Tellurium

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Tellurium, 52Te
Tellurium2.jpg
Tellurium
Pronunciation /tɛˈljʊəriəm/ ​(te-LURE-ee-əm)
Appearancesilvery lustrous gray (crystalline),
brown-black powder (amorphous)
Standard atomic weight Ar°(Te)
Tellurium in the periodic table
Hydrogen Helium
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
Caesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury (element) Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
Francium Radium Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson
Se
↑
Te
↓
Po
antimony ← tellurium → iodine
Atomic number (Z)52
Group group 16 (chalcogens)
Period period 5
Block   p-block
Electron configuration [ Kr ] 4d10 5s2 5p4
Electrons per shell2, 8, 18, 18, 6
Physical properties
Phase at  STP solid
Melting point 722.66  K ​(449.51 °C,​841.12 °F)
Boiling point 1261 K​(988 °C,​1810 °F)
Density (at 20° C)6.237 g/cm3 [3]
when liquid (at  m.p.)5.70 g/cm3
Heat of fusion 17.49  kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization 114.1 kJ/mol
Molar heat capacity 25.73 J/(mol·K)
Vapor pressure
P (Pa)1101001 k10 k100 k
at T (K) (775)(888)10421266
Atomic properties
Oxidation states −2, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5, +6 (a mildly acidic oxide)
Electronegativity Pauling scale: 2.1
Ionization energies
  • 1st: 869.3 kJ/mol
  • 2nd: 1790 kJ/mol
  • 3rd: 2698 kJ/mol
Atomic radius empirical:140  pm
Covalent radius 138±4 pm
Van der Waals radius 206 pm
Tellurium spectrum visible.png
Spectral lines of tellurium
Other properties
Natural occurrence primordial
Crystal structure ​ hexagonal [4] (hP3)
Lattice constants
Hexagonal.svg
a = 445.59 pm
c = 592.75 pm (at 20 °C) [3]
Thermal expansion 19.0×10−6/K (at 20 °C) [lower-alpha 1]
Thermal conductivity 1.97–3.38 W/(m⋅K)
Magnetic ordering diamagnetic [5]
Molar magnetic susceptibility −39.5×10−6 cm3/mol(298 K) [6]
Young's modulus 43 GPa
Shear modulus 16 GPa
Bulk modulus 65 GPa
Speed of sound thin rod2610 m/s(at 20 °C)
Mohs hardness 2.25
Brinell hardness 180–270 MPa
CAS Number 13494-80-9
History
Namingafter Roman Tellus , deity of the Earth
Discovery Franz-Joseph Müller von Reichenstein (1782)
First isolation Martin Heinrich Klaproth
Isotopes of tellurium
Main isotopes [7] Decay
abun­dance half-life (t1/2) mode pro­duct
120Te0.09% stable
121Te synth 16.78 d ε 121Sb
122Te2.55%stable
123Te0.89%stable [8]
124Te4.74%stable
125Te7.07%stable
126Te18.8%stable
127Tesynth9.35 h β− 127I
128Te31.7%2.2×1024 y β−β− 128Xe
129Tesynth69.6 minβ− 129I
130Te34.1%8.2×1020 yβ−β− 130Xe
Symbol category class.svg  Category: Tellurium
| references

Tellurium is a chemical element; it has symbol Te and atomic number 52. It is a brittle, mildly toxic, rare, silver-white metalloid. Tellurium is chemically related to selenium and sulfur, all three of which are chalcogens. It is occasionally found in its native form as elemental crystals. Tellurium is far more common in the Universe as a whole than on Earth. Its extreme rarity in the Earth's crust, comparable to that of platinum, is due partly to its formation of a volatile hydride that caused tellurium to be lost to space as a gas during the hot nebular formation of Earth. [9]

Contents

Tellurium-bearing compounds were first discovered in 1782 in a gold mine in Kleinschlatten, Transylvania (now Zlatna, Romania) by Austrian mineralogist Franz-Joseph Müller von Reichenstein, although it was Martin Heinrich Klaproth who named the new element in 1798 after the Latin tellus 'earth'. Gold telluride minerals are the most notable natural gold compounds. However, they are not a commercially significant source of tellurium itself, which is normally extracted as a by-product of copper and lead production.

Commercially, the primary use of tellurium is CdTe solar panels and thermoelectric devices. A more traditional application in copper (tellurium copper) and steel alloys, where tellurium improves machinability, also consumes a considerable portion of tellurium production. Tellurium is considered a technology-critical element. [10]

Tellurium has no biological function, although fungi can use it in place of sulfur and selenium in amino acids such as tellurocysteine and telluromethionine. [11] In humans, tellurium is partly metabolized into dimethyl telluride, (CH3)2Te, a gas with a garlic-like odor exhaled in the breath of victims of tellurium exposure or poisoning.

Characteristics

Physical properties

Tellurium has two allotropes, crystalline and amorphous. When crystalline, tellurium is silvery-white with a metallic luster. The crystals are trigonal and chiral (space group 152 or 154 depending on the chirality), like the gray form of selenium. It is a brittle and easily pulverized metalloid. Amorphous tellurium is a black-brown powder prepared by precipitating it from a solution of tellurous acid or telluric acid (Te(OH)6). [12] Tellurium is a semiconductor that shows greater electrical conductivity in certain directions depending on atomic alignment; [13] the conductivity increases slightly when exposed to light (photoconductivity). [14] When molten, tellurium is corrosive to copper, iron, and stainless steel. Of the chalcogens (oxygen-family elements), tellurium has the highest melting and boiling points, at 722.66 and 1,261 K (449.51 and 987.85 °C), respectively. [15]

Chemical properties

Crystalline tellurium consists of parallel helical chains of Te atoms, with three atoms per turn. This gray material resists oxidation by air and is not volatile. [16]

Isotopes

Naturally occurring tellurium has eight isotopes. Six of those isotopes, 120Te, 122Te, 123Te, 124Te, 125Te, and 126Te, are stable. The other two, 128Te and 130Te, are slightly radioactive, [17] [18] [19] with extremely long half-lives, including 2.2 × 1024 years for 128Te. This is the longest known half-life among all radionuclides [20] and is about 160 trillion (1012) times the age of the known universe.

A further 31 artificial radioisotopes of tellurium are known, with atomic masses ranging from 104 to 142 and with half-lives of 19 days or less. Also, 17 nuclear isomers are known, with half-lives up to 154 days. Except for beryllium-8 and beta-delayed alpha emission branches in some lighter nuclides, tellurium (104Te to 109Te) is the second lightest element with isotopes known to undergo alpha decay, antimony being the lightest. [17]

The atomic mass of tellurium (127.60 g·mol−1) exceeds that of iodine (126.90 g·mol−1), the next element in the periodic table. [21]

Occurrence

Native tellurium crystal on sylvanite (Vatukoula, Viti Levu, Fiji). Picture width 2 mm. Tellurium-89043.jpg
Native tellurium crystal on sylvanite (Vatukoula, Viti Levu, Fiji). Picture width 2 mm.

With an abundance in the Earth's crust comparable to that of platinum (about 1 μg/kg), tellurium is one of the rarest stable solid elements. [22] In comparison, even thulium – the rarest of the stable lanthanides – has crystal abundances of 500 μg/kg (see Abundance of the chemical elements). [23]

The rarity of tellurium in the Earth's crust is not a reflection of its cosmic abundance. Tellurium is more abundant than rubidium in the cosmos, though rubidium is 10,000 times more abundant in the Earth's crust. The rarity of tellurium on Earth is thought to be caused by conditions during preaccretional sorting in the solar nebula, when the stable form of certain elements, in the absence of oxygen and water, was controlled by the reductive power of free hydrogen. Under this scenario, certain elements that form volatile hydrides, such as tellurium, were severely depleted through the evaporation of these hydrides. Tellurium and selenium are the heavy elements most depleted by this process. [9]

Tellurium is sometimes found in its native (i.e., elemental) form, but is more often found as the tellurides of gold such as calaverite and krennerite (two different polymorphs of AuTe2), petzite, Ag3AuTe2, and sylvanite, AgAuTe4. The town of Telluride, Colorado, was named in the hope of a strike of gold telluride (which never materialized, though gold metal ore was found). Gold itself is usually found uncombined, but when found as a chemical compound, it is often combined with tellurium. [24]

Although tellurium is found with gold more often than in uncombined form, it is found even more often combined as tellurides of more common metals (e.g. melonite, NiTe2). Natural tellurite and tellurate minerals also occur, formed by the oxidation of tellurides near the Earth's surface. In contrast to selenium, tellurium does not usually replace sulfur in minerals because of the great difference in ion radii. Thus, many common sulfide minerals contain substantial quantities of selenium and only traces of tellurium. [25]

In the gold rush of 1893, miners in Kalgoorlie discarded a pyritic material as they searched for pure gold, and it was used to fill in potholes and build sidewalks. In 1896, that tailing was discovered to be calaverite, a telluride of gold, and it sparked a second gold rush that included mining the streets. [26]

In 2023 astronomers detected the creation of tellurium during collision between two neutron stars. [27]

History

Klaproth named the new element and credited von Reichenstein with its discovery Martin Heinrich Klaproth.jpg
Klaproth named the new element and credited von Reichenstein with its discovery

Tellurium (Latin tellus meaning "earth") was discovered in the 18th century in a gold ore from the mines in Kleinschlatten (today Zlatna), near today's city of Alba Iulia, Romania. This ore was known as "Faczebajer weißes blättriges Golderz" (white leafy gold ore from Faczebaja, German name of Facebánya, now Fața Băii in Alba County) or antimonalischer Goldkies (antimonic gold pyrite), and according to Anton von Rupprecht, was Spießglaskönig (argent molybdique), containing native antimony. [28] In 1782 Franz-Joseph Müller von Reichenstein, who was then serving as the Austrian chief inspector of mines in Transylvania, concluded that the ore did not contain antimony but was bismuth sulfide. [29] The following year, he reported that this was erroneous and that the ore contained mostly gold and an unknown metal very similar to antimony. After a thorough investigation that lasted three years and included more than fifty tests, Müller determined the specific gravity of the mineral and noted that when heated, the new metal gives off a white smoke with a radish-like odor; that it imparts a red color to sulfuric acid; and that when this solution is diluted with water, it has a black precipitate. Nevertheless, he was not able to identify this metal and gave it the names aurum paradoxum (paradoxical gold) and metallum problematicum (problem metal), because it did not exhibit the properties predicted for antimony. [30] [31] [32]

In 1789, a Hungarian scientist, Pál Kitaibel, discovered the element independently in an ore from Deutsch-Pilsen that had been regarded as argentiferous molybdenite, but later he gave the credit to Müller. In 1798, it was named by Martin Heinrich Klaproth, who had earlier isolated it from the mineral calaverite. [33] [31] [32] [34]

In the early 1920s, Thomas Midgley Jr. found tellurium prevented engine knocking when added to fuel, but ruled it out due to the difficult-to-eradicate smell. Midgley went on to discover and popularize the use of tetraethyl lead. [35]

The 1960s brought an increase in thermoelectric applications for tellurium (as bismuth telluride), and in free-machining steel alloys, which became the dominant use. These applications were overtaken by the growing importance of CdTe in thin-film solar cells in the 2000s. [10]

Production

Most Te (and Se) is obtained from porphyry copper deposits, where it occurs in trace amounts. [36] The element is recovered from anode sludges from the electrolytic refining of blister copper. It is a component of dusts from blast furnace refining of lead. Treatment of 1000 tons of copper ore yields approximately one kilogram (2.2 pounds) of tellurium. [37]

The anode sludges contain the selenides and tellurides of the noble metals in compounds with the formula M2Se or M2Te (M = Cu, Ag, Au). At temperatures of 500 °C the anode sludges are roasted with sodium carbonate under air. The metal ions are reduced to the metals, while the telluride is converted to sodium tellurite. [38]

M2Te + O2 + Na2CO3 → Na2TeO3 + 2 M + CO2

Tellurites can be leached from the mixture with water and are normally present as hydrotellurites HTeO3− in solution. Selenites are also formed during this process, but they can be separated by adding sulfuric acid. The hydrotellurites are converted into the insoluble tellurium dioxide while the selenites stay in solution. [38]

HTeO−
3 + OH− + H2SO4 → TeO2 + SO2−
4 + 2 H2O

The metal is produced from the oxide (reduced) either by electrolysis or by reacting the tellurium dioxide with sulfur dioxide in sulfuric acid. [38]

TeO2 + 2 SO2 + 2H2O → Te + 2 SO2−
4 + 4 H+

Commercial-grade tellurium is usually marketed as 200-mesh powder but is also available as slabs, ingots, sticks, or lumps. The year-end price for tellurium in 2000 was US$30 per kilogram. In recent years, the tellurium price was driven up by increased demand and limited supply, reaching as high as US$220 per pound in 2006. [39] [40] The average annual price for 99.99%-pure tellurium increased from $38 per kilogram in 2017 to $74 per kilogram in 2018. [10] Despite the expectation that improved production methods will double production, the United States Department of Energy (DoE) anticipates a supply shortfall of tellurium by 2025. [41]

In the 2020s, China produced ca. 50% of world's tellurium and was the only country that mined Te as the main target rather than a by-product. This dominance was driven by the rapid expansion of solar cell industry in China. In 2022, the largest Te providers by volume were China (340 tonnes), Russia (80 t), Japan (70 t), Canada (50 t), Uzbekistan (50 t), Sweden (40 t) and the United States (no official data). [42]

Compounds

Tellurium belongs to the chalcogen (group 16) family of elements on the periodic table, which also includes oxygen, sulfur, selenium and polonium: Tellurium and selenium compounds are similar. Tellurium exhibits the oxidation states −2, +2, +4 and +6, with +4 being most common. [12]

Tellurides

Reduction of Te metal produces the tellurides and polytellurides, Ten2−. The −2 oxidation state is exhibited in binary compounds with many metals, such as zinc telluride, ZnTe, produced by heating tellurium with zinc. [43] Decomposition of ZnTe with hydrochloric acid yields hydrogen telluride (H
2Te), a highly unstable analogue of the other chalcogen hydrides, H
2O, H
2S and H
2Se: [44]

ZnTe + 2 HCl → ZnCl
2 + H
2Te

Halides

The +2 oxidation state is exhibited by the dihalides, TeCl
2, TeBr
2 and TeI
2. The dihalides have not been obtained in pure form, [45] : 274  although they are known decomposition products of the tetrahalides in organic solvents, and the derived tetrahalotellurates are well-characterized:

Te + X
2 + 2 X−
 → TeX2−
4

where X is Cl, Br, or I. These anions are square planar in geometry. [45] : 281  Polynuclear anionic species also exist, such as the dark brown Te
2I2−
6, [45] : 283  and the black Te
4I2−
14. [45] : 285 

With fluorine Te forms the mixed-valence Te
2F
4 and TeF
6. In the +6 oxidation state, the –OTeF
5 structural group occurs in a number of compounds such as HOTeF
5, B(OTeF
5)
3, Xe(OTeF
5)
2, Te(OTeF
5)
4 and Te(OTeF
5)
6. [46] The square antiprismatic anion TeF2−
8 is also attested. [38] The other halogens do not form halides with tellurium in the +6 oxidation state, but only tetrahalides (TeCl
4, TeBr
4 and TeI
4) in the +4 state, and other lower halides (Te
3Cl
2, Te
2Cl
2, Te
2Br
2, Te
2I and two forms of TeI). In the +4 oxidation state, halotellurate anions are known, such as TeCl2−
6 and Te
2Cl2−
10. Halotellurium cations are also attested, including TeI+
3, found in TeI
3AsF
6. [47]

Oxocompounds

A sample of tellurium dioxide powder TeO2powder.jpg
A sample of tellurium dioxide powder

Tellurium monoxide was first reported in 1883 as a black amorphous solid formed by the heat decomposition of TeSO
3 in vacuum, disproportionating into tellurium dioxide, TeO
2 and elemental tellurium upon heating. [48] [49] Since then, however, existence in the solid phase is doubted and in dispute, although it is known as a vapor fragment; the black solid may be merely an equimolar mixture of elemental tellurium and tellurium dioxide. [50]

Tellurium dioxide is formed by heating tellurium in air, where it burns with a blue flame. [43] Tellurium trioxide, β-TeO
3, is obtained by thermal decomposition of Te(OH)
6. The other two forms of trioxide reported in the literature, the α- and γ- forms, were found not to be true oxides of tellurium in the +6 oxidation state, but a mixture of Te4+
, OH−
 and O−
2. [51] Tellurium also exhibits mixed-valence oxides, Te
2O
5 and Te
4O
9. [51]

The tellurium oxides and hydrated oxides form a series of acids, including tellurous acid (H
2TeO
3), orthotelluric acid (Te(OH)
6) and metatelluric acid ((H
2TeO
4)
n). [50] The two forms of telluric acid form tellurate salts containing the TeO2–
4 and TeO6−
6 anions, respectively. Tellurous acid forms tellurite salts containing the anion TeO2−
3. [52]

Zintl cations

A solution of Te 4 Zintl ion.jpg
A solution of Te
4

When tellurium is treated with concentrated sulfuric acid, the result is a red solution of the Zintl ion, Te2+
4. [53] The oxidation of tellurium by AsF
5 in liquid SO
2 produces the same square planar cation, in addition to the trigonal prismatic, yellow-orange Te4+
6: [38]

4 Te + 3 AsF
5 → Te2+
4(AsF−
6)
2 + AsF
3
6 Te + 6 AsF
5 → Te4+
6(AsF−
6)
4 + 2 AsF
3

Other tellurium Zintl cations include the polymeric Te2+
7 and the blue-black Te2+
8, consisting of two fused 5-membered tellurium rings. The latter cation is formed by the reaction of tellurium with tungsten hexachloride: [38]

8 Te + 2 WCl
6 → Te2+
8(WCl−
6)
2

Interchalcogen cations also exist, such as Te
2Se2+
6 (distorted cubic geometry) and Te
2Se2+
8. These are formed by oxidizing mixtures of tellurium and selenium with AsF
5 or SbF
5. [38]

Organotellurium compounds

Tellurium does not readily form analogues of alcohols and thiols, with the functional group –TeH, that are called tellurols. The –TeH functional group is also attributed using the prefix tellanyl-. [54] Like H2Te, these species are unstable with respect to loss of hydrogen. Telluraethers (R–Te–R) are more stable, as are telluroxides. [55]

Tritelluride quantum materials

Recently, physicists and materials scientists have been discovering unusual quantum properties associated with layered compounds composed of tellurium that's combined with certain rare-earth elements, as well as yttrium (Y). [56]

These novel materials have the general formula of R Te3, where "R " represents a rare-earth lanthanide (or Y), with the full family consisting of R = Y, La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Sm, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er & Tm (not yet observed are compounds containing Pm, Eu, Yb & Lu). These materials have a two-dimensional character within an orthorhombic crystal structure, with slabs of R Te separated by sheets of pure Te. [56]

It is thought that this 2-D layered structure is what leads to a number of interesting quantum features, such as charge-density waves, high carrier mobility, superconductivity under specific conditions, and other peculiar properties whose natures are only now emerging. [56]

For example, in 2022, a small group of physicists at Boston College in Massachusetts led an international team that used optical methods to demonstrate a novel axial mode of a Higgs-like particle in R Te3 compounds that incorporate either of two rare-earth elements (R = La, Gd). [57] This long-hypothesized, axial, Higgs-like particle also shows magnetic properties and may serve as a candidate for dark matter. [58]

Applications

In 2022, the major applications of tellurium were thin-film solar cells (40%), thermoelectrics (30%), metallurgy (15%), and rubber (5%), with the first two applications experiencing a rapid increase owing to the worldwide tendency of reducing dependence on the fossil fuel. [42] [10] In metallurgy, tellurium is added to iron, stainless steel, copper, and lead alloys. It improves the machinability of copper without reducing its high electrical conductivity. It increases resistance to vibration and fatigue of lead and stabilizes various carbides and in malleable iron. [10]

Heterogeneous catalysis

Tellurium oxides are components of commercial oxidation catalysts. Te-containing catalysts are used for the ammoxidation route to acrylonitrile (CH2=CH–C≡N): [59]

2 CH3−CH=CH2 + 2 NH3 + 3 O2 → 2 CH2=CH–C≡N + 6 H2O

Related catalysts are used in the production of tetramethylene glycol:

CH3CH2CH2CH3 + O2 → HOCH2CH2CH2CH2OH

Niche

A CdTe photovoltaic array NREL Array.jpg
A CdTe photovoltaic array

Semiconductor and electronic

A (Cd,Zn)Te detector from the NuSTAR NASA X-ray telescope NuSTAR detector.JPG
A (Cd,Zn)Te detector from the NuSTAR NASA X-ray telescope
An array of (Cd,Zn)Te X-ray detectors from the Burst Alert Telescope of the NASA Neil Gehrels Swift Observatory Swift's instrument Burst Alert Telescope (BAT) the detector plane.jpg
An array of (Cd,Zn)Te X-ray detectors from the Burst Alert Telescope of the NASA Neil Gehrels Swift Observatory

Cadmium telluride (CdTe) solar panels exhibit some of the greatest efficiencies for solar cell electric power generators. [65]

In 2018, China installed thin-film solar panels with a total power output of 175 GW, more than any other country in the world; most of those panels were made of CdTe. [10] In June 2022, China set goals of generating 25% of energy consumption and installing 1.2 billion kilowatts of capacity for wind and solar power by 2030. This proposal will increase the demand for tellurium and its production worldwide, especially in China, where the annual volumes of Te refining increased from 280 tonnes in 2017 to 340 tonnes in 2022. [42]

(Cd,Zn)Te is an efficient material for detecting X-rays. [66] It is being used in the NASA space-based X-ray telescope NuSTAR.

Mercury cadmium telluride is a semiconductor material that is used in thermal imaging devices. [10]

Organotellurium compounds

Organotellurium compounds are mainly of interest in the research context. Several have been examined such as precursors for metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy growth of II-VI compound semiconductors. These precursor compounds include dimethyl telluride, diethyl telluride, diisopropyl telluride, diallyl telluride, and methyl allyl telluride. [67] Diisopropyl telluride (DIPTe) is the preferred precursor for low-temperature growth of CdHgTe by MOVPE. [68] The greatest purity metalorganics of both selenium and tellurium are used in these processes. The compounds for semiconductor industry and are prepared by adduct purification. [69] [70]

Tellurium suboxide is used in the media layer of rewritable optical discs, including ReWritable Compact Discs (CD-RW), ReWritable Digital Video Discs (DVD-RW), and ReWritable Blu-ray Discs. [71] [72]

Tellurium is used in the phase change memory chips [73] developed by Intel. [74] Bismuth telluride (Bi2Te3) and lead telluride are working elements of thermoelectric devices. Lead telluride exhibits promise in far-infrared detectors. [10]

Photocathodes

Tellurium shows up in a number of photocathodes used in solar blind photomultiplier tubes [75] and for high brightness photoinjectors driving modern particle accelerators. The photocathode Cs-Te, which is predominantly Cs2Te, has a photoemission threshold of 3.5 eV and exhibits the uncommon combination of high quantum efficiency (>10%) and high durability in poor vacuum environments (lasting for months under use in RF electron guns). [76] This has made it the go to choice for photoemission electron guns used in driving free electron lasers. [77] In this application, it is usually driven at the wavelength 267 nm which is the third harmonic of commonly used Ti-sapphire lasers. More Te containing photocathodes have been grown using other alkali metals such as rubidium, Potassium, and Sodium, but they have not found the same popularity that Cs-Te has enjoyed. [78] [79]

Thermoelectric material

Tellurium itself can be used as a high-performance elemental thermoelectric material. A trigonal Te with the space group of P3121 can transfer into a topological insulator phase, which is suitable for thermoelectric material. Though often not considered as a thermoelectric material alone, polycrystalline tellurium does show great thermoelectric performance with the thermoelectric figure of merit, zT, as high as 1.0, which is even higher than some of other conventional TE materials like SiGe and BiSb. [80]

Telluride, which is a compound form of tellurium, is a more common TE material. Typical and ongoing research includes Bi2Te3, and La3-xTe4, etc. Bi2Te3 is widely used from energy conversion to sensing to cooling due to its great TE properties. The BiTe-based TE material can achieve a conversion efficiency of 8%, an average zT value of 1.05 for p-type and 0.84 for n-type bismuth telluride alloys. [81] Lanthanum telluride can be potentially used in deep space as a thermoelectric generator due to the huge temperature difference in space. The zT value reaches to a maximum of ~1.0 for a La3-xTe4 system with x near 0.2. This composition also allows other chemical substitution which may enhance the TE performance. The addition of Yb, for example, may increase the zT value from 1.0 to 1.2 at 1275K, which is greater than the current SiGe power system. [82]

Biological role

Tellurium has no known biological function, although fungi can incorporate it in place of sulfur and selenium into amino acids such as telluro-cysteine and telluro-methionine. [11] [83] Organisms have shown a highly variable tolerance to tellurium compounds. Many bacteria, such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Gayadomonas sp, take up tellurite and reduce it to elemental tellurium, which accumulates and causes a characteristic and often dramatic darkening of cells. [84] [85] In yeast, this reduction is mediated by the sulfate assimilation pathway. [86] Tellurium accumulation seems to account for a major part of the toxicity effects. Many organisms also metabolize tellurium partly to form dimethyl telluride, although dimethyl ditelluride is also formed by some species. Dimethyl telluride has been observed in hot springs at very low concentrations. [87] [88]

Tellurite agar is used to identify members of the corynebacterium genus, most typically Corynebacterium diphtheriae , the pathogen responsible for diphtheria. [89]

Precautions

Tellurium
Hazards
GHS labelling:
GHS-pictogram-skull.svg GHS-pictogram-exclam.svg GHS-pictogram-silhouette.svg
Danger
H317, H332, H360, H412 [90]
P201, P261, P280, P308+P313 [91]
NFPA 704 (fire diamond)
NFPA 704.svgHealth 2: Intense or continued but not chronic exposure could cause temporary incapacitation or possible residual injury. E.g. chloroformFlammability 0: Will not burn. E.g. waterInstability 0: Normally stable, even under fire exposure conditions, and is not reactive with water. E.g. liquid nitrogenSpecial hazards (white): no code
2
0
0

Tellurium and tellurium compounds are considered to be mildly toxic and need to be handled with care, although acute poisoning is rare. [92] Tellurium poisoning is particularly difficult to treat as many chelation agents used in the treatment of metal poisoning will increase the toxicity of tellurium. Tellurium is not reported to be carcinogenic, but it may be fatal if inhaled, swallowed, or absorbed through skin. [92] [93]

Humans exposed to as little as 0.01 mg/m3 or less in air exude a foul garlic-like odor known as "tellurium breath". [24] [94] This is caused by the body converting tellurium from any oxidation state to dimethyl telluride, (CH3)2Te, a volatile compound with a pungent garlic-like smell. Volunteers given 15 mg of tellurium still had this characteristic smell on their breath eight months later. In laboratories, this odor makes it possible to discern which scientists are responsible for tellurium chemistry, and even which books they have handled in the past. [95] Even though the metabolic pathways of tellurium are not known, it is generally assumed that they resemble those of the more extensively studied selenium because the final methylated metabolic products of the two elements are similar. [96] [97] [98]

People can be exposed to tellurium in the workplace by inhalation, ingestion, skin contact, and eye contact. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) limits (permissible exposure limit) tellurium exposure in the workplace to 0.1 mg/m3 over an eight-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set the recommended exposure limit (REL) at 0.1 mg/m3 over an eight-hour workday. In concentrations of 25 mg/m3, tellurium is immediately dangerous to life and health. [99]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ The thermal expansion of tellurium is highly anisotropic: the parameters (at 20 °C) for each crystal axis are αa = 29.6×10−6/K, αc = −2.28×10−6/K, and αaverage = αV/3 = 19.0×10−6/K. [3]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chalcogen</span> Group of chemical elements

The chalcogens are the chemical elements in group 16 of the periodic table. This group is also known as the oxygen family. Group 16 consists of the elements oxygen (O), sulfur (S), selenium (Se), tellurium (Te), and the radioactive elements polonium (Po) and livermorium (Lv). Often, oxygen is treated separately from the other chalcogens, sometimes even excluded from the scope of the term "chalcogen" altogether, due to its very different chemical behavior from sulfur, selenium, tellurium, and polonium. The word "chalcogen" is derived from a combination of the Greek word khalkόs (χαλκός) principally meaning copper, and the Latinized Greek word genēs, meaning born or produced.

A metalloid is a chemical element which has a preponderance of properties in between, or that are a mixture of, those of metals and nonmetals. The word metalloid comes from the Latin metallum ("metal") and the Greek oeides. There is no standard definition of a metalloid and no complete agreement on which elements are metalloids. Despite the lack of specificity, the term remains in use in the literature.

A period 5 element is one of the chemical elements in the fifth row of the periodic table of the chemical elements. The periodic table is laid out in rows to illustrate recurring (periodic) trends in the chemical behaviour of the elements as their atomic number increases: a new row is begun when chemical behaviour begins to repeat, meaning that elements with similar behaviour fall into the same vertical columns. The fifth period contains 18 elements, beginning with rubidium and ending with xenon. As a rule, period 5 elements fill their 5s shells first, then their 4d, and 5p shells, in that order; however, there are exceptions, such as rhodium.

The telluride ion is the anion Te2− and its derivatives. It is analogous to the other chalcogenide anions, the lighter O2−, S2−, and Se2−, and the heavier Po2−.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tellurium dioxide</span> Chemical compound

Tellurium dioxide (TeO2) is a solid oxide of tellurium. It is encountered in two different forms, the yellow orthorhombic mineral tellurite, β-TeO2, and the synthetic, colourless tetragonal (paratellurite), α-TeO2. Most of the information regarding reaction chemistry has been obtained in studies involving paratellurite, α-TeO2.

Selenic acid is the inorganic compound with the formula H2SeO4. It is an oxoacid of selenium, and its structure is more accurately described as O2Se(OH)2. It is a colorless compound. Although it has few uses, one of its salts, sodium selenate is used in the production of glass and animal feeds.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tellurate</span> Compound containing an oxyanion of tellurium

In chemistry, tellurate is a compound containing an oxyanion of tellurium where tellurium has an oxidation number of +6. In the naming of inorganic compounds it is a suffix that indicates a polyatomic anion with a central tellurium atom.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chalcogenide</span>

A chalcogenide is a chemical compound consisting of at least one chalcogen anion and at least one more electropositive element. Although all group 16 elements of the periodic table are defined as chalcogens, the term chalcogenide is more commonly reserved for sulfides, selenides, tellurides, and polonides, rather than oxides. Many metal ores exist as chalcogenides. Photoconductive chalcogenide glasses are used in xerography. Some pigments and catalysts are also based on chalcogenides. The metal dichalcogenide MoS2 is a common solid lubricant.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sodium tellurite</span> Chemical compound

Sodium tellurite is an inorganic tellurium compound with formula Na2TeO3. It is a water-soluble white solid and a weak reducing agent. Sodium tellurite is an intermediate in the extraction of the element, tellurium; it is a product obtained from anode slimes and is a precursor to tellurium.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dimethyl telluride</span> Chemical compound

Dimethyl telluride is an organotelluride compound, formula (CH3)2Te, also known by the abbreviation DMTe.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sodium telluride</span> Chemical compound

Sodium telluride is the chemical compound with the formula Na2Te. This salt is the conjugate base of the thermally unstable acid hydrogen telluride, but it is usually prepared by reduction of tellurium with sodium. Na2Te is a challenging material to handle because it is very sensitive to air. Air oxidizes it initially to polytellurides, which have the formula Na2Tex (x > 1), and ultimately Te metal. Samples of Na2Te, which are colourless when absolutely pure, generally appear purple or dark gray due to the effects of air oxidation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Selenium compounds</span> Chemical compounds containing selenium

Selenium compounds are compounds containing the element selenium (Se). Among these compounds, selenium has various oxidation states, the most common ones being −2, +4, and +6. Selenium compounds exist in nature in the form of various minerals, such as clausthalite, guanajuatite, tiemannite, crookesite etc., and can also coexist with sulfide minerals such as pyrite and chalcopyrite. For many mammals, selenium compounds are essential. For example, selenomethionine and selenocysteine are selenium-containing amino acids present in the human body. Selenomethionine participates in the synthesis of selenoproteins. The reduction potential and pKa (5.47) of selenocysteine are lower than those of cysteine, making some proteins have antioxidant activity. Selenium compounds have important applications in semiconductors, glass and ceramic industries, medicine, metallurgy and other fields.

The indium chalcogenides include all compounds of indium with the chalcogen elements, oxygen, sulfur, selenium and tellurium. (Polonium is excluded as little is known about its compounds with indium). The best-characterised compounds are the In(III) and In(II) chalcogenides e.g. the sulfides In2S3 and InS.
This group of compounds has attracted a lot of research attention because they include semiconductors, photovoltaics and phase-change materials. In many applications indium chalcogenides are used as the basis of ternary and quaternary compounds such as indium tin oxide, ITO and copper indium gallium selenide, CIGS.

Gold chalcogenides are compounds formed between gold and one of the chalcogens, elements from group 16 of the periodic table: oxygen, sulfur, selenium, or tellurium.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Molybdenum ditelluride</span> Chemical compound

Molybdenum(IV) telluride, molybdenum ditelluride or just molybdenum telluride is a compound of molybdenum and tellurium with formula MoTe2, corresponding to a mass percentage of 27.32% molybdenum and 72.68% tellurium.

Hydrogen chalcogenides are binary compounds of hydrogen with chalcogen atoms. Water, the first chemical compound in this series, contains one oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms, and is the most common compound on the Earth's surface.

Tellurium compounds are compounds containing the element tellurium (Te). Tellurium belongs to the chalcogen family of elements on the periodic table, which also includes oxygen, sulfur, selenium and polonium: Tellurium and selenium compounds are similar. Tellurium exhibits the oxidation states −2, +2, +4 and +6, with +4 being most common.

The telluride oxides or oxytellurides are double salts that contain both telluride and oxide anions. They are in the class of mixed anion compounds.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Potassium telluride</span> Chemical compound

Potassium telluride is an inorganic compound with a chemical formula K2Te. It is formed from potassium and tellurium, making it a telluride. Potassium telluride is a white powder. Like rubidium telluride and caesium telluride, it can be used as an ultraviolet detector in space. Its crystal structure is similar to other tellurides, which have an anti-fluorite structure.

Hydride tellurides are mixed anion compounds containing both hydride and telluride ions. They are in the category of heteroanionic chalcogenides, or mixed anion compounds. Related compounds include the oxyhydrides, hydride sulfides, and hydride selenides.

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