While a variety of theories have been postulated for the etymological origins of Canada, the name is now accepted as coming from the St. Lawrence Iroquoian word kanata, meaning "village" or "settlement".[8] In 1535, Indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona.[9] Cartier later used the word Canada to refer not only to that particular village but to the entire area subject to Donnacona (the chief at Stadacona);[9] by 1545, European books and maps had begun referring to this small region along the Saint Lawrence River as Canada.[9]
Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the legal name for the new country at the London Conference and the word dominion was conferred as the country's title.[13] By the 1950s, the term Dominion of Canada was no longer used by the United Kingdom, which considered Canada a "realm of the Commonwealth".[14]
The Canada Act 1982, which brought the Constitution of Canada fully under Canadian control, referred only to Canada. Later that year, the name of the national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day.[15]
The Indigenous population at the time of the first European settlements is estimated to have been between 200,000[22] and two million,[23] with a figure of 500,000 accepted by Canada's Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples.[24] As a consequence of European colonization, the Indigenous population declined by forty to eighty percent.[25] The decline is attributed to several causes, including the transfer of European diseases, to which they had no natural immunity,[26] conflicts over the fur trade, conflicts with the colonial authorities and settlers, and the loss of Indigenous lands to settlers and the subsequent collapse of several nations' self-sufficiency.[27]
Map of territorial claims in North America by 1750. Possessions of British America (pink), New France (blue), and New Spain (orange); California, Pacific Northwest, and Great Basin not indicated.
It is believed that the first documented European to explore the east coast of Canada was Norse explorer Leif Erikson.[37] In approximately 1000 AD, the Norse built a small short-lived encampment that was occupied sporadically for perhaps 20 years at L'Anse aux Meadows on the northern tip of Newfoundland.[38] No further European exploration occurred until 1497, when seafarer John Cabot explored and claimed Canada's Atlantic coast in the name of Henry VII of England.[39] In 1534, French explorer Jacques Cartier explored the Gulf of Saint Lawrence where, on July 24, he planted a 10-metre (33ft) cross bearing the words, "long live the King of France", and took possession of the territory New France in the name of King Francis I.[40] The early 16th century saw European mariners with navigational techniques pioneered by the Basque and Portuguese establish seasonal whaling and fishing outposts along the Atlantic coast.[41] In general, early settlements during the Age of Discovery appear to have been short-lived due to a combination of the harsh climate, problems with navigating trade routes and competing outputs in Scandinavia.[42]
The English established additional settlements in Newfoundland in 1610 along with settlements in the Thirteen Colonies to the south.[47] A series of four wars erupted in colonial North America between 1689 and 1763; the later wars of the period constituted the North American theatre of the Seven Years' War.[48] Mainland Nova Scotia came under British rule with the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht and Canada and most of New France came under British rule in 1763 after the Seven Years' War.[49]
The Royal Proclamation of 1763 established First Nation treaty rights, created the Province of Quebec out of New France, and annexed Cape Breton Island to Nova Scotia.[15] St John's Island (now Prince Edward Island) became a separate colony in 1769.[51] To avert conflict in Quebec, the British Parliament passed the Quebec Act 1774, expanding Quebec's territory to the Great Lakes and Ohio Valley.[52] More importantly, the Quebec Act afforded Quebec special autonomy and rights of self-administration at a time when the Thirteen Colonies were increasingly agitating against British rule.[53] It re-established the French language, Catholic faith, and French civil law there, staving off the growth of an independence movement in contrast to the Thirteen Colonies.[54] The Proclamation and the Quebec Act in turn angered many residents of the Thirteen Colonies, further fuelling anti-British sentiment in the years prior to the American Revolution.[15]
After the successful American War of Independence, the 1783 Treaty of Paris recognized the independence of the newly formed United States and set the terms of peace, ceding British North American territories south of the Great Lakes and east of the Mississippi River to the new country.[55] The American war of independence also caused a large out-migration of Loyalists, the settlers who had fought against American independence. Many moved to Canada, particularly Atlantic Canada, where their arrival changed the demographic distribution of the existing territories. New Brunswick was in turn split from Nova Scotia as part of a reorganization of Loyalist settlements in the Maritimes, which led to the incorporation of Saint John, New Brunswick, as Canada's first city.[56] To accommodate the influx of English-speaking Loyalists in Central Canada, the Constitutional Act of 1791 divided the province of Canada into French-speaking Lower Canada (later Quebec) and English-speaking Upper Canada (later Ontario), granting each its own elected legislative assembly.[57]
The Canadas were the main front in the War of 1812 between the United States and the United Kingdom. Peace came in 1815; no boundaries were changed.[59] Immigration resumed at a higher level, with over 960,000 arrivals from Britain between 1815 and 1850.[60] New arrivals included refugees escaping the Great Irish Famine as well as Gaelic-speaking Scots displaced by the Highland Clearances.[61] Infectious diseases killed between 25 and 33 percent of Europeans who immigrated to Canada before 1891.[22]
Following three constitutional conferences, the British North America Act, 1867 officially proclaimed Canadian Confederation on July 1, 1867, initially with four provinces: Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick.[67] Canada assumed control of Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory to form the Northwest Territories, where the Métis' grievances ignited the Red River Rebellion and the creation of the province of Manitoba in July 1870.[68] British Columbia and Vancouver Island (which had been united in 1866) joined the confederation in 1871 on the promise of a transcontinental railway extending to Victoria in the province within 10 years,[69] while Prince Edward Island joined in 1873.[70] In 1898, during the Klondike Gold Rush in the Northwest Territories, Parliament created the Yukon Territory. Alberta and Saskatchewan became provinces in 1905.[70] Between 1871 and 1896, almost one quarter of the Canadian population emigrated south to the US.[71]
The Canadian economy boomed during the war as its industries manufactured military materiel for Canada, Britain, China, and the Soviet Union.[80] Despite another Conscription Crisis in Quebec in 1944, Canada finished the war with a large army and strong economy.[87]
Contemporary era
The financial crisis of the Great Depression led the Dominion of Newfoundland to relinquish responsible government in 1934 and become a Crown colony ruled by a British governor.[88] After two referendums, Newfoundlanders voted to join Canada in 1949 as a province.[89]
Finally, another series of constitutional conferences resulted in the Canada Act 1982, the patriation of Canada's constitution from the United Kingdom, concurrent with the creation of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.[95] Canada had established complete sovereignty as an independent country under its own monarchy.[96] In 1999, Nunavut became Canada's third territory after a series of negotiations with the federal government.[97]
Average winter and summer high temperatures across Canada vary from region to region. Winters can be harsh in many parts of the country, particularly in the interior and Prairie provinces, which experience a continental climate, where daily average temperatures are near −15°C (5°F), but can drop below −40°C (−40°F) with severe wind chills.[127] In non-coastal regions, snow can cover the ground for almost six months of the year, while in parts of the north snow can persist year-round. Coastal British Columbia has a temperate climate, with a mild and rainy winter. On the east and west coasts, average high temperatures are generally in the low 20s °C (70s °F), while between the coasts, the average summer high temperature ranges from 25 to 30°C (77 to 86°F), with temperatures in some interior locations occasionally exceeding 40°C (104°F).[128]
Much of Northern Canada is covered by ice and permafrost. The future of the permafrost is uncertain because the Arctic has been warming at three times the global average as a result of climate change in Canada.[129] Canada's annual average temperature over land has risen by 1.7°C (3.1°F), with changes ranging from 1.1 to 2.3°C (2.0 to 4.1°F) in various regions, since 1948.[117] The rate of warming has been higher across the North and in the Prairies.[130] In the southern regions of Canada, air pollution from both Canada and the United States—caused by metal smelting, burning coal to power utilities, and vehicle emissions—has resulted in acid rain, which has severely impacted waterways, forest growth, and agricultural productivity.[131] Canada is one of the largest greenhouse gas emitters globally,[132] with emissions increased by 16.5 percent between 1990 and 2022.[133]
Approximately 12.1 percent of the nation's landmass and freshwater are conservation areas, including 11.4 percent designated as protected areas.[143] Approximately 13.8 percent of its territorial waters are conserved, including 8.9 percent designated as protected areas.[143] Canada's first National Park, Banff National Park established in 1885 spans 6,641 square kilometres (2,564sqmi).[144] Canada's oldest provincial park, Algonquin Provincial Park, established in 1893, covers an area of 7,653.45 square kilometres (2,955.01sqmi).[145]Lake Superior National Marine Conservation Area is the world's largest freshwater protected area, spanning roughly 10,000 square kilometres (3,900sqmi).[146] Canada's largest national wildlife region is the Scott Islands Marine National Wildlife Area which spans 11,570.65 square kilometres (4,467.45sqmi).[147]
The monarchy is the source of sovereignty and authority in Canada.[164] However, while the governor general or monarch may exercise their power without ministerial advice in rare crisis situations,[165] the use of the executive powers (or royal prerogative) is otherwise directed by the Cabinet, a committee of ministers of the Crown responsible to the elected House of Commons and chosen and headed by the prime minister,[166] the head of government. To ensure the stability of government, the governor general will usually appoint as prime minister the individual who is the current leader of the political party that can obtain the confidence of a majority of members in the House.[167] The Prime Minister's Office (PMO) is one of the most powerful institutions in government, initiating most legislation for parliamentary approval and selecting for appointment by the Crown the governor general, lieutenant governors, senators, federal court judges, and heads of Crown corporations and government agencies.[165] The leader of the party with the second-most seats usually becomes the leader of the Official Opposition and is part of an adversarial parliamentary system intended to keep the government in check.[168]
The Parliament of Canada passes all federal statute laws. It comprises the monarch, the House of Commons, and the Senate. While Canada inherited the British concept of parliamentary supremacy, this was later, with the enactment of the Constitution Act, 1982, all but completely superseded by the American notion of the supremacy of the law.[170]
Each of the 338 members of Parliament in the House of Commons is elected by simple plurality in an electoral district or riding. The Constitution Act, 1982, requires that no more than five years pass between elections, although the Canada Elections Act limits this to four years with a "fixed" election date in October; general elections still must be called by the governor general and can be triggered by either the advice of the prime minister or a lost confidence vote in the House.[171] The 105 members of the Senate, whose seats are apportioned on a regional basis, serve until age 75.[172]
Canadian federalism divides government responsibilities between the federal government and the 10 provinces. Provincial legislatures are unicameral and operate in parliamentary fashion similar to the House of Commons.[173] Canada's three territories also have legislatures, but these are not sovereign, have fewer constitutional responsibilities than the provinces,[174] and differ structurally from their provincial counterparts.[175]
The Constitution of Canada is the supreme law of the country and consists of written text and unwritten conventions.[176] The Constitution Act, 1867 (known as the British North America Act, 1867 prior to 1982), affirmed governance based on parliamentary precedent and divided powers between the federal and provincial governments.[177] The Statute of Westminster, 1931, granted full autonomy, and the Constitution Act, 1982, ended all legislative ties to Britain, as well as adding a constitutional amending formula and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.[178] The Charter guarantees basic rights and freedoms that usually cannot be overridden by any government; a notwithstanding clause allows Parliament and the provincial legislatures to override certain sections of the Charter for a period of five years.[179]
Canada's judiciary interprets laws and has the power to strike down acts of Parliament that violate the constitution. The Supreme Court of Canada is the highest court, final arbiter, and has been led since 2017 by Richard Wagner, the Chief Justice of Canada.[180] The governor general appoints the court's nine members on the advice of the prime minister and minister of justice.[181] The federal Cabinet also appoints justices to superior courts in the provincial and territorial jurisdictions.[182]
Common law prevails everywhere except Quebec, where civil law predominates.[183]Criminal law is solely a federal responsibility and is uniform throughout Canada.[184] Law enforcement, including criminal courts, is officially a provincial responsibility, conducted by provincial and municipal police forces.[185] In most rural and some urban areas, policing responsibilities are contracted to the federal Royal Canadian Mounted Police.[186]
The major difference between a Canadian province and a territory is that provinces receive their sovereignty from the Crown[194] and power and authority from the Constitution Act, 1867, whereas territorial governments have powers delegated to them by the Parliament of Canada[195] and the commissioners represent the King in his federal Council,[196] rather than the monarch directly. The powers flowing from the Constitution Act, 1867, are divided between the federal government and the provincial governments to exercise exclusively[197] and any changes to that arrangement require a constitutional amendment, while changes to the roles and powers of the territories may be performed unilaterally by the Parliament of Canada.[198]
Canada's role in developing peacekeeping and its participation in major peacekeeping initiatives during the 20th century has played a major role in its positive global image.[218] Peacekeeping is deeply embedded in Canadian culture and a distinguishing feature that Canadians feel sets their foreign policy apart from the United States.[219] Canada has long been reluctant to participate in military operations that are not sanctioned by the United Nations,[220] such as the Vietnam War or the 2003 invasion of Iraq.[221] Since the 21st century, Canadian direct participation in UN peacekeeping efforts has greatly declined.[222] The large decrease was a result of Canada directing its participation to UN-sanctioned military operations through NATO, rather than directly through the UN.[223] The change to participation via NATO has resulted in a shift towards more militarized and deadly missions rather than traditional peacekeeping duties.[224]
The Toronto financial district is the second-largest financial centre in North America, the seventh-largest globally in employment and the heart of Canada's finance industry.
Canada has a highly developedmixed-market economy,[226] with the world's ninth-largest economyas of 2023[update], and a nominal GDP of approximately US$2.221trillion.[227] It is one of the world's largest trading nations, with a highly globalized economy.[228] In 2021, Canadian trade in goods and services reached $2.016trillion.[229] Canada's exports totalled over $637billion, while its imported goods were worth over $631billion, of which approximately $391billion originated from the United States.[229] In 2018, Canada had a trade deficit in goods of $22billion and a trade deficit in services of $25billion.[229] The Toronto Stock Exchange is the ninth-largest stock exchange in the world by market capitalization, listing over 1,500 companies with a combined market capitalization of over US$2trillion.[230]
Since the early 20th century, the growth of Canada's manufacturing, mining, and service sectors has transformed the nation from a largely rural economy to an urbanized, industrial one.[243] The Canadian economy is dominated by the service industry, which employs about three-quarters of the country's workforce.[244] Canada has an unusually important primary sector, of which the forestry and petroleum industries are the most prominent components.[245] Many towns in northern Canada, where agriculture is difficult, are sustained by nearby mines or sources of timber.[246]
The Canadian Space Agency operates a highly active space program, conducting deep-space, planetary, and aviation research and developing rockets and satellites.[272] Canada was the third country to design and construct a satellite when in 1962 Alouette 1 was launched.[273] Canada is a participant in the International Space Station (ISS), and is a pioneer in space robotics, having constructed the Canadarm, Canadarm2, Canadarm3 and Dextre robotic manipulators for the ISS and NASA's Space Shuttle.[274] Since the 1960s, Canada's aerospace industry has designed and built numerous marques of satellite, including Radarsat-1 and 2, ISIS, and MOST.[275] Canada has also produced one of the world's most successful and widely used sounding rockets, the Black Brant.[276]
The 2021 Canadian census enumerated a total population of 36,991,981, an increase of around 5.2 percent over the 2016 figure.[278] It is estimated that Canada's population surpassed 40,000,000 in 2023.[279] The main drivers of population growth are immigration and, to a lesser extent, natural growth.[280] Canada has one of the highest per-capita immigration rates in the world,[281] driven mainly by economic policy and family reunification.[282] A record 405,000 immigrants were admitted in 2021.[283] Canada leads the world in refugee resettlement; it resettled more than 47,600 in 2022.[284] New immigrants settle mostly in major urban areas, such as Toronto, Montreal, and Vancouver.[285]
Canada's population density, at 4.2 inhabitants per square kilometre (11/sqmi), is among the lowest in the world,[278] with approximately 95percent of the population is found south of the 55th parallel north.[286] About 80 percent of the population lives within 150 kilometres (93mi) of the border with the contiguous United States.[287] Canada is highly urbanized, with over 80 percent of the population living in urban centres.[288] The majority of Canadians (over 70percent ) live below the 49th parallel, with 50percent of Canadians living south of 45°42′ (45.7 degrees) north.[289] The most densely populated part of the country is the Quebec City–Windsor Corridor in Southern Quebec and Southern Ontario along the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River.[290]
The majority of Canadians (81.1percent) live in family households, 12.1percent report living alone, and 6.8percent live with other relatives or unrelated persons.[291] Fifty-onepercent of households are couples with or without children, 8.7percent are single-parent households, 2.9percent are multigenerational households, and 29.3percent are single-person households.[291]
The country's ten largest self-reported ethnic or cultural origins in 2021 were Canadian[d] (accounting for 15.6percent of the population), followed by English (14.7percent), Irish (12.1percent), Scottish (12.1percent), French (11.0percent), German (8.1percent), Chinese (4.7percent), Italian (4.3percent), Indian (3.7percent), and Ukrainian (3.5percent).[297]
Of the 36.3million people enumerated in 2021, approximately 24.5million reported being "White", representing 67.4percent of the population.[298] The Indigenous population representing 5percent or 1.8million individuals, grew by 9.4percent compared to the non-Indigenous population, which grew by 5.3percent from 2016 to 2021.[298] One out of every four Canadians or 26.5percent of the population belonged to a non-White and non-Indigenous visible minority,[299][e] the largest of which in 2021 were South Asian (2.6million people; 7.1percent), Chinese (1.7million; 4.7percent), and Black (1.5million; 4.3percent).[301]
Between 2011 and 2016, the visible minority population rose by 18.4percent.[302] In 1961, about 300,000 people, less than two percent of Canada's population, were members of visible minority groups.[303] The 2021 census indicated that 8.3million people, or almost one-quarter (23.0percent) of the population, reported themselves as being or having been a landed immigrant or permanent resident in Canada—above the 1921 census previous record of 22.3percent.[304] In 2021, India, China, and the Philippines were the top three countries of origin for immigrants moving to Canada.[305]
Quebec's 1974 Official Language Act established French as the only official language of the province.[308] Although more than 82 percent of French-speaking Canadians live in Quebec, there are substantial Francophone populations in New Brunswick, Alberta, and Manitoba, with Ontario having the largest French-speaking population outside Quebec.[309] New Brunswick, the only officially bilingual province, has an Acadian French minority constituting 33 percent of the population.[310] There are also clusters of Acadians in southwestern Nova Scotia, on Cape Breton Island, and in central and western Prince Edward Island.[311]
Other provinces have no official languages as such, but French is used as a language of instruction, in courts, and for other government services, in addition to English. Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec allow for both English and French to be spoken in the provincial legislatures and laws are enacted in both languages. In Ontario, French has some legal status, but is not fully co-official.[312] There are 11 Indigenous language groups, composed of more than 65 distinct languages and dialects.[313] Several Indigenous languages have official status in the Northwest Territories.[314]Inuktitut is the majority language in Nunavut and is one of three official languages in the territory.[315]
As of the 2021 census, just over 7.8million Canadians listed a non-official language as their first language. Some of the most common non-official first languages include Mandarin (679,255 first-language speakers), Punjabi (666,585), Cantonese (553,380), Spanish (538,870), Arabic (508,410), Tagalog (461,150), Italian (319,505), German (272,865), and Tamil (237,890).[291] The country is also home to many sign languages, some of which are Indigenous.[316]American Sign Language (ASL) is used across the country due to the prevalence of ASL in primary and secondary schools.[317]Quebec Sign Language (LSQ) is used primarily in Quebec.[318]
Rates of religious adherence have steadily decreased since the 1970s.[320] With Christianity in decline after having once been central and integral to Canadian culture and daily life,[323] Canada has become a post-Christian, secular state.[324] Although the majority of Canadians consider religion to be unimportant in their daily lives,[325] they still believe in God.[326] The practice of religion is generally considered a private matter.[327]
Healthcare in Canada is delivered through the provincial and territorial systems of publicly funded health care, informally called Medicare.[333] It is guided by the provisions of the Canada Health Act of 1984[334] and is universal.[335] Universal access to publicly funded health services "is often considered by Canadians as a fundamental value that ensures national healthcare insurance for everyone wherever they live in the country".[336] Around 30percent of Canadians' healthcare is paid for through the private sector.[337] This mostly pays for services not covered or partially covered by Medicare, such as prescription drugs, dentistry and optometry.[337] Approximately 65 to 75percent of Canadians have some form of supplementary health insurance; many receive it through their employers or access secondary social service programs.[338]
In common with many other developed countries, Canada is experiencing an increase in healthcare expenditures due to a demographic shift toward an older population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age. In 2021, the average age in Canada was 41.9 years.[291] Life expectancy is 81.1 years.[339] A 2016 report by the chief public health officer found that 88percent of Canadians, one of the highest proportions of the population among G7 countries, indicated that they "had good or very good health".[340] Eightypercent of Canadian adults self-report having at least one major risk factor for chronic disease: smoking, physical inactivity, unhealthy eating or excessive alcohol use.[341] Canada has one of the highest rates of adult obesity among OECD countries, contributing to approximately 2.7million cases of diabetes.[341] Four chronic diseases—cancer (leading cause of death), cardiovascular diseases, respiratory diseases, and diabetes—account for 65percent of deaths in Canada.[342]
In 2021, the Canadian Institute for Health Information reported that healthcare spending reached $308billion, or 12.7 percent of Canada's GDP for that year.[343] In 2022, Canada's per-capita spending on health expenditures ranked 12th among health-care systems in the OECD.[344] Canada has performed close to, or above the average on the majority of OECD health indicators since the early 2000s, ranking above the average on OECD indicators for wait-times and access to care, with average scores for quality of care and use of resources.[345] The Commonwealth Fund's 2021 report comparing the healthcare systems of the 11 most developed countries ranked Canada second-to-last.[346] Identified weaknesses were comparatively higher infant mortality rate, the prevalence of chronic conditions, long wait times, poor availability of after-hours care, and a lack of prescription drugs and dental coverage.[346] An increasing problem in Canada's health system is a lack of healthcare professionals,[347] and hospital capacity.[348]
Canada by province and territory, showing the percentage of the population aged 25 to 64 who had a bachelor's degree or higher, and the percentage point change from 2016 to 2021
According to a 2022 report by the OECD, Canada is one of the most educated countries in the world;[357] the country ranks first worldwide in the percentage of adults having tertiary education, with over 56 percent of Canadian adults having attained at least an undergraduate college or university degree.[358] Canada spends an average of 5.3percent of its GDP on education.[359] The country invests heavily in tertiary education (more than US$20,000 per student).[360]As of 2022[update], 89 percent of adults aged 25 to 64 have earned the equivalent of a high-school degree, compared to an OECD average of 75 percent.[361]
The mandatory education age ranges between 5–7 to 16–18 years,[362] contributing to an adult literacy rate of 99 percent.[363] Just over 60,000 children are homeschooled in the country as of 2016. Canada is a well-performing OECD country in reading literacy, mathematics, and science, with the average student scoring 523.7, compared with the OECD average of 493 in 2015.[364]
Historically, Canada has been influenced by British, French, and Indigenous cultures and traditions.[366] During the 20th century, Canadians with African, Caribbean, and Asian nationalities have added to the Canadian identity and its culture.[367]
Canada's culture draws influences from its broad range of constituent nationalities, and policies that promote a just society are constitutionally protected.[368] Since the 1960s, Canada has emphasized human rights and inclusiveness for all its people.[369]The official state policy of multiculturalism is often cited as one of Canada's significant accomplishments[370] and a key distinguishing element of Canadian identity.[371] In Quebec, cultural identity is strong and there is a French Canadian culture that is distinct from English Canadian culture.[372] As a whole, Canada is in theory a cultural mosaic of regional ethnic subcultures.[373]
Themes of nature, pioneers, trappers, and traders played an important part in the early development of Canadian symbolism.[378] Modern symbols emphasize the country's geography, cold climate, lifestyles, and the Canadianization of traditional European and Indigenous symbols.[379] The use of the maple leaf as a Canadian symbol dates to the early 18th century. The maple leaf is depicted on Canada's current and previous flags and on the Arms of Canada.[380] Canada's official tartan, known as the "maple leaf tartan", reflects the colours of the maple leaf through the seasons—green in the spring, gold in the early autumn, red at the first frost, and brown after falling.[381] The Arms of Canada are closely modelled after those of the United Kingdom, with French and distinctive Canadian elements replacing or added to those derived from the British version.[382]
Canadian literature is often divided into French- and English-language literatures, which are rooted in the literary traditions of France and Britain, respectively.[387] The earliest Canadian narratives were of travel and exploration.[388] This progressed into three major themes of historical Canadian literature: nature, frontier life, and Canada's position within the world, all of which tie into the garrison mentality.[389] In recent decades, Canada's literature has been strongly influenced by immigrants from around the world.[390] By the 1990s, Canadian literature was viewed as some of the world's best.[391]
Canadian mass media, both print and digital, and in both official languages, is largely dominated by a "handful of corporations".[401] The largest of these corporations is the country's national public broadcaster, the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, which also plays a significant role in producing domestic cultural content, operating its own radio and TV networks in both English and French.[402] In addition to the CBC, some provincial governments offer their own public educational TV broadcast services as well, such as TVOntario and Télé-Québec.[403]
Non-news media content in Canada, including film and television, is influenced both by local creators as well as by imports from the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, and France.[404] In an effort to reduce the amount of foreign-made media, government interventions in television broadcasting can include both regulation of content and public financing.[405]Canadian tax laws limit foreign competition in magazine advertising.[406]
Art in Canada is marked by thousands of years of habitation by Indigenous peoples,[408] and, in later times, artists have combined British, French, Indigenous, and American artistic traditions, at times embracing European styles while working to promote nationalism.[409] The nature of Canadian art reflects these diverse origins, as artists have taken their traditions and adapted these influences to reflect the reality of their lives in Canada.[410]
Patriotic music in Canada dates back over 200 years. The earliest work of patriotic music in Canada, "The Bold Canadian", was written in 1812.[426] "The Maple Leaf Forever", written in 1866, was a popular patriotic song throughout English Canada and, for many years, served as an unofficial national anthem.[427] "O Canada" also served as an unofficial national anthem for much of the 20th century and was adopted as the country's official anthem in 1980.[428]
In terms of participation, swimming was the most commonly reported sport by over one-third (35percent) of Canadians in 2023.[435] This was closely followed by cycling (33percent) and running (27percent).[435] The popularity of specific sports varies;[436] in general, the Canadian-born population was more likely to have participated in winter sports such as ice hockey, skating, skiing and snowboarding, compared with immigrants, who were more likely to have played soccer (the most popular youth team sport),[437]tennis or basketball.[435] Sports such as golf, volleyball, badminton, bowling, and martial arts are also widely enjoyed at the youth and amateur levels.[438]
↑ "Brokerage politics: A Canadian term for successful big tent parties that embody a pluralistic catch-all approach to appeal to the median Canadian voter ... adopting centrist policies and electoral coalitions to satisfy the short-term preferences of a majority of electors who are not located on the ideological fringe."[154] "The traditional brokerage model of Canadian politics leaves little room for ideology."[155]
↑ "The Royal Canadian Navy is composed of approximately 8,400 full-time sailors and 5,100 part-time sailors. The Army is composed of approximately 22,800 full-time soldiers, 18,700 reservists, and 5,000 Canadian Rangers. The Royal Canadian Air Force is composed of approximately 13,000 Regular Force personnel and 2,400 Air Reserve personnel."[216]
↑ All citizens of Canada are classified as "Canadians" as defined by Canada's nationality laws. "Canadian" as an ethnic group has since 1996 been added to census questionnaires for possible ancestral origin or descent. "Canadian" was included as an example on the English questionnaire and "Canadien" as an example on the French questionnaire.[295] "The majority of respondents to this selection are from the eastern part of the country that was first settled. Respondents generally are visibly European (Anglophones and Francophones) and no longer self-identify with their ethnic ancestral origins. This response is attributed to a multitude or generational distance from ancestral lineage."[296]
↑ Indigenous peoples are not considered a visible minority in Statistics Canada calculations. Visible minorities are defined by Statistics Canada as "persons, other than aboriginal peoples, who are non-Caucasian in race or non-white in colour".[300]
Statistics Canada conducts a country-wide census that collects demographic data every five years on the first and sixth year of each decade. The 2021 Canadian census enumerated a total population of 36,991,981, an increase of around 5.2 percent over the 2016 figure. It is estimated that Canada's population surpassed 40 million in 2023 and 41 million in 2024. Between 1990 and 2008, the population increased by 5.6 million, equivalent to 20.4 percent overall growth. The main driver of population growth is immigration, with 6.2% of the country's population being made up of temporary residents as of 2023, or about 2.5 million people. Between 2011 and May 2016, Canada's population grew by 1.7 million people, with immigrants accounting for two-thirds of the increase.
The politics of Canada functions within a framework of parliamentary democracy and a federal system of parliamentary government with strong democratic traditions. Canada is a constitutional monarchy where the monarch is head of state. In practice, executive authority is entrusted to the Cabinet, a committee of ministers of the Crown chaired by the Prime Minister of Canada that act as the executive committee of the King's Privy Council for Canada and are responsible to the democratically elected House of Commons.
The economy of Canada is a highly developed mixed economy, with the world's ninth-largest economy as of 2024, and a nominal GDP of approximately US$2.117 trillion. Canada is one of the world's largest trading nations, with a highly globalized economy. In 2021, Canadian trade in goods and services reached $2.016 trillion. Canada's exports totalled over $637 billion, while its imported goods were worth over $631 billion, of which approximately $391 billion originated from the United States. In 2018, Canada had a trade deficit in goods of $22 billion and a trade deficit in services of $25 billion. The Toronto Stock Exchange is the tenth-largest stock exchange in the world by market capitalization, listing over 1,500 companies with a combined market capitalization of over US$3 trillion.
The culture of Canada embodies the artistic, culinary, literary, humour, musical, political and social elements that are representative of Canadians. Throughout Canada's history, its culture has been influenced firstly by its indigenous cultures, and later by European culture and traditions, mostly by the British and French. Over time, elements of the cultures of Canada's immigrant populations have become incorporated to form a Canadian cultural mosaic. Certain segments of Canada's population have, to varying extents, also been influenced by American culture due to shared language, significant media penetration, and geographic proximity.
Joseph Philippe Pierre Yves Elliott Trudeau was a Canadian lawyer and politician who served as the 15th prime minister of Canada from 1968 to 1979 and from 1980 to 1984. Between his non-consecutive terms as prime minister, he served as the leader of the Opposition from 1979 to 1980.
The history of Canada covers the period from the arrival of the Paleo-Indians to North America thousands of years ago to the present day. The lands encompassing present-day Canada have been inhabited for millennia by Indigenous peoples, with distinct trade networks, spiritual beliefs, and styles of social organization. Some of these older civilizations had long faded by the time of the first European arrivals and have been discovered through archeological investigations.
The monarchy of Canada is Canada's form of government embodied by the Canadian sovereign and head of state. It is one of the key components of Canadian sovereignty and sits at the core of Canada's constitutional federal structure and Westminster-style parliamentary democracy. The monarchy is the foundation of the executive (King-in-Council), legislative (King-in-Parliament), and judicial (King-on-the-Bench) branches of both federal and provincial jurisdictions. The current monarch is King Charles III, who has reigned since 8 September 2022.
Canada has ten provinces and three territories that are sub-national administrative divisions under the jurisdiction of the Canadian Constitution. In the 1867 Canadian Confederation, three provinces of British North America—New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and the Province of Canada —united to form a federation, becoming a fully independent country over the next century. Over its history, Canada's international borders have changed several times as it has added territories and provinces, making it the world's second-largest country by area.
Canadian Confederation was the process by which three British North American provinces—the Province of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick—were united into one federation, called the Dominion of Canada, on July 1, 1867. This process occurred in accordance with the rising tide of Canadian nationalism that was then beginning to swell within these provinces and others. Upon Confederation, Canada consisted of four provinces: Ontario and Quebec, which had been split out from the Province of Canada, and the provinces of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. The province of Prince Edward Island, which had hosted the first meeting to consider Confederation, the Charlottetown Conference, did not join Confederation until 1873. Over the years since Confederation, Canada has seen numerous territorial changes and expansions, resulting in the current number of ten provinces and three territories.
The Liberal Party of Canada is a federal political party in Canada. The party espouses the principles of liberalism, and generally sits at the centre to centre-left of the Canadian political spectrum, with their main rival, the Conservative Party, positioned to their right and the New Democratic Party positioned to their left. The party is described as "big tent", practising "brokerage politics", attracting support from a broad spectrum of voters. The Liberal Party is the longest-serving and oldest active federal political party in the country, and has dominated federal politics of Canada for much of its history, holding power for almost 70 years of the 20th century. As a result, it has sometimes been referred to as Canada's "natural governing party".
Education in Canada is for the most part provided publicly, funded and overseen by federal, provincial, and local governments. Education is within provincial jurisdiction and the curriculum is overseen by the province. Education in Canada is generally divided into primary education, followed by secondary education and post-secondary. Education in both English and French is available in most places across Canada. Canada has a large number of universities, almost all of which are publicly funded. Established in 1663, Université Laval is the oldest post-secondary institution in Canada. The largest university is the University of Toronto with over 85,000 students. Four universities are regularly ranked among the top 100 world-wide, namely University of Toronto, University of British Columbia, McGill University, and McMaster University, with a total of 18 universities ranked in the top 500 worldwide.
The legal system of Canada is pluralist: its foundations lie in the English common law system, the French civil law system, and Indigenous law systems developed by the various Indigenous Nations.
The foreign relations of Canada are Canada's relations with other governments and nations. Canada is recognized as a middle power for its role in global affairs with a tendency to pursue multilateral and international solutions. Canada is known for its strong commitment to international peace and security, as well as being a mediator in conflicts, and for providing aid to developing countries. The "golden age of Canadian diplomacy" refers to a period in Canadian history, typically considered to be the mid-20th century, when Canada experienced a high level of success in its foreign relations and diplomatic efforts.
Religion in Canada encompasses a wide range of beliefs and customs that historically has been dominated by Christianity. The constitution of Canada refers to 'God', however Canada has no official church and the government is officially committed to religious pluralism. Freedom of religion in Canada is a constitutionally protected right, allowing individuals to assemble and worship without limitation or interference. Rates of religious adherence have steadily decreased since the 1960s. After having once been central and integral to Canadian culture and daily life, Canada has become a post-Christian state. Although the majority of Canadians consider religion to be unimportant in their daily lives, they still believe in God. The practice of religion is generally considered a private matter throughout society and the state.
Canada ranks 36th by population among countries of the world, comprising about 0.5% of the world's total, with more than 40 million Canadians as of 2024. Despite being the second-largest country by total area, the vast majority of the country is sparsely inhabited, with most of its population south of the 55th parallel north. Just over 60 percent of Canadians live in just two provinces: Ontario and Quebec. Though Canada's overall population density is low, many regions in the south, such as the Quebec City–Windsor Corridor, have population densities higher than several European countries. Canada has six population centres with more than one million people: Toronto, Montreal, Vancouver, Calgary, Edmonton and Ottawa.
This is a bibliography of major works on the History of Canada.
Canadians are people identified with the country of Canada. This connection may be residential, legal, historical or cultural. For most Canadians, many of these connections exist and are collectively the source of their being Canadian.
Multiculturalism in Canada was officially adopted by the government during the 1970s and 1980s. The Canadian federal government has been described as the instigator of multiculturalism as an ideology because of its public emphasis on the social importance of immigration. The 1960s Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism is often referred to as the origin of modern political awareness of multiculturalism, resulting in Canada being one of the most multicultural nations in the world. The official state policy of multiculturalism is often cited as one of Canada's significant accomplishments, and a key distinguishing element of Canadian identity and Canadian values.
Canada ranks among the highest in international measurements of human rights, civil liberties, quality of life, education levels, gender equality, public services, public security and environmental sustainability. It ranks among the lowest of the most developed countries for housing affordability, healthcare services and foreign direct investment.
Michael J. Prince is a Canadian political scientist and public policy and administration scholar. Prince is the Lansdowne Professor of Social Policy at the University of Victoria in Canada.
References
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↑ Romney, Paul (Spring 1989). "From Constitutionalism to Legalism: Trial by Jury, Responsible Government, and the Rule of Law in the Canadian Political Culture". Law and History Review. 7 (1): 121–174. doi:10.2307/743779. JSTOR743779.
↑ Mulvale, James P (July 11, 2008). "Basic Income and the Canadian Welfare State: Exploring the Realms of Possibility". Basic Income Studies. 3 (1). doi:10.2202/1932-0183.1084.
↑ Mackey, Eva (2002). The house of difference: cultural politics and national identity in Canada. University of Toronto Press. p.57. ISBN978-0-8020-8481-1.
↑ Landry, Rodrigue; Forgues, Éric (May 2007). "Official language minorities in Canada: an introduction". International Journal of the Sociology of Language (185): 1–9. doi:10.1515/IJSL.2007.022.
↑ Légaré, André (2008). "Canada's Experiment with Aboriginal Self-Determination in Nunavut: From Vision to Illusion". International Journal on Minority and Group Rights. 15 (2–3): 335–367. doi:10.1163/157181108X332659. JSTOR24674996. }}
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"Canada and the War in Afghanistan". The Canadian Encyclopedia. September 11, 2001. Archived from the original on January 29, 2024. Retrieved March 25, 2024. In total, 165 Canadians died during the war in Afghanistan (158 soldiers, 7 civilians). More than 2,000 members of the CAF were wounded or injured during the war.
↑ They Came for the Children: Canada, Aboriginal Peoples, and Residential Schools. Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada. 2012. p.intro. ISBN978-1-100-19995-5.
↑ Etkin, David; Haque, CE; Brooks, Gregory R (April 30, 2003). An Assessment of Natural Hazards and Disasters in Canada. Springer. pp.569, 582, 583. ISBN978-1-4020-1179-5.
↑ Zhang, X.; Flato, G.; Kirchmeier-Young, M.; Vincent, L.; Wan, H.; Wang, X.; Rong, R.; Fyfe, J.; Li, G. (2019). Bush, E.; Lemmen, D.S. (eds.). "Changes in Temperature and Precipitation Across Canada; Chapter 4"(PDF). Canada's Changing Climate Report. Government of Canada. pp.112–193. Archived(PDF) from the original on December 18, 2020.
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↑ "Wild Species 2015: The General Status of Species in Canada"(PDF). National General Status Working Group: 1. Canadian Endangered Species Conservation Council. 2016. p.2. Archived(PDF) from the original on January 27, 2021. The new estimate indicates that there are about 80,000 known species in Canada, excluding viruses and bacteria
↑ "Canada: Main Details". Convention on Biological Diversity. Archived from the original on August 10, 2022. Retrieved August 10, 2022.
McLachlin, Beverly (June 30, 2014). "Human Rights Protection in Canada". " Osgoode Hall Review of Law and Policy. Canada's experience with human rights. Canada's experience can be divided into three phases: 1) Judicially implied rights; 2) Legislatively protected rights; and 3) Constitutionally protected human rights. Before human rights legislation and the Charter, courts in Canada relied on the theory of an "implied bill of rights" to protect traditional civil liberties such as freedom of speech and association. The theoretical foundation for these rights was the importance of free political speech and discussion in a democracy.
Brooks, Stephen (2004). Canadian Democracy: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. p.265. ISBN978-0-19-541806-4. Two historically dominant political parties have avoided ideological appeals in favour of a flexible centrist style of politics that is often labelled brokerage politics
Johnson, David (2016). Thinking Government: Public Administration and Politics in Canada (4thed.). University of Toronto Press. pp.13–23. ISBN978-1-4426-3521-0. ...most Canadian governments, especially in the federal sphere, have taken a moderate, centrist approach to decision making, seeking to balance growth, stability, and governmental efficiency and economy...
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↑ Commissioner of the Northwest Territories, Role of the Commissioner, Government of Northwest Territories, archived from the original on March 8, 2023, retrieved March 8, 2023
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↑ Fettes, Mark; Norton, Ruth (2001). "Voices of Winter: Aboriginal Languages and Public Policy in Canada". In Castellano, Marlene Brant; Davis, Lynne; Lahache, Louise (eds.). Aboriginal education: fulfilling the promise. UBC Press. p.39. ISBN978-0-7748-0783-8.
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↑ Mullen, Carol A. (2020). "Introduction". Canadian Indigenous Literature and Art: Decolonizing Education, Culture, and Society. Brill Sense. ISBN978-90-04-41426-6.
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41,288,599 [3] (36th)
$2.582 trillion [5] (16th)
29.2 [6] 
