chemical technology. New York: D. Appleton & Co. p. 411.
72. "Phosphate Rock Statistics and Information | U.S. Geological Survey". www.usgs.gov. Retrieved 2023-04-09.
73. Cordell, Drangert & White 2009
74. Van Kauwenbergh, Steven J. (2010). World Phosphate Rock Reserves and Resources. Muscle Shoals, AL, USA: International Fertilizer Development Center (IFDC). p. 60. ISBN   978-0-88090-167-3. Archived from the original on 19 August 2018. Retrieved 7 April 2016.
75. Edixhoven, J.D.; Gupta, J.; Savenije, H.H.G. (2013). "Recent revisions of phosphate rock reserves and resources: reassuring or misleading? An in-depth literature review of global estimates of phosphate rock reserves and resources". Earth System Dynamics. 5 (2): 491–507. Bibcode:2014ESD.....5..491E. doi: 10.5194/esd-5-491-2014 .
76. Amundson, R.; Berhe, A. A.; Hopmans, J. W.; Olson, C.; Sztein, A. E.; Sparks, D. L. (2015). "Soil and human security in the 21st century". Science. 348 (6235): 1261071. doi:10.1126/science.1261071. ISSN   0036-8075. PMID   25954014. S2CID   206562728.
77. "USGS, Phosphate Rock Statistics and Information". Phosphate Rock Statistics and Information. January 2023. Retrieved 9 January 2023.
78. Walan, P.; Davidsson, S.; Johansson, S.; Höök, M. (2014). "Phosphate rock production and depletion: Regional disaggregated modeling and global implications". Resources, Conservation and Recycling. 93 (12): 178–187. Bibcode:2014RCR....93..178W. doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2014.10.011 . Retrieved 9 October 2017.
79. Neset, Tina-Simone S.; Cordell, Dana (2011). "Global phosphorus scarcity: identifying synergies for a sustainable future". Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 92 (1): 2–6. doi:10.1002/jsfa.4650. PMID   21969145.
80. "IFDC Report Indicates Adequate Phosphorus Resources Available to Meet Global Food Demands". 22 September 2010.
81. Edixhoven, J. D.; Gupta, J.; Savenije, H. H. G. (2014). "Recent revisions of phosphate rock reserves and resources: a critique" (PDF). Earth System Dynamics. 5 (2): 491–507. Bibcode:2014ESD.....5..491E. doi: 10.5194/esd-5-491-2014 . ISSN   2190-4987.
82. Rockström, J.; Steffen, K.; et al. (2009). "Planetary boundaries: exploring the safe operating space for humanity" (PDF). Ecology and Society. 14 (2): 32. doi: 10.5751/ES-03180-140232 .
83. Arno Rosemarin (2016) Phosphorus a Limited Resource – Closing the Loop, Global Status of Phosphorus Conference, Malmö, Sweden (based on USGS Phosphate Rock Statistics and Information)
84. Sutton, M.A.; Bleeker, A.; Howard, C.M.; et al. (2013). Our Nutrient World: The challenge to produce more food and energy with less pollution (PDF). Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Edinburgh on behalf of the Global Partnership on Nutrient Management and the International Nitrogen Initiative. ISBN   978-1-906698-40-9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-11-04. Retrieved 2015-05-12.
85. CIM DEFINITION STANDARDS - For Mineral Resources and Mineral Reserves (PDF). CIM Standing Committee on Reserve Definitions. 2010. pp. 4–6. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 February 2019. Retrieved 5 April 2024.
86. U.S. Geological Survey Phosphorus Soil Samples
87. Abundance of Elements
88. American Geophysical Union, Fall Meeting 2007, abstract #V33A-1161. Mass and Composition of the Continental Crust
89. Cordell & White 2011.
90. Van Vuuren, D.P.; Bouwman, A.F.; Beusen, A.H.W. (2010). "Phosphorus demand for the 1970–2100 period: A scenario analysis of resource depletion". Global Environmental Change. 20 (3): 428–439. Bibcode:2010GEC....20..428V. doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2010.04.004. ISSN   0959-3780.
91. Gilbert, Natasha (8 October 2009). "The disappearing nutrient". Nature. 461 (7265): 716–718. doi:10.1038/461716a. PMID   19812648. S2CID   4419892.
92. Ahokas, K. (2015). "Finland's phosphorus resources are more important than ever (Geological Survey of Finland)". Archived from the original on 2019-05-06. Retrieved 2017-04-01.
93. Pollan, Michael (11 April 2006). The Omnivore's Dilemma: A Natural History of Four Meals . Penguin Press. ISBN   978-1-59420-082-3.
94. Heckenmüller, Narita & Klepper 2014.
95. US Geological Survey, Phosphate Rock, 2021.
96. Leigh, G. J. (2004). The World's Greatest Fix: A History of Nitrogen and Agriculture . Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-516582-1.
97. Skaggs, Jimmy M. (May 1995). The Great Guano Rush: Entrepreneurs and American Overseas Expansion. St. Martin's Press. ISBN   978-0-312-12339-0.
98. soilassociation.org - A rock and a hard place, Peak phosphorus and the threat to our food security Archived 2010-12-23 at the Wayback Machine , 2010
99. Burns 2010
100. Udawatta, Ranjith P.; Henderson, Gray S.; Jones, John R.; Hammer, David (2011). "Phosphorus and nitrogen losses in relation to forest, pasture and row-crop land use and precipitation distribution in the midwest usa". Journal of Water Science. 24 (3): 269–281. doi: 10.7202/1006477ar .
101. Tweed, Katherine (2009-11-01). "Sewage Industry Fights Phosphorus Pollution". Scientific American. Retrieved 2024-06-21.
102. Sartorius, C., von Horn, J., Tettenborn, F. (2011). Phosphorus recovery from wastewater – state-of-the-art and future potential. Conference presentation at Nutrient Recovery and Management Conference organised by International Water Association (IWA) and Water Environment Federation (WEF) in Florida, USA
103. Hultman, B., Levlin, E., Plaza, E., Stark, K. (2003). Phosphorus Recovery from Sludge in Sweden - Possibilities to meet proposed goals in an efficient, sustainable and economical way.
104. http://nrl.mit.edu/facilities/ntds
105. Baliga, B. Jayant (1987-03-10). Modern Power Devices. Wiley-Interscience. p. 32. ISBN   0-471-81986-7.
106. Schmidt, P. E.; Vedde, J. (1998). High Resistivity NTD Production and Applications. Electrochemical Society Proceedings. Vol. 98. ISBN   9781566772075.
107. Naiker, Vidhukrishnan E.; Mestry, Siddhesh; Nirgude, Tejal; Gadgeel, Arjit; Mhaske, S. T. (2023-01-01). "Recent developments in phosphorous-containing bio-based flame-retardant (FR) materials for coatings: an attentive review". Journal of Coatings Technology and Research. 20 (1): 113–139. doi:10.1007/s11998-022-00685-z. ISSN   1935-3804. S2CID   253349703.
108. "Current EU approved additives and their E Numbers". Foods Standards Agency. 14 March 2012. Archived from the original on 21 August 2013. Retrieved 22 July 2012.
109. "Why is phosphoric acid used in some Coca‑Cola drinks?| Frequently Asked Questions | Coca-Cola GB". www.coca-cola.co.uk. Archived from the original on 2 August 2021. Retrieved 2021-08-31.
110. Moynihan, P. J. (23 November 2002). "Dietary advice in dental practice". British Dental Journal. 193 (10): 563–568. doi: 10.1038/sj.bdj.4801628 . PMID   12481178.
111. Qaseem, A; Dallas, P; Forciea, MA; Starkey, M; et al. (4 November 2014). "Dietary and pharmacologic management to prevent recurrent nephrolithiasis in adults: A clinical practice guideline from the American College of Physicians". Annals of Internal Medicine . 161 (9): 659–67. doi: 10.7326/M13-2908 . PMID   25364887.
112. Etesami, H. (2019). Nutrient Dynamics for Sustainable Crop Production. Springer. p. 217. ISBN   978-981-13-8660-2.
113. Carpenter, Stephen R. (2005). "Eutrophication of aquatic ecosystems: Bistability and soil phosphorus". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 102 (29): 10002–10005. Bibcode:2005PNAS..10210002C. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0503959102 . ISSN   0027-8424. PMC   1177388 . PMID   15972805.
114. Conley, Daniel J.; Paerl, Hans W.; Howarth, Robert W.; et al. (2009). "Controlling Eutrophication: Nitrogen and Phosphorus". Science. 323 (5917): 1014–1015. doi:10.1126/science.1167755. ISSN   0036-8075. PMID   19229022.
115. "Soil Phosphorous" (PDF). United States Department of Agriculture. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-10-28. Retrieved 2020-08-17.
116. "Managing Phosphorus for Crop Production". Penn State Extension. Archived from the original on 2020-10-20. Retrieved 2020-08-17.
117. Jessica Elzea Kogel, ed. (2006). Industrial Minerals & Rocks: Commodities, Markets, and Uses. SME, 2006. p. 964. ISBN   0-87335-233-5.
118. Threlfall 1951.
119. Diskowski & Hofmann. sfn error: no target: CITEREFDiskowskiHofmann (help)
120. Roland W. Scholz; Amit H. Roy; Fridolin S. Brand; Deborah Hellums; Andrea E. Ulrich, eds. (2014-03-12). Sustainable Phosphorus Management: A Global Transdisciplinary Roadmap. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 175. ISBN   978-94-007-7250-2.
121. Mel Schwartz (2016-07-06). Encyclopedia and Handbook of Materials, Parts and Finishes. CRC Press. ISBN   978-1-138-03206-4.
122. Joseph R. Davisz, ed. (January 2001). Copper and Copper Alloys. ASM International. p. 181. ISBN   0-87170-726-8.
123. Hughes, J. P. W; Baron, R.; Buckland, D. H.; et al. (1962). "Phosphorus Necrosis of the Jaw: A Present-day Study: With Clinical and Biochemical Studies". Br. J. Ind. Med. 19 (2): 83–99. doi:10.1136/oem.19.2.83. PMC   1038164 . PMID   14449812.
124. Crass, M. F. Jr. (1941). "A history of the match industry. Part 9" (PDF). Journal of Chemical Education. 18 (9): 428–431. Bibcode:1941JChEd..18..428C. doi:10.1021/ed018p428.^{[ permanent dead link ]}
125. Oliver, Thomas (1906). "Industrial disease due to certain poisonous fumes or gases". Archives of the Public Health Laboratory. 1. Manchester University Press: 1–21.
126. Charnovitz, Steve (1987). "The Influence of International Labour Standards on the World Trading Regime. A Historical Overview". International Labour Review. 126 (5): 565, 571.
127. Alexander P. Hardt (2001). "Matches". Pyrotechnics. Post Falls Idaho US: Pyrotechnica Publications. pp. 74–84. ISBN   0-929388-06-2.
128. Schrödter et al. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSchrödterBettermannStaffelWahl (help)
129. Dockery, Kevin (1997). Special Warfare Special Weapons. Chicago: Emperor's Press. ISBN   1-883476-00-3.
130. David A. Atwood, ed. (2013-02-19). Radionuclides in the Environment. John Wiley & Sons, 2013. ISBN   978-1-118-63269-7.
131. Ruttenberg.
132. Lipmann, D. (1944). "Enzymatic Synthesis of Acetyl Phosphate". J Biol Chem. 155: 55–70. doi: 10.1016/S0021-9258(18)43172-9 .
133. Nelson, D. L.; Cox, M. M. "Lehninger, Principles of Biochemistry" 3rd Ed. Worth Publishing: New York, 2000. ISBN   1-57259-153-6.
134. Bernhardt, Nancy E.; Kasko, Artur M. (2008). Nutrition for the Middle Aged and Elderly. Nova Publishers. p. 171. ISBN   978-1-60456-146-3.
135. Mehanna H. M.; Moledina J.; Travis J. (June 2008). "Refeeding syndrome: what it is, and how to prevent and treat it". BMJ. 336 (7659): 1495–8. doi:10.1136/bmj.a301. PMC   2440847 . PMID   18583681.
136. Anderson, John J. B. (1996). "Calcium, Phosphorus and Human Bone Development". Journal of Nutrition . 126 (4 Suppl): 1153S–1158S. doi: 10.1093/jn/126.suppl_4.1153S . PMID   8642449.
137. Institute of Medicine (1997). "Phosphorus". Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. pp. 146–189. doi:10.17226/5776. ISBN   978-0-309-06403-3. PMID   23115811. S2CID   8768378.
138. "Dietary reference values". European Food Safety Authority. 7 August 2024. Retrieved 24 September 2024.
139. "Overview on Dietary Reference Values for the EU population as derived by the EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies" (PDF). 2017.
140. Tolerable Upper Intake Levels For Vitamins And Minerals (PDF), European Food Safety Authority, 2006
141. "Federal Register May 27, 2016 Food Labeling: Revision of the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels. FR page 33982" (PDF).
142. "Daily Value Reference of the Dietary Supplement Label Database (DSLD)". Dietary Supplement Label Database (DSLD). Archived from the original on 7 April 2020. Retrieved 16 May 2020.
143. "Phosphorus in diet"
144. "CBRNE – Incendiary Agents, White Phosphorus (Smoking Stool Syndrome)" . Retrieved 2009-05-05.
145. "US Navy's Treatment of Chemical Agent Casualties and Conventional Military Chemical Injuries: FM8-285: Part 2 Conventional Military Chemical Injuries". Archived from the original on November 22, 2005. Retrieved 2009-05-05.
146. "CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards - Phosphorus (yellow)". www.cdc.gov. Retrieved 2015-11-21.
147. Skinner, H.F. (1990). "Methamphetamine synthesis via hydriodic acid/red phosphorus reduction of ephedrine". Forensic Science International. 48 (2): 123–134. doi:10.1016/0379-0738(90)90104-7.
148. "66 FR 52670—52675". 17 October 2001. Retrieved 2009-05-05.
149. "21 cfr 1309". Archived from the original on 2009-05-03. Retrieved 2009-05-05.
150. "21 USC, Chapter 13 (Controlled Substances Act)" . Retrieved 2009-05-05.

General sources

• Beatty, Richard (2000). Phosphorus. Marshall Cavendish. ISBN   0-7614-0946-7.
• Burns, Melinda (10 February 2010). "The Story of P(ee)". Miller-McCune. Archived from the original on 7 January 2012. Retrieved 2 February 2012.
• Corbridge, D. E. C. (1995) "Phosphorus: An Outline of its Chemistry, Biochemistry, and Technology" 5th Edition Elsevier: Amsterdam. ISBN   0-444-89307-5.
• Cordell, Dana; Drangert, Jan-Olof; White, Stuart (2009). "The story of phosphorus: Global food security and food for thought". Global Environmental Change. 19 (2): 292–305. Bibcode:2009GEC....19..292C. doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2008.10.009. ISSN   0959-3780. S2CID   1450932.
• Cordell, Dana; White, Stuart (2011-10-24). "Peak Phosphorus: Clarifying the Key Issues of a Vigorous Debate about Long-Term Phosphorus Security". Sustainability. 3 (10): 2027–2049. doi: 10.3390/su3102027 . hdl: 10453/31261 . ISSN   2071-1050.
• Diskowski, Herbert; Hofmann, Thomas. "Phosphorus". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry . Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. doi:10.1002/14356007.a19_505. ISBN   978-3527306732.
• Emsley, John (2000). The Shocking history of Phosphorus: A biography of the Devil's Element. London: MacMillan. ISBN   0-333-76638-5.
• Emsley, John (7 January 2002). The 13th Element: The Sordid Tale of Murder, Fire, and Phosphorus. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN   978-0-471-44149-6 . Retrieved 3 February 2012.
• Heckenmüller, M.; Narita, D.; Klepper, G. (2014). "Global availability of phosphorus and its implications for global food supply: An economic overview". Kiel Working Paper no. 1897. Accessed 11 May 2020.
• Phosphorus in diet: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia. Nlm.nih.gov (2011-11-07). Retrieved on 2011-11-19.
• Parkes, G. D.; Mellor, J. W. (1939). Mellor's Modern Inorganic Chemistry. Longman's Green and Co.
• Ruttenberg, K. C. Phosphorus Cycle – Terrestrial Phosphorus Cycle, Transport of Phosphorus, from Continents to the Ocean, The Marine Phosphorus Cycle. Archived July 13, 2011, at archive.today .
• Sommers, Michael A. (2007-08-15). Phosphorus. Rosen Group. ISBN   978-1-4042-1960-1.
• Schrödter, Klaus; Bettermann, Gerhard; Staffel, Thomas; Wahl, Friedrich; Klein, Thomas; Hofmann, Thomas. "Phosphoric Acid and Phosphates". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry . Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. doi:10.1002/14356007.a19_465.pub3. ISBN   978-3527306732.
• Threlfall, Richard E. (1951). The Story of 100 years of Phosphorus Making: 1851–1951. Oldbury: Albright & Wilson Ltd.
• Toy, Arthur D. F. (1975). The Chemistry of Phosphorus. Texts in Inorganic Chemistry. Vol. 3. Pergamon. ISBN   978-1-4831-4741-3 . Retrieved 2013-10-22.

Further reading

• Podger, Hugh (2002). Albright & Wilson. The Last 50 years. Studley: Brewin Books. ISBN   1-85858-223-7.
• Kolbert, Elizabeth, "Elemental Need: Phosphorus helped save our way of life – and now threatens to end it", The New Yorker , 6 March 2023, pp. 24–27. "[T]he world's phosphorus problem [arising from the element's exorbitant use in agriculture] resembles its carbon-dioxide problem, its plastics problem, its groundwater-use problem, its soil-erosion problem, and its nitrogen problem. The path humanity is on may lead to ruin, but, as of yet, no one has found a workable way back." (p. 27.)