NuSTAR

Last updated

NuSTAR
NuSTAR spacecraft model.png
NuSTAR (Explorer 93) satellite
NamesExplorer 93
Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array
SMEX-11
Mission type X-ray astronomy
Operator NASA  / JPL
COSPAR ID 2012-031A OOjs UI icon edit-ltr-progressive.svg
SATCAT no. 38358
Website www.nustar.caltech.edu
Mission duration2 years (planned)
11 years, 7 months, 19 days (in progress)
Spacecraft properties
SpacecraftExplorer XCIII
Spacecraft typeNuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array
Bus LEOStar-2
Manufacturer Orbital Sciences Corporation
ATK Space Components
Launch mass350 kg (770 lb) [1]
Payload mass171 kg (377 lb)
Dimensions1.2 × 10.9 m (3 ft 11 in × 35 ft 9 in)
Power750 watts [2]
Start of mission
Launch date13 June 2012, 16:00:37 UTC [3]
Rocket Pegasus XL (F41)
Launch site Kwajalein Atoll, Stargazer
Contractor Orbital Sciences Corporation
Orbital parameters
Reference system Geocentric orbit
Regime Near-equatorial orbit
Perigee altitude 596.6 km (370.7 mi)
Apogee altitude 612.6 km (380.7 mi)
Inclination 6.027°
Period 96.8 minutes
Main telescope
Type Wolter type I
Focal length10.15 m (33.3 ft) [2]
Collecting area9 keV: 847 cm2 (131.3 sq in)
78 keV: 60 cm2 (9.3 sq in)
Wavelengths3–79 keV
Resolution9.5 arcseconds
Instruments
Dual X-ray telescope
Explorer program
←  IBEX (Explorer 92)
IRIS (Explorer 94) →
 

NuSTAR (Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array, also named Explorer 93 and SMEX-11) is a NASA space-based X-ray telescope that uses a conical approximation to a Wolter telescope to focus high energy X-rays from astrophysical sources, especially for nuclear spectroscopy, and operates in the range of 3 to 79 keV. [4]

Contents

NuSTAR is the eleventh mission of NASA's Small Explorer (SMEX-11) satellite program and the first space-based direct-imaging X-ray telescope at energies beyond those of the Chandra X-ray Observatory and XMM-Newton. It was successfully launched on 13 June 2012, having previously been delayed from 21 March 2012 due to software issues with the launch vehicle. [5] [6]

The mission's primary scientific goals are to conduct a deep survey for black holes a billion times more massive than the Sun, to investigate how particles are accelerated to very high energy in active galaxies, and to understand how the elements are created in the explosions of massive stars by imaging supernova remnants.

Having completed a two-year primary mission, [7] NuSTAR is in its eleventh year of operation.

History

NuSTAR's predecessor, the High Energy Focusing Telescope (HEFT), was a balloon-borne version that carried telescopes and detectors constructed using similar technologies. In February 2003, NASA issued an Explorer program Announcement of Opportunity (AoO). In response, NuSTAR was submitted to NASA in May 2003, as one of 36 mission proposals vying to be the tenth and eleventh Small Explorer missions. [5] In November 2003, NASA selected NuSTAR and four other proposals for a five-month implementation feasibility study.

In January 2005, NASA selected NuSTAR for flight pending a one-year feasibility study. [8] The program was cancelled in February 2006 as a result of cuts to science in NASA's 2007 budget. On 21 September 2007, it was announced that the program had been restarted, with an expected launch in August 2011, though this was later delayed to June 2012. [6] [9] [10] [11]

The principal investigator is Fiona A. Harrison of the California Institute of Technology (Caltech). Other major partners include the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), University of California, Berkeley, Technical University of Denmark (DTU), Columbia University, Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC), Stanford University, University of California, Santa Cruz, Sonoma State University, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, and the Italian Space Agency (ASI). NuSTAR's major industrial partners include Orbital Sciences Corporation and ATK Space Components.

Launch

NASA contracted with Orbital Sciences Corporation to launch NuSTAR (mass 350 kg (770 lb)) [12] on a Pegasus XL launch vehicle on 21 March 2012. [6] It had earlier been planned for 15 August 2011, 3 February 2012, 16 March 2012, and 14 March 2012. [13] After a launch meeting on 15 March 2012, the launch was pushed further back to allow time to review flight software used by the launch vehicle's flight computer. [14] The launch was conducted successfully at 16:00:37 UTC on 13 June 2012 [3] about 117 mi (188 km) south of Kwajalein Atoll. [15] The Pegasus launch vehicle was dropped from the L-1011 'Stargazer' aircraft. [12] [16]

On 22 June 2012, it was confirmed that the 10 m (33 ft) mast was fully deployed. [17]

Optics

NuSTAR's Russian Doll-like Mirrors (PIA15631).jpg
NuSTAR's nested X-ray mirrors
Xray telescope lens.svg
Focusing X-rays with a Wolter Type-1 optical system

Unlike visible light telescopes – which employ mirrors or lenses working with normal incidence – NuSTAR has to employ grazing incidence optics to be able to focus X-rays. For this two conical approximation Wolter telescope design optics with 10.15 m (33.3 ft) focal length are held at the end of a long deployable mast. A laser metrology system is used to determine the exact relative positions of the optics and the focal plane at all times, so that each detected photon can be mapped back to the correct point on the sky even if the optics and the focal plane move relative to one another during an exposure.

Each focusing optic consists of 133 concentric shells. One particular innovation enabling NuSTAR is that these shells are coated with depth-graded multilayers (alternating atomically thin layers of a high-density and low-density material); with NuSTAR's choice of Pt/SiC and W/Si multilayers, this enables reflectivity up to 79 keV (the platinum K-edge energy). [18] [19]

The optics were produced, at Goddard Space Flight Center, by heating thin (210 μm (0.0083 in)) sheets of flexible glass in an oven so that they slumped over precision-polished cylindrical quartz mandrels of the appropriate radius. The coatings were applied by a group at the Danish Technical University.

The shells were then assembled, at the Nevis Laboratories of Columbia University, using graphite spacers machined to constrain the glass to the conical shape, and held together by epoxy. There are 4680 mirror segments in total (the 65 inner shells each comprise six segments and the 65 outer shells twelve; there are upper and lower segments to each shell, and there are two telescopes); there are five spacers per segment. Since the epoxy takes 24 hours to cure, one shell is assembled per day – it took four months to build up one optic.

The expected point spread function for the flight mirrors is 43 arcseconds, giving a spot size of about two millimeters at the focal plane; this is unprecedentedly good resolution for focusing hard X-ray optics, though it is about one hundred times worse than the best resolution achieved at longer wavelengths by the Chandra X-ray Observatory.

Detectors

One of NuSTAR's two detectors NuSTAR detector.JPG
One of NuSTAR's two detectors
NuSTAR's mast deployed on Earth; the inset is looking down the structure Nustar mast deployed.jpg
NuSTAR's mast deployed on Earth; the inset is looking down the structure

Each focusing optic has its own focal plane module, consisting of a solid state cadmium zinc telluride (CdZnTe) pixel detector [20] surrounded by a cesium iodide (CsI) anti-coincidence shield. One detector unit — or focal plane — comprises four (two-by-two) detectors, manufactured by eV Products. Each detector is a rectangular crystal of dimension 20 × 20 mm (0.79 × 0.79 in) and thickness ~2 mm (0.079 in) that have been gridded into 32 × 32 × 0.6 mm (1.260 × 1.260 × 0.024 in) pixels (each pixel subtending 12.3 arcseconds) and provides a total of 12 arcminutes field of view (FoV) for each focal plane module.

The cadmium zinc telluride (CdZnTe) detectors are state of the art room temperature semiconductors that are very efficient at turning high energy photons into electrons. The electrons are digitally recorded using custom application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs) designed by the NuSTAR California Institute of Technology (CalTech) Focal Plane Team. Each pixel has an independent discriminator and individual X-ray interactions trigger the readout process. On-board processors, one for each telescope, identify the row and column with the largest pulse height and read out pulse height information from this pixel as well as its eight neighbors. The event time is recorded to an accuracy of 2 μs relative to the on-board clock. The event location, energy, and depth of interaction in the detector are computed from the nine-pixel signals. [21] [22]

The focal planes are shielded by cesium iodide (CsI) crystals that surround the detector housings. The crystal shields, grown by Saint-Gobain, register high energy photons and cosmic rays which cross the focal plane from directions other than the along the NuSTAR optical axis. Such events are the primary background for NuSTAR and must be properly identified and subtracted in order to identify high energy photons from cosmic sources. The NuSTAR active shielding ensures that any CZT detector event coincident with an active shield event is ignored.

Major scientific results

NuSTAR has demonstrated its versatility, opening the way to many new discoveries in a wide variety of areas of astrophysical research since its launch.

Spin measurement of a supermassive black hole

In February 2013, NASA revealed that NuSTAR, along with the XMM-Newton space observatory, has measured the spin rate of the supermassive black hole at the center of the galaxy NGC 1365. [23] By measuring the frequency change of X-ray light emitted from the black hole corona, NuSTAR was able to view material from the corona be drawn closer to the event horizon. This caused inner portions of the black hole's accretion disk to be illuminated with X-rays, allowing this elusive region to be studied by astronomers for spin rates. [23]

Pointing X-ray Eyes at our Resident Supermassive Black Hole.jpg
NuSTAR has captured these first, focused views of the supermassive black hole at the heart of our galaxy in high-energy X-ray light.
Black Holes - Monsters in Space.jpg
Black hole with corona, an X-ray source
(artist's concept) [24]
PIA18467-NuSTAR-Plot-BlackHole-BlursLight-20140812.png
Blurring of X-rays near black hole
(NuSTAR; 12 August 2014) [24]

Tracing radioactivity in a supernova remnant

Andromeda PIA20061 - Andromeda in High-Energy X-rays, unannotated.jpg
Andromeda

One of NuSTAR's main goals is to characterize stars' explosions by mapping the radioactive material in a supernova remnants. The NuSTAR map of Cassiopeia A shows the titanium-44 isotope concentrated in clumps at the remnant's center and points to a possible solution to the mystery of how the star exploded. When researchers simulate supernova blasts with computers, as a massive star dies and collapses, the main shock wave often stalls and the star fails to shatter. The latest findings strongly suggest the exploding star literally sloshed around, re-energizing the stalled shock wave and allowing the star to finally blast off its outer layers. [25]

Nearby supermassive black holes

In January 2017, researchers from Durham University and the University of Southampton, leading a coalition of agencies using NuSTAR data, announced the discovery of supermassive black holes at the center of nearby galaxies NGC 1448 and IC 3639. [26] [27] [28]

Measurement of temperature variations of AGN wind

In March 2nd of 2017, NuSTAR published an article to Nature detailing observations of wind temperature variations around AGN IRAS 13224−3809. By detecting periodic absences of absorption lines in the X-ray spectrum from the accretion disk winds, NuSTAR and XMM-Newton observed heating and cooling cycles of the relativistic winds leaving the accretion disk. [29] [30]

Detection of light reflecting behind a black hole

This representation of a black hole shows both sides of the accretion disk: in this case, gas above and below the black event horizon is from behind the black hole, while gas flowing in front is from the observers side. Black hole representation.gif
This representation of a black hole shows both sides of the accretion disk: in this case, gas above and below the black event horizon is from behind the black hole, while gas flowing in front is from the observers side.

NuSTAR and XMM-Newton detected X-rays emitted behind the supermassive black hole within Seyfert 1 galaxy I Zwicky 1. Upon studying the flashes of light emitted by the corona of the black hole, researchers noticed that some detected light arrived to the detector later than the rest, with a corresponding change in frequency. The Stanford University team of scientists that led the study concluded that this change was directly attributable to radiation from the flash reflecting off of the accretion disk on the opposing side of the black hole. The path of this reflected light was bent by the high spacetime curvature, directed to the detector after the initial flash. [31] [32]

Ultra-luminous neutron star violating the Eddington limit

A neutron star surrounded by an accretion disk. Disk material that falls on to the surface of the star will release x-rays as radiation, contributing to the observed luminosity. When this luminosity is greater than what the Eddington limit predicts from the star mass, this object is known as a Ultraluminous X-ray source (ULX). Neutron Star simulation.png
A neutron star surrounded by an accretion disk. Disk material that falls on to the surface of the star will release x-rays as radiation, contributing to the observed luminosity. When this luminosity is greater than what the Eddington limit predicts from the star mass, this object is known as a Ultraluminous X-ray source (ULX).

In April 6th of 2023, the NuSTAR team confirmed that neutron star M82 X-2 was emitting more radiation than was physically thought possible due to the Eddington limit, officially labeling it as an Ultraluminous X-ray source (ULX). [33] [34]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chandra X-ray Observatory</span> NASA space telescope launched in 1999

The Chandra X-ray Observatory (CXO), previously known as the Advanced X-ray Astrophysics Facility (AXAF), is a Flagship-class space telescope launched aboard the Space ShuttleColumbia during STS-93 by NASA on July 23, 1999. Chandra was sensitive to X-ray sources 100 times fainter than any previous X-ray telescope, enabled by the high angular resolution of its mirrors. Since the Earth's atmosphere absorbs the vast majority of X-rays, they are not detectable from Earth-based telescopes; therefore space-based telescopes are required to make these observations. Chandra is an Earth satellite in a 64-hour orbit, and its mission is ongoing as of 2024.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">XMM-Newton</span> X-ray space observatory

XMM-Newton, also known as the High Throughput X-ray Spectroscopy Mission and the X-ray Multi-Mirror Mission, is an X-ray space observatory launched by the European Space Agency in December 1999 on an Ariane 5 rocket. It is the second cornerstone mission of ESA's Horizon 2000 programme. Named after physicist and astronomer Sir Isaac Newton, the spacecraft is tasked with investigating interstellar X-ray sources, performing narrow- and broad-range spectroscopy, and performing the first simultaneous imaging of objects in both X-ray and optical wavelengths.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">GALEX</span> NASA satellite of the Explorer program

Galaxy Evolution Explorer was a NASA orbiting space telescope designed to observe the universe in ultraviolet wavelengths to measure the history of star formation in the universe. In addition to paving the way for future ultraviolet missions, the space telescope allowed astronomers to uncover mysteries about the early universe and how it evolved, as well as better characterize phenomena like black holes and dark matter. The mission was extended three times over a period of 10 years before it was decommissioned in June 2013. GALEX was launched on 28 April 2003 and decommissioned in June 2013.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer</span> NASA satellite of the Explorer program

The Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer (RXTE) was a NASA satellite that observed the time variation of astronomical X-ray sources, named after physicist Bruno Rossi. The RXTE had three instruments — an All Sky Monitor, the High-Energy X-ray Timing Experiment (HEXTE) and the Proportional Counter Array. The RXTE observed X-rays from black holes, neutron stars, X-ray pulsars and X-ray bursts. It was funded as part of the Explorer program, and was also called Explorer 69.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Great Observatories program</span> Series of NASA satellites

NASA's series of Great Observatories satellites are four large, powerful space-based astronomical telescopes launched between 1990 and 2003. They were built with different technology to examine specific wavelength/energy regions of the electromagnetic spectrum: gamma rays, X-rays, visible and ultraviolet light, and infrared light.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Neil Gehrels Swift Observatory</span> NASA satellite of the Explorer program

Neil Gehrels Swift Observatory, previously called the Swift Gamma-Ray Burst Explorer, is a NASA three-telescope space observatory for studying gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) and monitoring the afterglow in X-ray, and UV/Visible light at the location of a burst. It was launched on 20 November 2004, aboard a Delta II launch vehicle. Headed by principal investigator Neil Gehrels until his death in February 2017, the mission was developed in a joint partnership between Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) and an international consortium from the United States, United Kingdom, and Italy. The mission is operated by Pennsylvania State University as part of NASA's Medium Explorer program (MIDEX).

The Constellation-X Observatory was a mission concept for an X-ray space observatory to be operated by NASA; in 2008 it was merged with ESA and JAXA efforts in the same direction to produce the International X-ray Observatory project, announced on 24 July 2008.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Suzaku (satellite)</span> Satellite

Suzaku was an X-ray astronomy satellite developed jointly by the Institute of Space and Aeronautical Science at JAXA and NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center to probe high energy X-ray sources, such as supernova explosions, black holes and galactic clusters. It was launched on 10 July 2005 aboard the M-V launch vehicle on the M-V-6 mission. After its successful launch, the satellite was renamed Suzaku after the mythical Vermilion bird of the South.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">X-ray telescope</span> Telescope designed to observe remote objects by detecting X-rays

An X-ray telescope (XRT) is a telescope that is designed to observe remote objects in the X-ray spectrum. X-rays are absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere, so instruments to detect X-rays must be taken to high altitude by balloons, sounding rockets, and satellites.

<i>AstroSat</i> Space observatory

AstroSat is India's first dedicated multi-wavelength space telescope. It was launched on a PSLV-XL on 28 September 2015. With the success of this satellite, ISRO has proposed launching AstroSat-2 as a successor for AstroSat.

<i>Hitomi</i> (satellite) Failed Japanese X-ray astronomy satellite

Hitomi, also known as ASTRO-H and New X-ray Telescope (NeXT), was an X-ray astronomy satellite commissioned by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) for studying extremely energetic processes in the Universe. The space observatory was designed to extend the research conducted by the Advanced Satellite for Cosmology and Astrophysics (ASCA) by investigating the hard X-ray band above 10 keV. The satellite was originally called New X-ray Telescope; at the time of launch it was called ASTRO-H. After it was placed in orbit and its solar panels deployed, it was renamed Hitomi. The spacecraft was launched on 17 February 2016 and contact was lost on 26 March 2016, due to multiple incidents with the attitude control system leading to an uncontrolled spin rate and breakup of structurally weak elements.

Advanced Telescope for High-ENergy Astrophysics (Athena) is an X-ray observatory mission selected by European Space Agency (ESA) within its Cosmic Vision program to address the Hot and Energetic Universe scientific theme. Athena will operate in the energy range of 0.2–12 keV and will offer spectroscopic and imaging capabilities exceeding those of currently operating X-ray astronomy satellites – e.g. the Chandra X-ray Observatory and XMM-Newton – by at least one order of magnitude on several parameter spaces simultaneously.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gravity and Extreme Magnetism Small Explorer</span> NASA satellite of the Explorer program

Gravity and Extreme Magnetism Small Explorer mission was a NASA space observatory mission. The main scientific goal of GEMS was to be the first mission to systematically measure the polarization of X-ray sources. GEMS would have provided data to help scientists study the shape of spacetime that has been distorted by a spinning black hole's gravity and the structure and effects of the magnetic fields around neutron stars. It was cancelled by NASA in June 2012 for potential cost overruns due to delays in developing the technology and never moved into the development phase.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">International X-ray Observatory</span> Cancelled American-ESA-Japanese space telescope project

The International X-ray Observatory (IXO) is a cancelled X-ray telescope that was to be launched in 2021 as a joint effort by NASA, the European Space Agency (ESA), and the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA). In May 2008, ESA and NASA established a coordination group involving all three agencies, with the intent of exploring a joint mission merging the ongoing XEUS and Constellation-X Observatory (Con-X) projects. This proposed the start of a joint study for IXO. NASA was forced to cancel the observatory due to budget constraints in fiscal year 2012. ESA however decided to reboot the mission on its own developing Advanced Telescope for High Energy Astrophysics as a part of Cosmic Vision program.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Neutron Star Interior Composition Explorer</span> NASA telescope on International Space Station

The Neutron Star Interior Composition ExploreR (NICER) is a NASA telescope on the International Space Station, designed and dedicated to the study of the extraordinary gravitational, electromagnetic, and nuclear physics environments embodied by neutron stars, exploring the exotic states of matter where density and pressure are higher than in atomic nuclei. As part of NASA's Explorer program, NICER enabled rotation-resolved spectroscopy of the thermal and non-thermal emissions of neutron stars in the soft X-ray band with unprecedented sensitivity, probing interior structure, the origins of dynamic phenomena, and the mechanisms that underlie the most powerful cosmic particle accelerators known. NICER achieved these goals by deploying, following the launch, and activation of X-ray timing and spectroscopy instruments. NICER was selected by NASA to proceed to formulation phase in April 2013.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fiona A. Harrison</span> American astrophysicist

Fiona A. Harrison is the Kent and Joyce Kresa Leadership Chair of the Division of Physics, Mathematics and Astronomy at Caltech, Harold A. Rosen Professor of Physics at Caltech and the Principal Investigator for NASA's Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array (NuSTAR) mission. She won the Hans A. Bethe Prize in 2020 for her work on NuSTAR.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">X-Ray Imaging and Spectroscopy Mission</span> Japanese research satellite

The X-Ray Imaging and Spectroscopy Mission, formerly the X-ray Astronomy Recovery Mission (XARM), is an X-ray space telescope mission of the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) in partnership with NASA to provide breakthroughs in the study of structure formation of the universe, outflows from galaxy nuclei, and dark matter. As the only international X-ray observatory project of its period, XRISM will function as a next generation space telescope in the X-ray astronomy field, similar to how the James Webb Space Telescope, Fermi Space Telescope, and the Atacama Large Millimeter Array (ALMA) Observatory are placed in their respective fields.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Origins Space Telescope</span> Proposed far-infrared space observatory to study the early Universe

Origins Space Telescope (Origins) is a concept study for a far-infrared survey space telescope mission. A preliminary concept in pre-formulation, it was presented to the United States Decadal Survey in 2019 for a possible selection to NASA's large strategic science missions. Origins would provide an array of new tools for studying star formation and the energetics and physical state of the interstellar medium within the Milky Way using infrared radiation and new spectroscopic capabilities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lynx X-ray Observatory</span> Proposed NASA space telescope

The Lynx X-ray Observatory (Lynx) is a NASA-funded Large Mission Concept Study commissioned as part of the National Academy of Sciences 2020 Astronomy and Astrophysics Decadal Survey. The concept study phase is complete as of August 2019, and the Lynx final report has been submitted to the Decadal Survey for prioritization. If launched, Lynx would be the most powerful X-ray astronomy observatory constructed to date, enabling order-of-magnitude advances in capability over the current Chandra X-ray Observatory and XMM-Newton space telescopes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">IXPE</span> NASA satellite of the Explorer program

Imaging X-ray Polarimetry Explorer, commonly known as IXPE or SMEX-14, is a space observatory with three identical telescopes designed to measure the polarization of cosmic X-rays of black holes, neutron stars, and pulsars. The observatory, which was launched on 9 December 2021, is an international collaboration between NASA and the Italian Space Agency (ASI). It is part of NASA's Explorers program, which designs low-cost spacecraft to study heliophysics and astrophysics.

References

  1. ↑ "Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array (NuSTAR)" (PDF). Jet Propulsion Laboratory . June 2012. Retrieved 16 June 2012.
  2. 1 2 "NuSTAR (Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array)". European Space Agency. Retrieved 2 July 2015.
  3. 1 2 Ray, Justin. "Mission Status Center". Spaceflight Now. Retrieved 13 June 2012.
  4. ↑ "About". NuSTAR. Caltech. Retrieved 15 October 2017.
  5. 1 2 "Launch of NASA's NuSTAR Mission Postponed". NASA. 16 March 2012. Retrieved 15 October 2017.PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  6. 1 2 3 "NASA Selects Explorer Mission Proposals for Feasibility Studies (03-353)" (Press release).PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  7. ↑ Presto, Suzanne (13 August 2014). "Black hole bends light, space, time – and NASA's NuSTAR can see it all unfold". CNN Business. CNN. Retrieved 28 November 2022.
  8. ↑ "NASA Selects Small Explorer Mission (05-026)". NASA. 26 January 2005. Retrieved 20 July 2011.PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  9. ↑ "NASA Restarts Telescope Mission to Detect Black Holes (07-198)". NASA. 21 September 2007. Retrieved 20 July 2011.PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  10. ↑ "NASA Restarts Telescope Mission to Detect Black Holes". NASA (JPL). 21 September 2007. Retrieved 20 July 2011.PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  11. ↑ "NASA Plans Black Hole Finder". Space.com. 21 September 2007. Retrieved 20 July 2011.
  12. 1 2 "NuSTAR". NASA. 18 February 2015.PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  13. ↑ Nelson, Jon (4 September 2009). "NASA Approves X-ray Space Mission". NASA (JPL). Archived from the original on 6 February 2012. Retrieved 20 July 2011.PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  14. ↑ "Launch of NASA's NuSTAR Mission Postponed". NASA. 16 March 2012. Retrieved 31 May 2012.
  15. ↑ "NASA Selects Orbital's Pegasus Rocket to Launch NuSTAR Space Science Satellite". Orbital. 18 February 2009. Retrieved 20 July 2011.
  16. ↑ Moskowitz, Clara (13 June 2012). "NASA blasts NuSTAR telescope into orbit to hunt black holes". NBC News. Retrieved 15 June 2012.
  17. ↑ "NuSTAR Successfully Deploys Huge Mast". Universe Today. 22 June 2012.
  18. ↑ "NuSTAR optics". Archived from the original on 20 May 2012.
  19. ↑ Hailey, Charles J.; An, HongJun; Blaedel, Kenneth L.; Brejnholt, Nicolai F.; Christensen, Finn E.; et al. (29 July 2010). Arnaud, Monique; Murray, Stephen S.; Takahashi, Tadayuki (eds.). "The Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array (NuSTAR): optics overview and current status" (PDF). Proceedings of the SPIE. Space Telescopes and Instrumentation 2010: Ultraviolet to Gamma Ray. 7732: 77320T. Bibcode:2010SPIE.7732E..0TH. doi:10.1117/12.857654. S2CID   121831705. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 July 2011.
  20. ↑ Harrison, Fiona (21 May 2010). Semiconductor radiation detection systems. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. ISBN   9781439803851.
  21. ↑ Rana, Vikram (2009). Siegmund, Oswald H. (ed.). "Development of focal plane detectors for the Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array (NuSTAR) mission" (PDF). Proc. SPIE. UV, X-Ray, and Gamma-Ray Space Instrumentation for Astronomy XVI. 7435: 743503. Bibcode:2009SPIE.7435E..03R. doi:10.1117/12.825418. S2CID   122500874.
  22. ↑ Kitaguchi, Takao (2011). Siegmund, Oswald H. (ed.). "Spectral calibration and modeling of the NuSTAR CdZnTe pixel detectors". Proc. SPIE. UV, X-Ray, and Gamma-Ray Space Instrumentation for Astronomy XVII. 8145: 814507. arXiv: 1109.0378 . Bibcode:2011SPIE.8145E..07K. doi:10.1117/12.896972. S2CID   12785111.
  23. 1 2 "NASA's NuSTAR Helps Solve Riddle of Black Hole Spin". NASA. 27 February 2013. Retrieved 3 March 2013.PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  24. 1 2 "NASA's NuSTAR Sees Rare Blurring of Black Hole Light". NASA (JPL). 12 August 2014. Retrieved 12 August 2014.PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  25. ↑ "NASA's NuSTAR Untangles Mystery of How Stars Explode". JPL. 19 February 2014. Retrieved 24 April 2015.PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  26. ↑ "Black Holes Hide in Our Cosmic Backyard". NASA. 7 January 2017. Retrieved 7 January 2017.PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  27. ↑ Annuar, A.; Alexander, D. M.; Gandhi, P.; Lansbury, G. B.; Asmus, D.; et al. (January 2017). "A New Compton-thick AGN in our Cosmic Backyard: Unveiling the Buried Nucleus in NGC 1448 with NuSTAR". The Astrophysical Journal. 836 (2): 165. arXiv: 1701.00497 . Bibcode:2017ApJ...836..165A. doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/836/2/165 . S2CID   11258638.
  28. ↑ Boorman, Peter G.; Gandhi, P.; Alexander, D. M.; Annuar, A.; Ballantyne, D. R.; et al. (December 2016). "IC 3639—a New Bona Fide Compton-Thick AGN Unveiled by NuSTAR". The Astrophysical Journal. 833 (2). 245. arXiv: 1610.08997 . Bibcode:2016ApJ...833..245B. doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/833/2/245 . S2CID   36679784.
  29. ↑ Parker, Michael L.; Pinto, Ciro; Fabian, Andrew C.; Lohfink, Anne; Buisson, Douglas J. K.; Alston, William N.; Kara, Erin; Cackett, Edward M.; Chiang, Chia-Ying; Dauser, Thomas; De Marco, Barbara; Gallo, Luigi C.; Garcia, Javier; Harrison, Fiona A.; King, Ashley L. (2 March 2017). "The response of relativistic outflowing gas to the inner accretion disk of a black hole". Nature. 543 (7643): 83–86. arXiv: 1703.00071 . Bibcode:2017Natur.543...83P. doi:10.1038/nature21385. ISSN   0028-0836. PMID   28252065. S2CID   4394261.
  30. ↑ "Temperature Swings of Black Hole Winds Measured for First Time". NuSTAR. Retrieved 24 April 2023.
  31. ↑ "NuSTAR and XMM-Newton See Light Echo from Behind a Black Hole". NuSTAR. Retrieved 24 April 2023.
  32. ↑ Wilkins, D. R.; Gallo, L. C.; Costantini, E.; Brandt, W. N.; Blandford, R. D. (28 July 2021). "Light bending and X-ray echoes from behind a supermassive black hole". Nature. 595 (7869): 657–660. arXiv: 2107.13555 . Bibcode:2021Natur.595..657W. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03667-0. ISSN   0028-0836. PMID   34321670. S2CID   236493644.
  33. ↑ "NASA Study Helps Explain Limit-Breaking Ultra-Luminous X-Ray Sources". NuSTAR. Retrieved 24 April 2023.
  34. ↑ Bachetti, Matteo; et al. (October 2022). "Orbital decay in M82 X-2". The Astrophysical Journal. 937 (2): 125. arXiv: 2112.00339 . Bibcode:2022ApJ...937..125B. doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ac8d67 . hdl: 2299/25784 .
Further reading
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.