Artemis Accords

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Artemis Accords
The Artemis Accords: Principles for Cooperation in the Civil Exploration and Use of the Moon, Mars, Comets, and Asteroids for Peaceful Purposes
Artemis Accords members.png
Participation in the Artemis Accords (December 2024)
  Signatory nations

Type Space law
Signed13 October 2020;4 years ago (13 October 2020)
Parties52
LanguagesEnglish
Full text
Wikisource-logo.svg Artemis Accords at Wikisource

The Artemis Accords are a series of non-binding multilateral arrangements [1] between the United States government and other world governments that elaborates on the norms expected to be followed in outer space. [2] The Accords are related to the Artemis program, an American-led effort to return humans to the Moon by 2026, with the ultimate goal of expanding space exploration to Mars and beyond. [3]

Contents

As of 20 December 2024, with the accession of Thailand and Liechtenstein, 52 countries have signed the Accords, including twenty-six in Europe, nine in Asia, seven in South America, five in North America, three in Africa, and two in Oceania.

Drafted by NASA and the U.S. Department of State, the Accords establish a framework for cooperation in the civil exploration and peaceful use of the Moon, Mars, and other astronomical objects. [4] They are explicitly grounded in the United Nations Outer Space Treaty of 1967, which signatories are obliged to uphold, and cite most major U.N.-brokered conventions constituting space law. [5] [6] [7] [8] [note 1]

The Accords were originally signed on 13 October 2020 by representatives of the national space agencies of eight countries: Australia, Canada, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, the United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom, and the United States. [5] The Accords remain open for signature indefinitely, as NASA anticipates more nations joining. [9] Additional signatories can choose to directly participate in Artemis program activities, or may agree simply to commit to the principles for responsible exploration of the Moon as set out in the Accords. [10]

List of Parties

StateContinentSignedOfficial signing
Flag of Australia (converted).svg  Australia Oceania 13 Oct 2020Dr. Megan Clark, Head of the Australian Space Agency [11]
Flag of Canada (Pantone).svg  Canada North America 13 Oct 2020 Lisa Campbell, president of the Canadian Space Agency [12]
Flag of Italy.svg  Italy Europe 13 Oct 2020 Riccardo Fraccaro, Undersecretary of State at the Presidency of the Italian Council of Ministers [13]
Flag of Japan.svg  Japan Asia 13 Oct 2020 Hagiuda Koichi, Minister of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology and Inoue Shinji, Minister of State for Space Policy [14]
Flag of Luxembourg.svg  Luxembourg Europe13 Oct 2020Franz Fayot, Minister of the Economy [15]
Flag of the United Arab Emirates.svg  United Arab Emirates Asia13 Oct 2020 Sarah Al Amiri, Minister for Advanced Technology and Chair of the United Arab Emirates Space Agency [16]
Flag of the United Kingdom.svg  United Kingdom Europe13 Oct 2020Dr. Graham Turnock, Chief Executive of the UK Space Agency [17]
The signature of the UK was extended to the Isle of Man on 27 July 2021 [18]
Flag of the United States.svg  United States North America13 Oct 2020 James Bridenstine, NASA Administrator
Flag of Ukraine.svg  Ukraine Europe12 Nov 2020 [19]
Flag of South Korea.svg  South Korea Asia24 May 2021 Lim Hyesook, Minister of Science and ICT [20]
Flag of New Zealand.svg  New Zealand Oceania31 May 2021Peter Crabtree, New Zealand Space Agency [21]
Flag of Brazil.svg  Brazil South America 15 Jun 2021 Marcos Pontes, Minister of Science, Technology, and Innovation [22]
Flag of Poland.svg  Poland Europe26 Oct 2021 Grzegorz Wrochna, president of Polish Space Agency (POLSA) [23]
Flag of Mexico.svg  Mexico North America9 Dec 2021 Marcelo Ebrard Casaubon, Secretary of Foreign Affairs [24]
Flag of Israel.svg  Israel Asia26 Jan 2022Uri Oron, Director General of the Israel Space Agency [25]
Flag of Romania.svg  Romania Europe1 Mar 2022Marius-Ioan Piso, president and CEO of the Romanian Space Agency [26]
Flag of Bahrain.svg  Bahrain Asia2 Mar 2022Dr. Mohamed Al Aseeri, CEO of National Space Science Agency (NSSA) [27]
Flag of Singapore.svg  Singapore Asia28 Mar 2022 Gan Kim Yong, Minister for Trade and Industry [28]
Flag of Colombia.svg  Colombia South America10 May 2022 Marta Lucía Ramírez, Vice President and Foreign Minister [29]
Flag of France.svg  France Europe7 Jun 2022 Philippe Baptiste, president of CNES [30]
Flag of Saudi Arabia.svg  Saudi Arabia Asia14 Jul 2022Mohammed bin Saud Al-Tamimi, CEO of the Saudi Space Commission [31]
Flag of Nigeria.svg  Nigeria Africa 13 Dec 2022 Isa Ali Ibrahim, Minister of Communications and Digital Economy [32]
Flag of Rwanda.svg  Rwanda Africa13 Dec 2022Francis Ngabo, CEO of Rwanda Space Agency [32]
Flag of the Czech Republic.svg  Czech Republic Europe3 May 2023 Jan Lipavský, Minister of Foreign Affairs [33]
Flag of Spain.svg  Spain Europe30 May 2023 Diana Morant, Minister of Science and Innovation [34]
Flag of Ecuador.svg  Ecuador South America21 Jun 2023 Gustavo Manrique Miranda, Minister of Foreign Affairs [35]
Flag of India.svg  India Asia22 Jun 2023 Taranjit Singh Sandhu, Ambassador of India to the United States [36]
Flag of Argentina.svg  Argentina South America27 Jul 2023 Daniel Filmus, Minister of Science, Technology, and Innovation [37]
Flag of Germany.svg  Germany Europe14 Sep 2023Dr. Walther Pelzer, Director General of the German Space Agency at DLR [38]
Flag of Iceland.svg  Iceland Europe10 Oct 2023 [39] [40]
Flag of the Netherlands.svg  Netherlands Europe1 Nov 2023Harm van de Wetering, Director of Netherlands Space Office (NSO) [39]
Flag of Bulgaria.svg  Bulgaria Europe9 Nov 2023Milena Stoycheva, Minister of Innovation and Growth [41]
Flag of Angola.svg  Angola Africa30 Nov 2023 [42]
Flag of Belgium (civil).svg  Belgium Europe23 Jan 2024 Hadja Lahbib, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Belgium [43]
Flag of Greece.svg  Greece Europe9 Feb 2024 Giorgos Gerapetritis, Minister of Foreign Affairs [44]
Flag of Uruguay.svg  Uruguay South America15 Feb 2024 [45]
Flag of Switzerland (Pantone).svg   Switzerland Europe15 April 2024 [46]
Flag of Sweden.svg  Sweden Europe16 April 2024Dr. Mats Persson, Minister for Education [47]
Flag of Slovenia.svg  Slovenia Europe19 April 2024 [48]
Flag of Lithuania.svg  Lithuania Europe15 May 2024 Aušrinė Armonaitė, Minister of Economy and Innovation [49]
Flag of Peru.svg  Peru South America30 May 2024Javier González-Olaechea, Minister of Foreign Affairs [50]
Flag of Slovakia.svg  Slovakia Europe30 May 2024
Flag of Armenia.svg  Armenia Europe 12 Jun 2024 Mkhitar Hayrapetyan, Minister of High-Tech Industry [51]
Flag of the Dominican Republic.svg  Dominican Republic North America4 Oct 2024Sonia Guzmán, Ambassador of the Dominican Republic to the United States [52]
Flag of Estonia.svg  Estonia Europe13 Oct 2024 Erkki Keldo, Minister of Economy and Industry [53]
Flag of Cyprus.svg  Cyprus Europe23 Oct 2024Nicodemos Damianou, Deputy Minister of Research, Innovation, and Digital Policy [54]
Flag of Chile.svg  Chile South America25 Oct 2024 Aisén Etcheverry, Minister of Science, Technology, Knowledge and Innovation [55]
Flag of Denmark.svg  Denmark Europe13 Nov 2024 Christina Egelund, Minister of Higher Education and Science [56]
Flag of Panama.svg  Panama North America11 Dec 2024 José Miguel Alemán Healy, Ambassador of the Republic of Panama to the United States [57]
Flag of Austria.svg  Austria Europe11 Dec 2024Petra Schneebauer, Ambassador of the Republic of Austria to the United States [57]
Flag of Thailand.svg  Thailand Asia16 Dec 2024Pakorn Apaphant, Executive Director of the Geo-Informatics and Space Technology Development Agency (GISTDA) [58]
Flag of Liechtenstein.svg  Liechtenstein Europe20 Dec 2024Rainer Schnepfleitner, Director of Liechtenstein's Office for Communications [59]

History

On 5 May 2020, Reuters published an exclusive report that the Donald Trump administration was drafting a new international agreement for mining on the Moon, which would draw from the 1967 Outer Space Treaty. [60] [61] Ten days later, then-NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine officially announced the Artemis Accords, a series of agreements with partner nations aimed at establishing a governing framework for exploring and mining the Moon. [62]

The Accords originated from the eponymous Artemis Program, an American plan launched in 2017 to send the first woman and the next man to the Moon by 2024. [63] Bridenstine stated that the agreements were intended to create a uniform set of guidelines for countries to avoid potential conflict or misunderstanding in future space endeavors; governments that sign the Accords may formally take part in the Artemis Program. [63] The Accords were drafted by NASA, the U.S. Department of State, and the newly re-established National Space Council; a draft was released to several governments for consultation before the final document was announced in May 2020. [62] [60]

On 13 October 2020, in a recorded and livestreamed ceremony, the Accords were signed by the directors of the national space agencies of the United States, Australia, Canada, Japan, Luxembourg, Italy, the United Kingdom, and the United Arab Emirates. [5] [64] The head of the Ukrainian national space agency signed the Accords exactly one month later. [19] [65]

In 2021, South Korea became the tenth country to sign the Accords, [20] [66] with New Zealand joining a week later. [21] The following June, Brazil became the first country in Latin America to join the Artemis Accords, [67] after previously indicating its intent to sign in 2020. [22] [68] Poland signed the Accords at the 72nd International Astronautical Congress (IAC) in Dubai, with the head of the Polish Space Agency expressing a desire to develop indigenous Polish space technology. [23] Mexico joined the Accords in December 2023. [24]

In 2022, the number of signatories of the Accords more than doubled from the previous year: Israel signed, [69] followed by Romania, [70] Bahrain, [71] and Singapore [72] in March; Colombia in May, [29] and France on 7 June 2022, the 60th anniversary of the founding of its space program [30] (pursuant to meetings in November 2021 between U.S. Vice President Kamala Harris and French President Emmanuel Macron in which he expressed France's intent to join). [73] [74] [75] [76] Saudi Arabia signed the Accords on 14 July 2022, becoming the second Middle Eastern and Arab country to join. [31] On 13 December 2022, at the United States–Africa Leaders Summit 2022, Rwanda and Nigeria became the first African nations to sign the Artemis Accords. [32] [77]

Representatives from signatory nations held their first meeting on 19 September 2022 at the IAC to discuss the Accords and cooperation in space more broadly. [78] [79]

In 2023, signatories to the Accords continued to grow, including: the Czech Republic [80] [33] and Spain [81] both signing within a single month, followed by Ecuador as well as India signing the Accords [36] during prime minister Narendra Modi's state visit to the U.S. [82] [83] In September 2023, Director General of the German Space Agency at DLR and Member of the DLR Executive Board Walther Pelzer, signed the Accords for Germany in the German embassy in Washington D.C. The ceremony was attended and witnessed as well by Space-Coordinator of the German Government, Anna Christmann, the current German ambassador in Washington, Andreas Michaelis as well as the Administrator of NASA, Bill Nelson. [84] Iceland, the Netherlands and Bulgaria joined in October/November 2023. Angola joined in December 2023 during a ceremony in Washington, D.C. [85]

In 2024, Belgium, [86] Greece, [44] Uruguay, [45] Switzerland, [46] Sweden, [87] Slovenia, [88] Lithuania, [89] Peru, [90] Slovakia, [91] Armenia, [92] the Dominican Republic, [52] Estonia, [53] Cyprus, [54] Chile, [55] Denmark, [56] Panama, Austria, [57] Thailand, [58] and Liechtenstein [59] joined the Accords.

With the accession of Thailand into the Accords on 16 December 2024, it becomes the first and only signatory to participate in both the International Lunar Research Station and the Artemis Accords. [93]

Accords

Although a prerequisite for taking part in the Artemis Program, the Accords have been interpreted as codifying key principles and guidelines for exploring space generally. [7] Their stated purpose is to "provide for operational implementation of important obligations contained in the Outer Space Treaty and other instruments." The Accords are a single document, signed by each country that commits to the Accords' principles. Bilateral agreements between space agencies for specific operations on the Moon and beyond are expected to reference the Accords and implement them in particular projects.

The provisions: [94]

Reactions

Support

The Artemis Accords have generally been welcomed for advancing international law and cooperation in space. [7] Observers note that the substance of the Accords is "uncontentious" and represent a "significant political attempt to codify key principles of space law" for governing nations' space activities. [7] International legal scholars also credit the agreement with helping influence space exploration in the direction of uniform standards of cooperation and peaceful use. [95] The Accords have also been lauded for being the first time several nations have agreed to recognize the presence of human cultural heritage in outer space and the need to protect it. [96]

With Australia signing and ratifying both the Moon Treaty as well as the Artemis Accords, there has been a discussion if they can be harmonized. [97] In this light an Implementation Agreement for the Moon Treaty has been advocated for, as a way to compensate for the shortcomings of the Moon Treaty and to harmonize it with other laws, allowing it to be more widely accepted. [98] [99]

Criticism

The Accords have also been criticized for allegedly being "too centered on American and commercial interests." Russia has condemned them as a "blatant attempt to create international space law that favors the United States." [100] Beside possibly being an opportunity for China[ clarification needed ] in light of the Wolf Amendment, Chinese government affiliated media has called the Accords "akin to European colonial enclosure land-taking methods." [101] Russia and China have since reached an understanding to work together on the Chinese International Lunar Research Station concept, to serve as a potential competing option for third parties such as Pakistan. [102]

Two researchers writing in Science magazine's Policy Forum have called on countries to speak up about their objections, and argued that the United States should go through the United Nations treaty process in order to negotiate on space mining. They were concerned NASA's Accords, if accepted by many nations, would enable the Accords' interpretation of the Outer Space Treaty to prevail. [100] Acceptance of the Artemis Accords is a prerequisite for participation in NASA's Artemis lunar program. [100]

Critics also contend that since the Outer Space Treaty expressly forbids nations from staking claim to another planetary body, the Accords violate space law by allowing signatories to lay claim to any resources extracted from celestial objects. [103] Frans von der Dunk of the University of Nebraska-Lincoln claims the Accords strengthen "the US interpretation of the Outer Space Treaty", namely "the basic right for individual States to allow the private sector to become engaged" in commercial activities. The weakened alternative interpretation is that "unilateral approval of commercial exploitation is not in compliance with the Outer Space Treaty, and that only an international regime, notably—presumably—including an international licensing system, could legitimise such commercial exploitation." [104] [105]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Except the Moon Treaty, despite Australia having ratified it. The Moon Treaty only has 17 State Parties, none of which has engaged in self-launched human spaceflight.

Related Research Articles

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">New Zealand Space Agency</span>

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lunar resources</span> In situ resources on the Moon

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The Luxembourg Space Agency (LSA) is the national space agency of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. It was founded on September 12, 2018, by Luxembourg's Economy Minister Étienne Schneider.

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