Artemis I saw an uncrewed Orion orbit the Moon in 2022. Artemis II is currently sending four astronauts on a lunar flyby in 2026, returning humans to deep space and the lunar neighborhood for the first time since Apollo 17. Artemis III, scheduled for 2027, is set to test an HLS lunar lander in Earth orbit; it was planned as the first lunar landing of the program until 2026, when the landing was pushed to Artemis IV, targeted for 2028. Afterward, NASA intends yearly lunar landings to develop a permanent lunar base.
Overview
The Artemis program is organized around a series of missions of increasing complexity, intended to be spaced about a year apart. NASA and its partners have planned missions Artemis I through Artemis V, with additional missions proposed. Each numbered mission centers on launching an SLS rocket carrying an Orion spacecraft. Missions after Artemis II will also rely on support missions by other organizations and spacecraft. Referred to under the name Lunar Codex, Artemis missions have also contemplated sending to the moon an archive of cultural works from creators across the globe.[9]
Orion's first launch on SLS, originally scheduled for 2016, was delayed repeatedly and ultimately flew on November 16, 2022, as Artemis I, carrying mannequins and robotic payloads. As of March2026[update], the crewed Artemis II (lunar fly-by) mission is scheduled for April 2026, Artemis III (Earth orbit) for mid-2027, Artemis IV (lunar landing) for early 2028 and Artemis V (lunar landing) for late 2028. NASA plans approximately annual lunar landings thereafter.[13]
SLS missions
Artemis I (November 16, 2022) was the first uncrewed test flight of the SLS, Orion, and ESM.[i] The mission sent Orion into a polar distant retrograde lunar orbit for about six days before returning to Earth, where the capsule re-entered the atmosphere and splashed down in the Pacific Ocean under parachutes.[14] Although the mission was successful overall, Orion's ablative heat shield experienced greater-than-expected erosion during reentry.[15]
Artemis II (April 1, 2026) is planned to be the first crewed test flight of SLS and the Orion spacecraft.[16] The four crew members will perform extensive testing in Earth orbit, and Orion will then be boosted into a free-return trajectory around the Moon, which will return Orion to Earth for re-entry and splashdown. The mission is comparable to Apollo 8, although Artemis II is planned to swing around the Moon at a much greater distance than the Apollo flights. Launch is scheduled for no earlier than April 1, 2026.[16][17][18]
Artemis IV (early 2028) is planned to be the first American crewed lunar landing since Apollo 17 in December 1972.[16] This mission will be the first to use a "standardized" configuration of the SLS rocket with a commercially developed upper stage replacing the ICPS. The mission depends on a prior support flight to place a lander in lunar orbit before the launch of SLS/Orion. After arrival, astronauts will transfer to the lander for descent to the lunar surface, conduct at least two extravehicular activities (EVAs), and then return to lunar orbit for rendezvous with Orion. Orion will subsequently return the four astronauts to Earth. Launch is scheduled for no earlier than early 2028.[13][20]
Artemis V (late 2028) is planned to be the second crewed lunar landing. This mission also is when NASA is expected to begin building its Moon base.[13]
Support missions
Support missions deliver robotic payloads, Gateway modules, HLS vehicles, and elements of the lunar base. Most are executed under NASA contracts with commercial providers.
Under the Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) program, robotic landers launched on commercial rockets deliver equipment to the lunar surface. CLPS flights began in 2024, initially carrying scientific instruments, and will continue throughout the Artemis program to support crewed operations, including the delivery of Moon base modules, lunar rovers, and other surface equipment.
The Human Landing System (HLS) vehicles—SpaceX's Starship HLS and Blue Origin's Blue Moon—both currently in development, are designed to transport astronauts from lunar orbit to the surface, support them during surface operations, and return them to lunar orbit. They will launch separately from Orion on commercial launch vehicles instead of SLS.
The Lunar Gateway space station was planned to support crewed Orion dockings, host logistics modules, and assist with lunar operations. The Lunar Gateway program was canceled in March 2026 and is no longer included in Artemis mission planning. Under earlier plans, the first two Gateway modules, the Power and Propulsion Element (PPE) and the Habitation and Logistics Outpost (HALO), were to be launched together on a Falcon Heavy. Additional modules were to be delivered on SLS launches alongside Orion, with resupply provided by the Dragon XL spacecraft.
History
An artist's rendering of the lunar module (left) and Orion spacecraft envisioned during the Constellation program
Originally legislated by the NASA Authorization Act of 2005, as the retirement of the Space Shuttle drew near, the Constellation program included the development of the Ares I and Ares V rockets along with the Orion spacecraft.[21] In May 2009, U.S. president Barack Obama established the Augustine Committee to take into account several objectives including support for the International Space Station, development of missions beyond low Earth orbit (including the Moon, Mars, and near-Earth objects), and use of the commercial space industry within defined budget limits.[22] The committee concluded that the Constellation program was massively underfunded and that a 2020 Moon landing was impossible. Constellation was subsequently put on hold.[23]
On April 15, 2010, President Obama spoke at the Kennedy Space Center, announcing the administration's plans for NASA and cancelling the non-Orion elements of Constellation, saying that the program was not viable.[24] He instead proposed US$6 billion in additional funding and called for the development of a new heavy-lift rocket program to be ready for construction by 2015 with crewed missions to Mars orbit by the mid-2030s.[25]
On October 11, 2010, President Obama signed into law the NASA Authorization Act of 2010, which included requirements for the immediate development of the SLS rocket and the Orion spacecraft to support missions beyond low Earth orbit starting in 2016, while making use of the workforce, assets, and capabilities of the Space Shuttle program, Constellation program, and other NASA programs. The law also invested in space technologies and robotics capabilities tied to the overall space exploration framework, ensured continued support for Commercial Orbital Transportation Services, Commercial Resupply Services, and expanded the Commercial Crew Development program.[26]
On June 30, 2017, President Donald Trump signed an executive order to re-establish the National Space Council, chaired by Vice President Mike Pence. The administration's first budget request kept Obama-era human spaceflight programs in place: Commercial Resupply Services, Commercial Crew Development, the Space Launch System, and the Orion spacecraft for deep space missions, while reducing Earth science research and calling for the elimination of NASA's education office.[27]
Redefinition and naming as Artemis
On December 11, 2017, President Trump signed Space Policy Directive 1, calling for a U.S.-led program for a human return to the Moon, followed by missions to Mars and beyond. The policy calls for the NASA administrator to "lead an innovative and sustainable program of exploration with commercial and international partners to enable human expansion across the Solar System and to bring back to Earth new knowledge and opportunities". The effort intends to more effectively organize government, private industry, and international efforts toward returning humans to the Moon and working toward eventual human exploration of Mars.[28]
Space Policy Directive 1 authorized the lunar-focused campaign, later named Artemis, drawing upon legacy U.S. programs, including the Orion space capsule, the Lunar Gateway space station, and Commercial Lunar Payload Services, and created the new Human Landing System program. The Space Launch System was expected to serve as the primary launch vehicle for Orion, while commercial launch vehicles were to launch various other elements of the program.[29]
On March 26, 2019, Pence announced that NASA's Moon landing goal would be accelerated by four years with a planned landing in 2024.[30] On May 16, 2019, NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine announced that the new program would be named Artemis, after the goddess of the Moon in Greek mythology who is the twin sister of Apollo, after which NASA's 1960's moon landing program was named.[31][32] Mars missions by the 2030s were still intended as of May2019[update].[2]
In mid-2019, NASA requested US$1.6 billion in additional funding for Artemis for fiscal year 2020,[33] while the Senate Appropriations Committee requested from NASA a five-year budget profile[34] which is needed for evaluation and approval by Congress.[35][36]
In February 2020, the White House requested a funding increase of 12% to cover the Artemis program as part of its fiscal year 2021 budget. The total budget would have been US$25.2 billion per year with US$3.7 billion dedicated toward a Human Landing System. NASA chief financial officer Jeff DeWit said he thought the agency had "a very good shot" to get this budget through Congress despite Democratic concerns around the program.[37] However, in July 2020, the House Appropriations Committee rejected the White House's requested funding increase.[38] The bill proposed in the House dedicated only US$700 million toward the Human Landing System, 81% (US$3 billion) short of the requested amount.[39]
In April 2020, NASA awarded funding to Blue Origin, Dynetics, and SpaceX for 10-month-long preliminary design studies for the HLS.[40][41][42]
On February 4, 2021, the Biden administration endorsed the Artemis program.[43] More specifically, White House Press Secretary Jen Psaki expressed the Biden administration's "support [for] this effort and endeavor".[44][45][46] However, throughout February 2021, Acting Administrator of NASA Steve Jurczyk reiterated those budget concerns when asked about the project's schedule,[47][48] clarifying that "The 2024 lunar landing goal may no longer be a realistic target [...]".[49]
On April 16, 2021, NASA contracted SpaceX to develop, manufacture, and fly two lunar landing flights with the Starship HLS lunar lander.[50] Blue Origin and Dynetics protested the award to the Government Accountability Office (GAO) on April 26.[51][52] After the GAO rejected the protests,[53] Blue Origin sued NASA over the award,[54][55] and NASA agreed to stop work on the contract until November 1 as the lawsuit proceeded. The judge dismissed the suit on November 4, and NASA resumed work with SpaceX.[56]
On November 15, 2021, an audit of NASA's Office of Inspector General estimated the true cost of the Artemis program at about $93 billion until 2025.[1]
In addition to the initial SpaceX contract, NASA awarded two rounds of separate contracts in May 2019[57] and September 2021,[58] on aspects of the HLS to encourage alternative designs, separately from the initial HLS development effort. It announced in March 2022 that it was developing new sustainability rules and pursuing both a Starship HLS upgrade (an option under the initial SpaceX contract) and new competing alternative designs. These came after criticism from members of Congress over the lack of redundancy and competition, and led NASA to ask for additional support.[59][60]
Orion shortly after splashdown in the Pacific Ocean on December 11, 2022.
Artemis I was originally scheduled for late 2016, and as delays accrued, eventually for late 2021, but the launch date was then pushed back to August 29, 2022.[74] Various delays related to final infrastructure repairs and weather pushed the launch date further out.[75]
In October 2022, NASA launch managers decided on a new launch date in November, which was again slightly delayed due to preparation and weather.[76][61][4] On November 16 at 01:47:44 EST (06:47:44 UTC), Artemis I successfully launched from the Kennedy Space Center.[77]
Artemis I was completed at 09:40 PST (17:40 UTC) on December 11, when the Orion spacecraft splashed down in the Pacific Ocean, west of Baja California, after a record-breaking mission, which saw Artemis travel more than 2.3million kilometers (1.4million miles) on a path around the Moon before returning safely to Earth. The splashdown occurred 50 years to the day since NASA's Apollo 17 Moon landing, the last human crewed mission to touch down on the lunar surface.[78]
The mission is expected to set several human spaceflight records. Glover would become the first person of color, Koch the first woman, and Hansen the first non-U.S. citizen to travel beyond low Earth orbit and to the Moon's vicinity. At a distance of approximately 4,700 miles (7,600km; 4,100nmi) beyond the Moon and an atmospheric reentry speed of about 25,000 miles per hour (40,000km/h), the mission would exceed previous crewed flight distance and reentry speed.
Artemis II is a flight test supporting subsequent Artemis missions, which are planned to return humans to the lunar surface in 2028 for the first time since the Apollo program. The mission was originally designated Exploration Mission-2 (EM-2) and was initially intended to support the now-canceled Asteroid Redirect Mission, proposed in 2013. Its objectives were revised following the establishment of the Artemis program in 2017. The mission objectives are similar to those of Apollo 8 in 1968, the first crewed flight around the Moon during the Apollo program. However, its planned free-return trajectory more closely resembles that flown by Apollo 13.
ArtemisIII was originally intended to be the first crewed lunar landing since Apollo17 in 1972.[79] In 2023, NASA officials expressed an openness to flying ArtemisIII without a crewed landing due to heat shield issues on Orion and delays in Starship's development.[80][81] The mission was proposed by some to become a crewed visit to the Lunar Gateway.[82] In 2024, NASA evaluated alternative mission options, including a test of docking between Orion and Starship HLS in low Earth orbit.[83]
During a news conference on February 27, 2026, NASA administratorJared Isaacman confirmed a revised mission plan of testing one or both lunar landers for low Earth orbit rendezvous, as well as potentially testing EVA equipment, while preliminarily assigning Artemis IV, planned for 2028, as the first potential lunar landing mission.[84][85][86]
ArtemisIV is planned to be the third crewed mission and first lunar landing of the NASA-led Artemis program, marking the first crewed landing on the Moon since Apollo 17 in 1972. It will be the first mission to use the standardized configuration of the Space Launch System (SLS), with a Centaur V upper stage in place of the Interim Cryogenic Propulsion Stage (ICPS) flown on the previous SLS launches.[87][88] The SLS will send an Orion spacecraft carrying the astronaut crew members to lunar orbit.
The mission depends on a prior support flight to place a lunar lander—either SpaceX's Starship HLS or Blue Origin's Blue Moon—into lunar orbit before the crew launch. When Orion docks with the lander the crew will transfer to it, descend to the lunar surface and conduct extravehicular activities (EVAs) there. They will then ascend back to the Orion waiting in lunar orbit, which will return the four astronauts to Earth. As of March2026[update], launch is scheduled for early 2028.[87]
Before February 2026, Artemis IV was proposed as the program's second lunar landing mission, sending an Orion with four astronauts to the Lunar Gateway space station, where they would install the I-Hab module, before heading down to the lunar surface.
Artemis V (late 2028)
These paragraphs are an excerpt from Artemis V.[edit]
ArtemisV is planned to be the fourth crewed mission and second lunar landing of the NASA-led Artemis program. The mission is expected to see the first efforts by NASA to begin building a permanent Moon base. As of March2026[update], launch is scheduled for late 2028.[89]
Originally, ArtemisV was proposed as the program's third lunar landing mission, sending an Orion spacecraft with four astronauts to the now-cancelled Lunar Gateway space station, where they would install two elements, before heading down to the Lunar surface.[90]
Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) is a NASA program to hire companies to send small robotic landers and rovers to the Moon. Most landing sites are near the lunar south pole[91][92] where they will scout for lunar resources, test in situ resource utilization (ISRU) concepts, and perform lunar science to support the Artemis lunar program. CLPS is intended to buy end-to-end payload services between Earth and the lunar surface using fixed-price contracts.[93][94] The program achieved the first landing on the Moon by a commercial company in history with the IM-1 mission in 2024. The program was extended to add support for large payloads starting after 2025.
The CLPS program is run by NASA's Science Mission Directorate along with the Human Exploration and Operations and Space Technology Mission directorates. NASA expects the contractors to provide all activities necessary to safely integrate, accommodate, transport, and operate NASA payloads, including launch vehicles, lunar lander spacecraft, lunar surface systems, Earth re-entry vehicles and associated resources.[94]
Eight missions have been contracted under the program (excluding a mission contract that was revoked after awarding, and a mission contract that was cancelled after the contracted company went bankrupt).
Signatory nations of the Artemis Accords, highlighted in blue, as of January 2026
The Artemis Accords are a set of non-binding multilateral arrangements[95] between the United States government and other world governments that elaborates on the norms expected to be followed in outer space.[96] The Accords are related to the Artemis program, an American-led effort to return humans to the Moon by 2028, with the ultimate goal of expanding space exploration to Mars and beyond.[97]
The Accords were originally signed on October 13, 2020, by representatives of the national space agencies of eight countries: Australia, Canada, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, the United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom, and the United States.[100] The Accords remain open for signature indefinitely, as NASA anticipates more nations joining.[105] Additional signatories can choose to directly participate in Artemis program activities, or may agree simply to commit to the principles for responsible exploration of the Moon as set out in the Accords.[106]
EGS is responsible for maintaining and adapting legacy Apollo- and Space Shuttle–era facilities, while also developing new systems to support evolving launch vehicle configurations. These efforts have included modifications to support SLS Block 1 missions, as well as planning for more advanced variants, although some upgrades have been revised or cancelled as program requirements have changed.
The program operates and maintains several major facilities and systems at KSC, including the Vehicle Assembly Building, where rockets are vertically integrated; the Launch Control Center, which houses the firing rooms used for launch operations; and the Crawler-Transporter fleet (CT-1 and CT-2), which transports mobile launchers and rockets to the launch pad. EGS also manages mobile launch platforms, including Mobile Launcher-1 (ML-1), while construction of Mobile Launcher-2 (ML-2) was halted following changes to SLS program requirements. Launch operations are conducted from Launch Complex 39B, which has been modernized to support Artemis missions.
Supporting Earth-launch vehicles
As of the early mission concepts outlined by NASA in May 2020 and refined by the HLS contract award in July 2021, the primary Earth-launch vehicles planned to support the Artemis program will include the NASA Space Launch System for the Orion vehicle, the Falcon Heavy for various components of the Lunar Gateway,[110] and the Starship HLS configuration for the eventual delivery of the HLS vehicle. Other standard SpaceX Starships may be used later to meet other and yet to be determined crew and/or cargo handling mission needs.[111] Additional launch vehicles will also be employed later for CLPS cargo services. The European Ariane 6 has been proposed to be part of the program in July 2019.[112]
The Power and Propulsion Element (PPE) module and the Habitation and Logistics Outpost (HALO) of the Gateway, which were previously planned for the SLS Block 1B,[113] will now fly together on a Falcon Heavy in 2027.[114][115][116] The Gateway will be supported and resupplied by approximately 28 commercial cargo missions launched by undetermined commercial launch vehicles.[117] The Gateway Logistics Services (GLS) will be in charge of resupply missions.[117] GLS has also contracted for the construction of a resupply vehicle, Dragon XL, capable of remaining docked to the Gateway for one year of operations, providing and generating its own power while docked, and capable of autonomous disposal at the end of its mission.[117][118][119]
In May 2019, the plan was for components of a crewed lunar lander to be deployed to the Gateway on commercial launchers before the arrival of the first crewed mission, Artemis III.[120] An alternative approach where the HLS and Orion dock together directly was discussed.[121][122]
As late as mid-2019, NASA considered use of Delta IV Heavy and Falcon Heavy to launch a crewed Orion mission given SLS delays.[123] Given the complexity of conversion to a different vehicle, the agency ultimately decided to use only the SLS to launch astronauts.[8]
The Space Launch System (SLS) is an American super heavy-liftexpendable launch vehicle used by NASA. As the primary launch vehicle for the Artemis program, SLS is designed to send the crewed Orion spacecraft on trans-lunar injection trajectories for missions to the Moon. The rocket first launched on 16 November 2022, carrying the uncrewed Artemis I mission. Its first crewed launch was for the Artemis II lunar flyby on 1 April 2026, becoming the second launch vehicle to carry humans beyond low Earth orbit (after Saturn V) and the most powerful rocket to carry humans.
Development of SLS began in 2011 as a congressionally mandated replacement for the retiring Space Shuttle and the cancelled Ares I and Ares V launch vehicles of the Constellation program. The vehicle incorporates heritage hardware from the Shuttle program, including its RS-25 engines and solid rocket boosters, alongside newly developed elements such as the core stage. The project has seen mismanagement, budget overruns, and delays. The first launch, required by Congress to take place by 2016, occurred nearly six years later.
All SLS launches take place from Launch Complex 39B at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. The initial missions use the Block 1 configuration, consisting of the core stage, extended Space Shuttle boosters developed for Ares I and the Interim Cryogenic Propulsion Stage (ICPS) as an upper stage.
Prior to February 2026, NASA planned to progressively introduce upgrades. The Block 1B configuration would feature the purpose-built Exploration Upper Stage (EUS), followed by a more powerful Block 2 variant equipped with new solid rocket boosters. However, amid delays and technical issues during preparations for Artemis II, the first crewed lunar mission since 1972, NASA Administrator Jared Isaacman announced on 26 February 2026 that the agency would standardize to the configuration of Block 1 and cancel development of the Block 1B and Block 2 upgrades, citing risk reduction and schedule stability for the Artemis campaign.
The SpaceX Starship system is a fully-reusable super heavy-lift Earth-launch system which is under development. It consists of a first-stage booster named Super-Heavy and a second-stage space vehicle which is generally named Starship and which will have several variants. A Starship HLS mission will use three variants: a tanker, a propellant depot, and the Starship HLS itself which will be designed only for lunar landings and takeoffs, and not for Earth landings. Some variants will be able to return to Earth for reuse.
The second-stage Starships are fully self-contained spacecraft, complete with their own propulsion systems. The combined Starship system using standard Starship variants for its second-stage is planned to launch crews and cargo, which may then be used to support the various developmental needs of the Artemis program, and also to support the needs of other NASA and SpaceX programs.
Orion was originally conceived by Lockheed Martin as a proposal for the Crew Exploration Vehicle (CEV) to be used in NASA's Constellation program. Following the cancellation of the Constellation program in 2010, Orion was heavily redesigned for use in NASA's Journey to Mars initiative; later named Moon to Mars. The SLS replaced the Ares I as Orion's primary launch vehicle, and the service module was replaced with a design based on the European Space Agency's Automated Transfer Vehicle. A development version of Orion's CM was launched in 2014 during Exploration Flight Test-1, while at least four test articles were produced. By 2022, three flight-worthy Orion crew modules have been built, with an additional one ordered, for use in the Artemis program; the first of these was due to be launched on November 30, 2020, however, Artemis I did not launch until November 16, 2022.
The Human Landing System (HLS) are spacecraft developed for the NASA-led Artemis program to land astronauts on the Moon. HLS vehicles are designed to transport crews from lunar orbit to the lunar surface, support them during surface operations, and return them to lunar orbit. Two HLS designs are currently in development: SpaceX's Starship HLS and Blue Origin's Blue Moon Mark 2.
As of March2026[update], NASA intends to launch one or both into low Earth orbit in mid-2027 for rendezvous and docking tests as part of the Artemis III mission. Selection of the lander for the first crewed lunar landing during the Artemis IV mission in early 2028 will depend on the results of those tests and equipment readiness.[131]
Rather than leading development internally, NASA provided a reference design and solicited proposals from commercial vendors to design, develop, and deliver systems meeting agency requirements. The competition began in 2019, and Starship HLS was selected in 2021. Following the award, the procurement was challenged in court, alleging improper evaluation of proposals. In 2023, NASA expanded the program by selecting a second competing lander, Blue Moon, stating that the move would increase competition and support additional lunar landing opportunities.
Lunar Gateway (cancelled)
Rendering of the assembled Lunar Gateway, 2024 designGateway design architecture in 2024
The Lunar Gateway is a cancelled program that planned to assemble a space station in orbit around the Moon as part of the Artemis program. One of the technical motivations for the station was that the European Service Module used by the Orion spacecraft did not have sufficient propulsion to depart independently from a low lunar orbit, necessitating a lower-energy orbit, and a near-rectilinear halo orbit was selected.[132] Gateway was to have served as a staging location where the Human Landing System landers could rendezvous separately from Orion, transfer crews, and support lunar surface operations, and it was also intended to function as a communications hub, science laboratory, and habitation module for both crewed and robotic lunar exploration.[133] Before its 2026 pausing, Gateway was planned to be the first space station constructed beyond low Earth orbit and a potential staging point for future human missions to Mars.[134]
In July 2025, the passage of the One Big Beautiful Bill Act allocated $2.6 billion to fund the program through FY 2032.[139] In early 2026, reports indicated that references to the station had been removed from congressional funding legislation, raising questions about its future.[140][141]
In March 2026, NASA announced it would cancel plans to build the station and would instead focus on developing a lunar surface base between 2029 and 2036.[142][143]
An artist's rendition of an Artemis astronaut wearing the xEMU spacesuit and xPLS life support backpack during an EVA on the Moon
The Artemis Base Camp will support missions of up to two months and will be used to study technologies to use on future Moon or Mars bases, and then future stationary modules may be used regularly for decades to come through both Government and commercial programs. Most probably it will be a site that has already been visited by prior robotic missions. It will consist of three main modules:
1 The Surface Habitat (SH) modules, which is the initial dwelling structure and a surface home base for the first residents of the Moon. 2 The Lunar Terrain Vehicle (LTV), which is an unpressurized rover cart for transporting suited astronauts and cargo around in the vicinity of the Base. 3 The Pressurized Rovers (PR), a pressurized vehicle complete with small backup habitation facilities, thus enabling multi-day and longer-range explorations tens of kilometers away from the Base.[145]
Transportation on the Moon
Landing zone
In 2022, NASA identified 13 candidate regions near the lunar South Pole for initial landing and inspection missions.[146]
In February 2020, NASA released two requests for information regarding both a crewed and uncrewed unpressurized surface rover. The latter, Lunar Terrain Vehicle (LTV) would be prepositioned by a CLPS vehicle before the Artemis III mission. It would be used to transport crews around the exploration site and serve a similar function to the Apollo Lunar Roving Vehicle. In July 2020, NASA established a program office for the rover at the Johnson Space Center in Houston.[147]
NASA has specified its need for a Lunar Terrain Vehicle (LTV) that has a cargo capacity of 800kg, traversal distances of up to 20km without battery recharging, continuous operations for 8 hours within a 24-hour period, the ability to survive the lunar night, and the ability to traverse grades as steep as ±20 degrees.[145]
On April 3, 2024, NASA announced that Intuitive Machines, Lunar Outpost and Venturi Astrolab are the three companies developing the LTV in a 12-month feasibility and demo phase.[148] A source selection statement by NASA provided further details on cost and overall feasibility on April 9, 2024. The Intuitive Machines proposal was for $1.692 billion, Lunar Outpost for $1.727 billion and Astrolab for $1.928 billion to develop the vehicle.[149]
The Artemis Base Camp is the proposed lunar base to be established at the end of the 2020s. The Base camp is to be located in the south pole region near the two adjacent Shackleton and de Gerlache craters,[150] due to this area's wide variety of lunar geography and also due to the abundance of water ice that is believed to exist in the lunar soils of the crater floors. The environs of these craters fall under the guidelines of the Outer Space Treaty.[147][151]
Foundational Surface Habitat
A render of the Foundational Surface Habitat (stationary configuration)
Most of the information about the Surface Habitat (SH) modules comes from studies and launch manifests which include a reference to its launch. It will be commercially built and commercially launched in the early 2030s along with the Pressurized Vehicle (PV).[152] The SH was formerly referred to as the Artemis Surface Asset. Launch plans as of February2020[update] showed that landing it on the surface would be similar to the HLS. The SH would be sent to the Gateway where it would then be attached to a descent stage and subsequently transported to the lunar surface with a commercial launcher and lander. It would use the same lunar transfer stage as used for the HLS. Other designs from 2019 envisioned it being launched from an SLS Block 1B as a single unit and landing directly on the surface. It would then be hooked up to a surface power system launched by a CLPS mission and tested by the Artemis VI crew.[147][153] The Italian Space Agency signed a contract with Thales Alenia Space in late 2023 for the Multi Purpose Habitation module, which may become the second module for the Artemis Base Camp.[154][155]
Resource prospecting and research programs
As of February 2020, a lunar stay during a Phase 1 Artemis mission will be about seven days and will have five extravehicular activities (EVA). A notional concept of operations, i.e., a hypothetical but possible plan, would include the following: On Day 1 of the stay, astronauts touchdown on the Moon but do not conduct an EVA. Instead, they prepare for the EVA scheduled for the next day, in what is referred to as "The Road to EVA".[156]
On Day 2, the astronauts open the hatch on the Human Landing System and embark on EVA 1, which will be six hours long. It will include collecting a contingency sample, conducting public affairs activities, deploying the experiment package, and acquiring samples. The astronauts will stay close to the landing site on this first EVA. EVA 2 begins on day 3. The astronauts characterize and collect samples from permanently shadowed regions. Unlike the previous EVA, the astronauts will go farther from the landing site, up to 2 kilometres (1.2mi), and up and down slopes of 20°.[156]
Day 4 will not include an EVA, but Day 5 will. EVA 3 may include activities such as collecting samples from an ejecta blanket. Day 6 will have the two astronauts deploy a geotechnical instrument alongside an environmental monitoring station for in-situ resource utilization (ISRU). Day 7 will have the final and shortest EVA. This EVA will last one hour, rather than the others' six hours in duration from egress to ingress, and mostly comprises preparations for the lunar ascent, including jettisoning hardware. Once the final EVA is concluded, the astronauts will return to the Human Landing System and the vehicle will launch from the surface and join up with Orion/Gateway.[156]
The Pressurized Rover (PR) is a large, pressurized module used to enable crewed operation across large distances and live for multiple days. NASA had developed multiple pressurized rovers including what was formerly called the Space Exploration Vehicle (SEV). This rover was built for the Constellation program and was fabricated and then tested. In the 2020 flight manifest it was later referred to as the "Mobile Habitat" suggesting it could fill a similar role to the ILREC Lunar Bus. It would be ready for the crew to use on the surface but could also be autonomously controlled from the Gateway or other locations.
Mark Kirasich, who is the acting director of NASA's Advanced Exploration Systems, has stated that the current plan is to partner with JAXA and Toyota to develop a closed cabin rover to support crews for up to 14 days (currently known as Lunar Cruiser). "It's very important to our leadership at the moment to involve JAXA in a major surface element", he said. "... The Japanese, and their auto industry, have a very strong interest in rover-type things. So, there was an idea to—even though we have done a lot of work—to let the Japanese lead development of a pressurized rover. So right now, that's the direction we're heading in".
In regard to the PR, senior-lunar-scientist Clive Neal said "Under Constellation, NASA had a sophisticated rover put together. It's pretty sad if it's never going to get to the Moon". However Neal also said that he understands the different mission objectives between the Constellation Program and those of the Artemis Program, and the need of the Artemis Program to focus more on international collaboration.[147][157][158][159][160]
On April 9, 2024, it was announced that JAXA and NASA had signed an agreement stipulating that Japan would join the pressurized rover collaboration venture and would design, develop, and operate a rover for crewed and uncrewed exploration of the Moon. In return, NASA will provide the launch and delivery of the rover to the Moon, as well as providing seats for two Japanese astronaut missions to the lunar surface, with the goal of these astronauts being the first non-Americans to travel to the Moon's surface. The pressurized rover is planned to accommodate two astronauts for up to 30 days outside. NASA plans to use the pressurized rover from Artemis VII and subsequent missions, over an approximate 10 year lifespan.[161]
Testing of the AxEMU (Axiom Extravehicular Mobility Unit)
The Artemis program will use two types of space suit first unveiled in October 2019: the Orion Crew Survival System (OCSS) for launch and entry,[162] and a next-generation extravehicular mobility unit (EMU).[163] On August 10, 2021, a NASA Office of Inspector General audit concluded that the Exploration Extravehicular Mobility Unit (xEMU) NASA was developing would not be ready until April 2025, likely delaying a lunar landing mission, then planned for late 2024.[164]
In response, NASA issued a request for proposals for commercially-developed lunar spacesuits.[165] On June 2, 2022, NASA selected Axiom Space and Collins Aerospace to develop suits under the new program.[166] In June 2024, Collins announced it would withdraw from the contract.[167] Development continued with Axiom's lunar suit, known as the AxEMU (Axiom Extravehicular Mobility Unit), which entered critical design review and testing phases in 2024.[168][169]
By February 2026, the AxEMU had passed internal reviews and was undergoing further evaluation by NASA, with assembly of the first flight unit underway following pressurized and underwater mobility testing.[170]
Criticism
The Artemis program has received criticism from several space professionals. Mark Whittington, who is a contributor to The Hill and an author of several space exploration studies, stated in an article that the "lunar orbit project doesn't help us get back to the Moon".[171] Whittington's comments echo the long-standing assertion that diverting to the Moon after the success of the Apollo Program in the 1960s and 1970s will divert from rather than enhance human-crewed space exploration.
Aerospace engineer, author, and Mars Society founder Robert Zubrin dislikes the Lunar Gateway component of Artemis. He presented an alternative approach to a 2024 crewed lander called "Moon Direct," a proposed successor to his Mars Direct. Zubrin envisions phasing out the SLS and Orion, replacing them with the SpaceX launch vehicles and the SpaceX Dragon 2. This would see ferry-lander refueling on the lunar surface via in situ resource utilization with crew transfer from LEO to the lunar surface. The concept resembles NASA's own Space Transportation System proposal from the 1970s.[172]
At least 15 launches will be required to refuel HLS in orbit per crewed mission.[173] In 2024, SpaceX's Jennifer Jensen stated on a call that Starship HLS will require ten launches.[174]Apollo 11 astronaut Buzz Aldrin disagrees with NASA's lunar outpost plan. He questioned the benefit of "send[ing] a crew to an intermediate point in space, pick[ing] up a lander there and go[ing] down." Aldrin has expressed support for Zubrin's "Moon Direct."[175]
↑An Orion capsule was flown in 2014, but not the entire Orion spacecraft.
↑Director General Josef Aschbacher stated one of the seats is reserved for the European Space Agency.[64][65]
↑Director General Josef Aschbacher stated two of the seats are reserved for the European Space Agency.[65][64]
References
12NASA Office of Inspector General (November 15, 2021). NASA's Management of the Artemis Missions(PDF) (Report). NASA. p.21. Retrieved January 18, 2023. To account for all Artemis costs for FYs 2021 through 2025, including Phase 2 projects like the SLS Block 1B, Mobile Launcher 2, and Gateway, we found that $25 billion should be added to the Artemis Plan's estimated costs, increasing the total costs over this 5-year period to $53 billion. Furthermore, when considering the $40 billion already spent on the Artemis mission from FYs 2012 to 2020, the total projected cost through FY 2025 becomes $93 billion.
12 One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain:"NASA: Moon to Mars". nasa.gov. NASA. Archived from the original on August 5, 2019. Retrieved May 19, 2019.
↑ One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain:Review of U.S. Human Space Flight Plans Committee; Augustine; Austin; Chyba; etal. "Seeking A Human Spaceflight Program Worthy of A Great Nation"(PDF). Final Report. NASA. Archived(PDF) from the original on February 16, 2019. Retrieved April 15, 2010.
↑ One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain:"NASA: Moon to Mars". nasa.gov. NASA. Archived from the original on August 5, 2019. Retrieved May 19, 2019.
↑Davis, Jason (December 5, 2014). "Orion Returns to Earth after Successful Test Flight". The Planetary Society. Archived from the original on May 25, 2019. Retrieved May 25, 2019. NASA's Orion spacecraft returned safely to Earth this morning following a picture-perfect test mission. [...] Orion itself was originally part of NASA's now-defunct Constellation program, and is now a key component of the space agency's Mars plans.
↑Clark, Stuart; Sample, Ian; Yuhas, Alan (December 5, 2014). "Orion spacecraft's flawless test flight puts Mars exploration one step closer". The Guardian. Archived from the original on May 25, 2019. Retrieved May 25, 2019. The launch at 12.05 UTC aboard a Delta IV heavy rocket from Cape Canaveral, Florida, was as free of problems as Thursday's aborted attempt was full of them. Immediately, Nasa tweeted "Liftoff! #Orion's flight test launches a critical step on our #JourneytoMars".
↑Kramer, Miriam (December 5, 2014). "Splashdown! NASA's Orion Spaceship Survives Epic Test Flight as New Era Begins". Space.com. Retrieved October 17, 2018. Orion's key systems were put to the test during the flight, which launched atop a United Launch Alliance Delta 4 Heavy rocket [...] the craft hit Earth's atmosphere as the capsule was flying through space at about 20,000mph (32,000km/h).{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link)
↑"Orion Exploration Flight Test No. 1 timeline". Spaceflight Now. December 4, 2014. Archived from the original on December 9, 2014. Retrieved October 17, 2018. The first orbital test flight of NASA's Orion crew capsule will lift off on top of a United Launch Alliance Delta 4 rocket from Cape Canaveral's Complex 37B launch pad. The rocket will send the unmanned crew module 3,600 miles above Earth...
↑Sloss, Philip (May 24, 2019). "NASA Orion AA-2 vehicle at the launch pad for July test". NASASpaceFlight.com. Archived from the original on May 25, 2019. Retrieved May 25, 2019. This will be the second and final planned LAS test following the Pad Abort-1 (PA-1) development test conducted in 2010 as a part of the ccanceled [sic] Constellation Program and the abort system design changed from PA-1 to AA-2 both inside and outside [...] in preparation for a scheduled daybreak test on 2 July 2010.
↑"Image: The Orion test crew capsule". Phys.org. August 3, 2018. Retrieved October 17, 2018. In the Ascent Abort-2 test, NASA will verify that the Orion spacecraft's launch abort system can steer the capsule and astronauts inside it to safety in the event of an issue with the Space Launch System rocket when the spacecraft is under the highest aerodynamic loads it will experience during ascent...{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link)
↑Orbital Sciences Corporation (April 11, 2007). "Orbital to Provide Abort Test Booster for NASA Testing". Northrop Grumman. Archived from the original on May 25, 2019. Retrieved May 25, 2019. Orbital Sciences Corporation (NYSE:ORB) today announced that it has been selected [...] to design and build the next-generation NASA Orion Abort Test Booster (ATB).
↑Witze, Alexandria (November 16, 2022). "Lift off! Artemis Moon rocket launch kicks off new era of human exploration – NASA's Artemis I has entered Earth orbit. It will test a rocket and capsule that could return astronauts to the Moon after 50 years". Nature. 611 (7937): 643–644. doi:10.1038/d41586-022-02310-w. PMID36385285. S2CID253579417.
↑Except the Moon Treaty, despite Australia having ratified it. The Moon Treaty only has 17 State Parties, none of which has engaged in self-launched human spaceflight.
↑"NASA, International Partners Advance Cooperation with First Signings of Artemis Accords". NASA. October 13, 2020. Archived from the original on October 15, 2020. Additional countries will join the Artemis Accords in the months and years ahead, as NASA continues to work with its international partners to establish a safe, peaceful, and prosperous future in space. Working with emerging space agencies, as well as existing partners and well-established space agencies, will add new energy and capabilities to ensure the entire world can benefit from the Artemis journey of exploration and discovery.
↑Weitering, Hanneke (May 23, 2019). "NASA Has a Full Plate of Lunar Missions Before Astronauts Can Return to Moon". Space.com. Archived from the original on May 25, 2019. Retrieved August 28, 2019. And before NASA sends astronauts to the moon in 2024, the agency will first have to launch five aspects of the Gateway, all of which will be commercial vehicles that launch separately and join each other in lunar orbit. First, a power and propulsion element will launch in 2022. Then, the crew module will launch (without a crew) in 2023. In 2024, during the months leading up to the crewed landing, NASA will launch the last critical components: a transfer vehicle that will ferry landers from the Gateway to a lower lunar orbit, a descent module that will bring the astronauts to the lunar surface, and an ascent module that will bring them back up to the transfer vehicle, which will then return them to the Gateway.
↑Smith, Marcia (May 26, 2021). "Nelson: "Watch the Chinese"". SpacePolicyOnline.com. Archived from the original on May 26, 2021. Retrieved May 26, 2021.
↑"One Big Beautiful Bill Act". Public Law 119–21. 119th United States Congress. July 4, 2025. 139 Stat. 134 (SEC. 40005, appropriations for Gateway). Retrieved January 18, 2026.
↑"NASA's development of next-generation spacesuits"(PDF). August 10, 2021. Archived(PDF) from the original on August 10, 2021. Retrieved August 10, 2021. , the suits would not be ready for flight until April 2025 at the earliest ... a lunar landing in late 2024 as NASA currently plans is not feasible.
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