While a variety of theories have been postulated for the etymological origins of Canada, the name is now accepted as coming from the St. Lawrence Iroquoian word kanata, meaning "village" or "settlement".[9] In 1535, Indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona.[10] Cartier later used the word Canada to refer not only to that particular village but to the entire area subject to Donnacona (the chief at Stadacona);[10] by 1545, European books and maps had begun referring to this small region along the Saint Lawrence River as Canada.[10]
From the 16th to the early 18th century, "Canada" referred to the part of New France that lay along the Saint Lawrence River.[11] In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada. These two colonies were collectively named the Canadas until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841.[12]
Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the legal name for the new country at the London Conference and the word Dominion was conferred as the country's title.[13] By the 1950s, the term Dominion of Canada was no longer used by the United Kingdom, which considered Canada a "Realm of the Commonwealth".[14] The government of Louis St. Laurent ended the practice of using Dominion in the statutes of Canada in 1951.[15][16][17]
The Canada Act 1982, which brought the constitution of Canada fully under Canadian control, referred only to Canada. Later that year, the name of the national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day.[18] The term Dominion was used to distinguish the federal government from the provinces, though after the Second World War the term federal had replaced dominion.[19]
The first inhabitants of North America are generally hypothesized to have migrated from Siberia by way of the Bering land bridge and arrived at least 14,000 years ago.[21][22] The Paleo-Indian archeological sites at Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves are two of the oldest sites of human habitation in Canada.[23] The characteristics of Indigenous societies included permanent settlements, agriculture, complex societal hierarchies, and trading networks.[24][25] Some of these cultures had collapsed by the time European explorers arrived in the late 15th and early 16th centuries and have only been discovered through archeological investigations.[26]
The Indigenous population at the time of the first European settlements is estimated to have been between 200,000[27] and two million,[28] with a figure of 500,000 accepted by Canada's Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples.[29] As a consequence of European colonization, the Indigenous population declined by forty to eighty percent and several First Nations, such as the Beothuk, disappeared.[30] The decline is attributed to several causes, including the transfer of European diseases, such as influenza, measles, and smallpox, to which they had no natural immunity,[27][31] conflicts over the fur trade, conflicts with the colonial authorities and settlers, and the loss of Indigenous lands to settlers and the subsequent collapse of several nations' self-sufficiency.[32][33]
Map of territorial claims in North America by 1750, before the French and Indian War, which was part of the greater worldwide conflict known as the Seven Years' War (1756 to 1763). Possessions of Britain (pink), New France (blue), and Spain (orange; California, Pacific Northwest, and Great Basin not indicated)
It is believed that the first European to explore the east coast of Canada was Norse explorer Leif Erikson.[45][46] In approximately 1000 AD, the Norse built a small short-lived encampment that was occupied sporadically for perhaps 20 years at L'Anse aux Meadows on the northern tip of Newfoundland.[47] No further European exploration occurred until 1497, when Italian seafarer John Cabot explored and claimed Canada's Atlantic coast in the name of King Henry VII of England.[48] In 1534, French explorer Jacques Cartier explored the Gulf of Saint Lawrence where, on July 24, he planted a 10-metre (33ft) cross bearing the words, "long live the King of France", and took possession of the territory New France in the name of King Francis I.[49] The early 16th century saw European mariners with navigational techniques pioneered by the Basque and Portuguese establish seasonal whaling and fishing outposts along the Atlantic coast.[50] In general, early settlements during the Age of Discovery appear to have been short-lived due to a combination of the harsh climate, problems with navigating trade routes and competing outputs in Scandinavia.[51][52]
The English established additional settlements in Newfoundland in 1610 along with settlements in the Thirteen Colonies to the south.[57][58] A series of four wars erupted in colonial North America between 1689 and 1763; the later wars of the period constituted the North American theatre of the Seven Years' War.[59] Mainland Nova Scotia came under British rule with the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht and Canada and most of New France came under British rule in 1763 after the Seven Years' War.[60]
The Royal Proclamation of 1763 established First Nation treaty rights, created the Province of Quebec out of New France, and annexed Cape Breton Island to Nova Scotia.[18] St John's Island (now Prince Edward Island) became a separate colony in 1769.[61] To avert conflict in Quebec, the British Parliament passed the Quebec Act 1774, expanding Quebec's territory to the Great Lakes and Ohio Valley.[62] More importantly, the Quebec Act afforded Quebec special autonomy and rights of self-administration at a time when the Thirteen Colonies were increasingly agitating against British rule.[63] It re-established the French language, Catholic faith, and French civil law there, staving off the growth of an independence movement in contrast to the Thirteen Colonies.[64] The Proclamation and the Quebec Act in turn angered many residents of the Thirteen Colonies, further fuelling anti-British sentiment in the years prior to the American Revolution.[18]
After the successful American War of Independence, the 1783 Treaty of Paris recognized the independence of the newly formed United States and set the terms of peace, ceding British North American territories south of the Great Lakes and east of the Mississippi River to the new country.[65] The American war of independence also caused a large out-migration of Loyalists, the settlers who had fought against American independence. Many moved to Canada, particularly Atlantic Canada, where their arrival changed the demographic distribution of the existing territories. New Brunswick was in turn split from Nova Scotia as part of a reorganization of Loyalist settlements in the Maritimes, which led to the incorporation of Saint John, New Brunswick, as Canada's first city.[66] To accommodate the influx of English-speaking Loyalists in Central Canada, the Constitutional Act of 1791 divided the province of Canada into French-speaking Lower Canada (later Quebec) and English-speaking Upper Canada (later Ontario), granting each its own elected legislative assembly.[67]
The Canadas were the main front in the War of 1812 between the United States and the United Kingdom. Peace came in 1815; no boundaries were changed.[68] Immigration resumed at a higher level, with over 960,000 arrivals from Britain between 1815 and 1850.[69] New arrivals included refugees escaping the Great Irish Famine as well as Gaelic-speaking Scots displaced by the Highland Clearances.[70] Infectious diseases killed between 25 and 33 percent of Europeans who immigrated to Canada before 1891.[27]
Following three constitutional conferences, the British North America Act, 1867 officially proclaimed Canadian Confederation on July 1, 1867, initially with four provinces: Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick.[75][76] Canada assumed control of Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory to form the Northwest Territories, where the Métis' grievances ignited the Red River Rebellion and the creation of the province of Manitoba in July 1870.[77] British Columbia and Vancouver Island (which had been united in 1866) joined the confederation in 1871 on the promise of a transcontinental railway extending to Victoria in the province within 10 years,[78] while Prince Edward Island joined in 1873.[79] In 1898, during the Klondike Gold Rush in the Northwest Territories, Parliament created the Yukon Territory. Alberta and Saskatchewan became provinces in 1905.[79] Between 1871 and 1896, almost one quarter of the Canadian population emigrated south to the US.[80]
1918 Canadian War bond posters depicting three French women pulling a plow that had been constructed for horses.
French version of the poster roughly translates as "They serve France–Everyone can serve; Buy Victory Bonds".
The same poster in English, with subtle differences in text. "They serve France—How can I serve Canada? Buy Victory Bonds".
Because Britain still maintained control of Canada's foreign affairs under the British North America Act, 1867, its declaration of war in 1914 automatically brought Canada into the First World War.[89] Volunteers sent to the Western Front later became part of the Canadian Corps, which played a substantial role in the Battle of Vimy Ridge and other major engagements of the war.[90] Out of approximately 625,000 Canadians who served in World War I, some 60,000 were killed and another 172,000 were wounded.[91] The Conscription Crisis of 1917 erupted when the Unionist Cabinet's proposal to augment the military's dwindling number of active members with conscription was met with vehement objections from French-speaking Quebecers.[92] The Military Service Act brought in compulsory military service, though it, coupled with disputes over French language schools outside Quebec, deeply alienated Francophone Canadians and temporarily split the Liberal Party.[92] In 1919, Canada joined the League of Nations independently of Britain,[90] and the Statute of Westminster, 1931, affirmed Canada's independence.[93]
The Canadian economy boomed during the war as its industries manufactured military materiel for Canada, Britain, China, and the Soviet Union.[90] Despite another Conscription Crisis in Quebec in 1944, Canada finished the war with a large army and strong economy.[98]
Contemporary era
The financial crisis of the Great Depression led the Dominion of Newfoundland to relinquish responsible government in 1934 and become a Crown colony ruled by a British governor.[99] After two referendums, Newfoundlanders voted to join Canada in 1949 as a province.[100]
Finally, another series of constitutional conferences resulted in the Canada Act 1982, the patriation of Canada's constitution from the United Kingdom, concurrent with the creation of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.[105][106][107] Canada had established complete sovereignty as an independent country under its own monarchy.[108][109] In 1999, Nunavut became Canada's third territory after a series of negotiations with the federal government.[110]
In addition to the issues of Quebec sovereignty, a number of crises shook Canadian society in the late 1980s and early 1990s. These included the explosion of Air India Flight 182 in 1985, the largest mass murder in Canadian history;[117] the École Polytechnique massacre in 1989, a university shooting targeting female students;[118] and the Oka Crisis of 1990,[119] the first of a number of violent confrontations between provincial governments and Indigenous groups.[120] Canada also joined the Gulf War in 1990 as part of a United States–led coalition force and was active in several peacekeeping missions in the 1990s, including the UNPROFOR mission in the former Yugoslavia.[121] Canada sent troops to Afghanistan in 2001 but declined to join the United States–led invasion of Iraq in 2003.[122]
Average winter and summer high temperatures across Canada vary from region to region. Winters can be harsh in many parts of the country, particularly in the interior and Prairie provinces, which experience a continental climate, where daily average temperatures are near −15°C (5°F), but can drop below −40°C (−40°F) with severe wind chills.[140] In non-coastal regions, snow can cover the ground for almost six months of the year, while in parts of the north snow can persist year-round. Coastal British Columbia has a temperate climate, with a mild and rainy winter. On the east and west coasts, average high temperatures are generally in the low 20s °C (70s °F), while between the coasts, the average summer high temperature ranges from 25 to 30°C (77 to 86°F), with temperatures in some interior locations occasionally exceeding 40°C (104°F).[141]
Much of Northern Canada is covered by ice and permafrost. The future of the permafrost is uncertain because the Arctic has been warming at three times the global average as a result of climate change in Canada.[142] Canada's annual average temperature over land has risen by 1.7°C (3.1°F), with changes ranging from 1.1 to 2.3°C (2.0 to 4.1°F) in various regions, since 1948.[129] The rate of warming has been higher across the North and in the Prairies.[143] In the southern regions of Canada, air pollution from both Canada and the United States—caused by metal smelting, burning coal to power utilities, and vehicle emissions—has resulted in acid rain, which has severely impacted waterways, forest growth, and agricultural productivity in Canada.[144]
Approximately 12.1 percent of the nation's landmass and freshwater are conservation areas, including 11.4 percent designated as protected areas.[154] Approximately 13.8 percent of its territorial waters are conserved, including 8.9 percent designated as protected areas.[154] Canada's first National Park, Banff National Park established in 1885, spans 6,641 square kilometres (2,564sqmi)[155] of mountainous terrain, with many glaciers and ice fields, dense coniferous forest, and alpine landscapes.[156] Canada's oldest provincial park, Algonquin Provincial Park, established in 1893, covers an area of 7,653.45 square kilometres (2,955.01sqmi). It is dominated by old-growth forest with over 2,400 lakes and 1,200 kilometres of streams and rivers.[157]Lake Superior National Marine Conservation Area is the world's largest freshwater protected area, spanning roughly 10,000 square kilometres (3,900sqmi) of lakebed, its overlaying freshwater, and associated shoreline on 60 square kilometres (23sqmi) of islands and mainland.[158] Canada's largest national wildlife region is the Scott Islands Marine National Wildlife Area, which spans 11,570.65 square kilometres (4,467.45sqmi)[159] and protects critical breeding and nesting habitat for over 40 percent of British Columbia's seabirds.[160] Canada's 18 UNESCO Biosphere Reserves cover a total area of 235,000 square kilometres (91,000sqmi).[161]
The monarchy is the source of sovereignty and authority in Canada.[188][192][193] However, while the governor general or monarch may exercise their power without ministerial advice in certain rare crisis situations,[192] the use of the executive powers (or royal prerogative) is otherwise always directed by the Cabinet, a committee of ministers of the Crown responsible to the elected House of Commons and chosen and headed by the prime minister,[194] the head of government. To ensure the stability of government, the governor general will usually appoint as prime minister the individual who is the current leader of the political party that can obtain the confidence of a majority of members in the House of Commons.[195] The Prime Minister's Office (PMO) is thus one of the most powerful institutions in government, initiating most legislation for parliamentary approval and selecting for appointment by the Crown, besides the aforementioned, the governor general, lieutenant governors, senators, federal court judges, and heads of Crown corporations and government agencies.[192] The leader of the party with the second-most seats usually becomes the leader of the Official Opposition and is part of an adversarial parliamentary system intended to keep the government in check.[196]
The Parliament of Canada passes all statute laws within the federal sphere. It comprises the monarch, the House of Commons, and the Senate. While Canada inherited the British concept of parliamentary supremacy, this was later, with the enactment of the Constitution Act, 1982, all but completely superseded by the American notion of the supremacy of the law.[197]
Each of the 338 members of Parliament in the House of Commons is elected by simple plurality in an electoral district or riding. The Constitution Act, 1982, requires that no more than five years pass between elections, although the Canada Elections Act limits this to four years with a "fixed" election date in October; general elections still must be called by the governor general and can be triggered by either the advice of the prime minister or a lost confidence vote in the House.[198][199] The 105 members of the Senate, whose seats are apportioned on a regional basis, serve until age 75.[200]
Canadian federalism divides government responsibilities between the federal government and the 10 provinces. Provincial legislatures are unicameral and operate in parliamentary fashion similar to the House of Commons.[193] Canada's three territories also have legislatures; but, these are not sovereign and have fewer constitutional responsibilities than the provinces.[201] The territorial legislatures also differ structurally from their provincial counterparts.[202]
The constitution of Canada is the supreme law of the country and consists of written text and unwritten conventions.[207] The Constitution Act, 1867 (known as the British North America Act, 1867 prior to 1982), affirmed governance based on parliamentary precedent and divided powers between the federal and provincial governments.[208] The Statute of Westminster, 1931, granted full autonomy, and the Constitution Act, 1982, ended all legislative ties to Britain, as well as adding a constitutional amending formula and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.[209] The Charter guarantees basic rights and freedoms that usually cannot be over-ridden by any government; though, a notwithstanding clause allows Parliament and the provincial legislatures to override certain sections of the Charter for a period of five years.[210]
Canada's judiciary plays an important role in interpreting laws and has the power to strike down acts of Parliament that violate the constitution. The Supreme Court of Canada is the highest court, final arbiter, and has been led since December 18, 2017, by Richard Wagner, the Chief Justice of Canada.[211] The governor general appoints the court's nine members on the advice of the prime minister and minister of justice.[212] All judges at the superior and appellate levels are appointed after consultation with non-governmental legal bodies. The federal Cabinet also appoints justices to superior courts in the provincial and territorial jurisdictions.[213]
Common law prevails everywhere, except in Quebec, where civil law predominates.[214]Criminal law is solely a federal responsibility and is uniform throughout Canada.[215] Law enforcement, including criminal courts, is officially a provincial responsibility, conducted by provincial and municipal police forces.[216] In most rural and some urban areas, policing responsibilities are contracted to the federal Royal Canadian Mounted Police.[217]
Canada is recognized as a middle power for its role in international affairs with a tendency to pursue multilateral solutions.[223] Canada's foreign policy based on international peacekeeping and security is carried out through coalitions, international organizations, and the work of numerous federal institutions.[224][225]Canada's peacekeeping role during the 20th century has played a major role in its global image.[226][227] The strategy of the Canadian government's foreign aid policy reflects an emphasis to meet the Millennium Development Goals, while also providing assistance in response to foreign humanitarian crises.[228]
Canada's earlier strong attachment to the British Empire and, later, the Commonwealth led to major participation in British military efforts in the Second Boer War (1899–1902), First World War (1914–1918), and Second World War (1939–1945).[238] Since then, Canada has been an advocate for multilateralism, making efforts to resolve global issues in collaboration with other nations.[239][240] During the Cold War, Canada was a major contributor to UN forces in the Korean War and founded the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD), in cooperation with the United States, to defend against potential aerial attacks from the Soviet Union.[241]
During the Suez Crisis of 1956, future prime minister Lester B. Pearson eased tensions by proposing the inception of the United Nations Peacekeeping Force, for which he was awarded the 1957 Nobel Peace Prize.[242] As this was the first UN peacekeeping mission, Pearson is often credited as the inventor of the concept.[243] Canada has since served in over 50 peacekeeping missions, including every UN peacekeeping effort until 1989,[90] and has since maintained forces in international missions in Rwanda, the former Yugoslavia, and elsewhere; Canada has sometimes faced controversy over its involvement in foreign countries, notably in the 1993 Somalia affair.[244]
Political map of Canada showing its 10 provinces and 3 territories
Canada is a federation composed of 10 federated states, called provinces, and three federal territories. In turn, these may be grouped into four main regions: Western Canada, Central Canada, Atlantic Canada, and Northern Canada (Eastern Canada refers to Central Canada and Atlantic Canada together).[253] Provinces and territories have responsibility for social programs such as healthcare, education, and welfare,[254] as well as administration of justice (but not criminal law). Together, the provinces collect more revenue than the federal government, a rarity among other federations in the world. Using its spending powers, the federal government can initiate national policies in provincial areas such as health and child care; the provinces can opt out of these cost-share programs but rarely do so in practice. Equalization payments are made by the federal government to ensure reasonably uniform standards of services and taxation are kept between the richer and poorer provinces.[255]
The major difference between a Canadian province and a territory is that provinces receive their sovereignty from the Crown[256] and power and authority from the Constitution Act, 1867, whereas territorial governments have powers delegated to them by the Parliament of Canada[257] and the commissioners represent the King in his federal Council,[258] rather than the monarch directly. The powers flowing from the Constitution Act, 1867, are divided between the federal government and the provincial governments to exercise exclusively[259] and any changes to that arrangement require a constitutional amendment, while changes to the roles and powers of the territories may be performed unilaterally by the Parliament of Canada.[260]
The Toronto financial district is the second-largest financial centre in North America, the seventh-largest globally in employment and the heart of Canada's finance industry.
Canada has a highly developedmixed-market economy,[262][263] with the world's eighth-largest economyas of 2022[update], and a nominal GDP of approximately US$2.221trillion.[264] It is one of the world's largest trading nations, with a highly globalized economy.[265] In 2021, Canadian trade in goods and services reached $2.016trillion.[266] Canada's exports totalled over $637billion, while its imported goods were worth over $631billion, of which approximately $391billion originated from the United States.[266] In 2018, Canada had a trade deficit in goods of $22billion and a trade deficit in services of $25billion.[266] The Toronto Stock Exchange is the ninth-largest stock exchange in the world by market capitalization, listing over 1,500 companies with a combined market capitalization of over US$2trillion.[267]
Since the early 20th century, the growth of Canada's manufacturing, mining, and service sectors has transformed the nation from a largely rural economy to an urbanized, industrial one.[279] Like many other developed countries, the Canadian economy is dominated by the service industry, which employs about three-quarters of the country's workforce.[280] Among developed countries, Canada has an unusually important primary sector, of which the forestry and petroleum industries are the most prominent components.[281] Many towns in northern Canada, where agriculture is difficult, are sustained by nearby mines or sources of timber.[282]
The Canadian Space Agency operates a highly active space program, conducting deep-space, planetary, and aviation research and developing rockets and satellites.[313] Canada was the third country to design and construct a satellite after the Soviet Union and the United States, with the 1962 Alouette 1 launch.[314] Canada is a participant in the International Space Station (ISS), and is a pioneer in space robotics, having constructed the Canadarm, Canadarm2 and Dextre robotic manipulators for the ISS and NASA's Space Shuttle.[315] Since the 1960s, Canada's aerospace industry has designed and built numerous marques of satellite, including Radarsat-1 and 2, ISIS, and MOST.[316] Canada has also produced one of the world's most successful and widely used sounding rockets, the Black Brant; over 1,000 Black Brants have been launched since the rocket's introduction in 1961.[317]
The Quebec City–Windsor Corridor is the most densely populated and heavily industrialized region of Canada and spans 1,200km (750mi).
The 2021 Canadian census enumerated a total population of 36,991,981, an increase of around 5.2 percent over the 2016 figure.[319] The main drivers of population growth are immigration and, to a lesser extent, natural growth.[320] Canada has one of the highest per-capita immigration rates in the world,[321] driven mainly by economic policy and also family reunification.[322][323] A record number of 405,000 immigrants were admitted to Canada in 2021.[324] New immigrants settle mostly in major urban areas in the country, such as Toronto, Montreal, and Vancouver.[325] Canada also accepts large numbers of refugees, accounting for over 10 percent of annual global refugee resettlements; it resettled more than 28,000 in 2018.[326][327]
Canada's population density, at 4.2 inhabitants per square kilometre (11/sqmi), is among the lowest in the world.[319] Canada spans latitudinally from the 83rd parallel north to the 41st parallel north and approximately 95percent of the population is found south of the 55th parallel north.[328] About 80 percent of the population lives within 150 kilometres (93mi) of the border with the contiguous United States.[329] The most densely populated part of the country, accounting for nearly 50 percent, is the Quebec City–Windsor Corridor in Southern Quebec and Southern Ontario along the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River.[318][328]
The majority of Canadians (81.1percent) live in family households, 12.1percent report living alone, and those living with other relatives or unrelated persons reported at 6.8percent.[330] Fifty-onepercent of households are couples with or without children, 8.7percent are single-parent households, 2.9percent are multigenerational households, and 29.3percent are single-person households.[330]
Healthcare in Canada is delivered through the provincial and territorial systems of publicly funded health care, informally called Medicare.[331][332] It is guided by the provisions of the Canada Health Act of 1984[333] and is universal.[334] Universal access to publicly funded health services "is often considered by Canadians as a fundamental value that ensures national healthcare insurance for everyone wherever they live in the country."[335] Around 30percent of Canadians' healthcare is paid for through the private sector.[336] This mostly pays for services not covered or partially covered by Medicare, such as prescription drugs, dentistry and optometry.[336] Approximately 65 to 75percent of Canadians have some form of supplementary health insurance related to the aforementioned reasons; many receive it through their employers or access secondary social service programs related to extended coverage for families receiving social assistance or vulnerable demographics, such as seniors, minors, and those with disabilities.[337][336]
In common with many other developed countries, Canada is experiencing an increase in healthcare expenditures due to a demographic shift toward an older population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age. In 2006, the average age in Canada was 39.5 years;[338] it rose to 42.4 years by 2018[339] before falling slightly to 41.9 in 2021.[330] Life expectancy is 81.1 years.[340] A 2016 report by the chief public health officer found that 88percent of Canadians, one of the highest proportions of the population among G7 countries, indicated that they "had good or very good health".[341] Eightypercent of Canadian adults self-report having at least one major risk factor for chronic disease: smoking, physical inactivity, unhealthy eating or excessive alcohol use.[342] Canada has one of the highest rates of adult obesity among Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries, contributing to approximately 2.7million cases of diabetes (types 1 and 2 combined).[342] Four chronic diseases—cancer (leading cause of death), cardiovascular diseases, respiratory diseases, and diabetes—account for 65percent of deaths in Canada.[343][344]
In 2021, the Canadian Institute for Health Information reported that healthcare spending reached $308billion, or 12.7 percent of Canada's GDP for that year.[345] Canada's per-capita spending on health expenditures ranked 4th among health-care systems in the OECD.[346] Canada has performed close to, or above the average on the majority of OECD health indicators since the early 2000s, ranking above the average on OECD indicators for wait-times and access to care, with average scores for quality of care and use of resources.[347][348] The Commonwealth Fund's 2021 report comparing the healthcare systems of the 11 most developed countries ranked Canada second-to-last.[349] Identified weaknesses were comparatively higher infant mortality rate, the prevalence of chronic conditions, long wait times, poor availability of after-hours care, and a lack of prescription drugs and dental coverage.[349] An increasing problem in Canada's health system is a lack of healthcare professionals.[350]
According to a 2019 report by the OECD, Canada is one of the most educated countries in the world;[359] the country ranks first worldwide in the percentage of adults having tertiary education, with over 56 percent of Canadian adults having attained at least an undergraduate college or university degree.[359] Canada spends about 5.3percent of its GDP on education.[360] The country invests heavily in tertiary education (more than US$20,000 per student).[361]As of 2014[update], 89 percent of adults aged 25 to 64 have earned the equivalent of a high-school degree, compared to an OECD average of 75 percent.[362]
The mandatory education age ranges between 5–7 to 16–18 years,[363] contributing to an adult literacy rate of 99 percent.[339] Just over 60,000 children are homeschooled in the country as of 2016. The Programme for International Student Assessment indicates Canadian students perform well above the OECD average, particularly in mathematics, science, and reading,[364][365] ranking the overall knowledge and skills of Canadian 15-year-olds as the sixth-best in the world, although these scores have been declining in recent years. Canada is a well-performing OECD country in reading literacy, mathematics, and science, with the average student scoring 523.7, compared with the OECD average of 493 in 2015.[366][367]
The country's ten largest self-reported specific ethnic or cultural origins in 2021 were Canadian[lower-alpha 4] (accounting for 15.6percent of the population), followed by English (14.7percent), Irish (12.1percent), Scottish (12.1percent), French (11.0percent), German (8.1percent), Chinese (4.7percent), Italian (4.3percent), Indian (3.7percent), and Ukrainian (3.5percent).[373]
Of the 36.3 million people enumerated in 2021, approximately 25.4 million reported being "White", representing 69.8percent of the population.[374] The Indigenous population representing 5percent or 1.8 million individuals, grew by 9.4percent compared to the non-Indigenous population, which grew by 5.3percent from 2016 to 2021.[374] One out of every four Canadians or 26.5percent of the population belonged to a non-White and non-Indigenous visible minority,[375][lower-alpha 5] the largest of which in 2021 were South Asian (2.6 million people; 7.1percent), Chinese (1.7 million; 4.7percent), and Black (1.5 million; 4.3percent).[377]
Between 2011 and 2016, the visible minority population rose by 18.4percent.[378] In 1961, about 300,000 people, less than two percent of Canada's population, were members of visible minority groups.[379] The 2021 census indicated that 8.3million people, or almost one-quarter (23.0percent) of the population, reported themselves as being or having been a landed immigrant or permanent resident in Canada—above the 1921 census previous record of 22.3percent.[380] In 2021, India, China, and the Philippines were the top three countries of origin for immigrants moving to Canada.[381]
The 1977 Charter of the French Language established French as the official language of Quebec.[385] Although more than 82 percent of French-speaking Canadians live in Quebec, there are substantial Francophone populations in New Brunswick, Alberta, and Manitoba; Ontario has the largest French-speaking population outside Quebec.[386] New Brunswick, the only officially bilingual province, has a French-speaking Acadian minority constituting 33 percent of the population.[387] There are also clusters of Acadians in southwestern Nova Scotia, on Cape Breton Island, and through central and western Prince Edward Island.[388]
Other provinces have no official languages as such, but French is used as a language of instruction, in courts, and for other government services, in addition to English. Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec allow for both English and French to be spoken in the provincial legislatures and laws are enacted in both languages. In Ontario, French has some legal status, but is not fully co-official.[389] There are 11 Indigenous language groups, composed of more than 65 distinct languages and dialects.[390] Several Indigenous languages have official status in the Northwest Territories.[391]Inuktitut is the majority language in Nunavut and is one of three official languages in the territory.[392]
Additionally, Canada is home to many sign languages, some of which are Indigenous.[393]American Sign Language (ASL) is used across the country due to the prevalence of ASL in primary and secondary schools.[394] Due to its historical relation to the francophone culture, Quebec Sign Language (LSQ) is used primarily in Quebec, although there are sizeable Francophone communities in New Brunswick, Ontario, and Manitoba.[395]
2. Everyone has the following fundamental freedoms:
(a) freedom of conscience and religion;
(b) freedom of thought, belief, opinion and expression, including freedom of the press and other media of communication;
(c) freedom of peaceful assembly; and
(d) freedom of association
The practice of religion is generally considered a private matter throughout society and the state.[402] Rates of religious adherence have steadily decreased from the 1970s to the 2020s.[398] With Christianity in decline after having once been central and integral to Canadian culture and daily life,[403] Canada has become a post-Christian, secular state.[404][405][406][407] The majority of Canadians consider religion to be unimportant in their daily lives,[398][408] but still believe in God.[409]
Canada's culture draws influences from its broad range of constituent nationalities and policies that promote a "just society" are constitutionally protected.[414][415][416] Since the 1960s, Canada has emphasized equality and inclusiveness for all its people.[417][418][419]The official state policy of multiculturalism is often cited as one of Canada's significant accomplishments[420] and a key distinguishing element of Canadian identity.[421][422] In Quebec, cultural identity is strong and there is a French Canadian culture that is distinct from English Canadian culture.[423] As a whole, Canada is in theory a cultural mosaic of regional ethnic subcultures.[424][425]
Historically, Canada has been influenced by British, French, and Indigenous cultures and traditions. Through their language, art, and music, Indigenous peoples continue to influence the Canadian identity.[432] During the 20th century, Canadians with African, Caribbean, and Asian nationalities have added to the Canadian identity and its culture.[433]Canadian humour is an integral part of the Canadian identity and is reflected in its folklore, literature, music, art, and media. The primary characteristics of Canadian humour are irony, parody, and satire.[434]
Themes of nature, pioneers, trappers, and traders played an important part in the early development of Canadian symbolism.[436] Modern symbols emphasize the country's geography, cold climate, lifestyles, and the Canadianization of traditional European and Indigenous symbols.[437] The use of the maple leaf as a Canadian symbol dates to the early 18th century. The maple leaf is depicted on Canada's current and previous flags and on the Arms of Canada.[438] Canada's official tartan, known as the "maple leaf tartan", has four colours that reflect the colours of the maple leaf as it changes through the seasons—green in the spring, gold in the early autumn, red at the first frost, and brown after falling.[439] The Arms of Canada are closely modelled after those of the United Kingdom, with French and distinctive Canadian elements replacing or added to those derived from the British version.[440]
Canadian literature is often divided into French- and English-language literatures, which are rooted in the literary traditions of France and Britain, respectively.[446] The earliest Canadian narratives were of travel and exploration.[447] This progressed into three major themes that can be found within historical Canadian literature: nature, frontier life, and Canada's position within the world, all three of which tie into the garrison mentality.[448] In recent decades, Canada's literature has been strongly influenced by immigrants from around the world.[449] Since the 1980s, Canada's ethnic and cultural diversity has been openly reflected in its literature.[450] By the 1990s, Canadian literature was viewed as some of the world's best.[450]
Canadian mass media, both print and digital, and in both official languages, is largely dominated by a "handful of corporations".[461] The largest of these corporations is the country's national public broadcaster, the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, which also plays a significant role in producing domestic cultural content, operating its own radio and TV networks in both English and French.[462] In addition to the CBC, some provincial governments offer their own public educational TV broadcast services as well, such as TVOntario and Télé-Québec.[463]
Non-news media content in Canada, including film and television, is influenced both by local creators as well as by imports from the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, and France.[464] In an effort to reduce the amount of foreign-made media, government interventions in television broadcasting can include both regulation of content and public financing.[465]Canadian tax laws limit foreign competition in magazine advertising.[466]
Art in Canada is marked by thousands of years of habitation by its indigenous peoples.[467] Historically, the Catholic Church was the primary patron of art in New France and early Canada, especially Quebec,[468] and, in later times, artists have combined British, French, Indigenous, and American artistic traditions, at times embracing European styles while working to promote nationalism.[469] The nature of Canadian art reflects these diverse origins, as artists have taken their traditions and adapted these influences to reflect the reality of their lives in Canada.[470]
The Canadian government has played a role in the development of Canadian culture through the department of Canadian Heritage, by giving grants to art galleries,[471] as well as establishing and funding art schools and colleges across the country, and through the Canada Council for the Arts (established in 1957), the national public arts funder, helping artists, art galleries and periodicals, and thus contributing to the development of Canada's cultural works.[472] Since the 1950s, works of Inuit art have been given as gifts to foreign dignitaries by the Canadian government.[473]
↑ "Brokerage politics: A Canadian term for successful big tent parties that embody a pluralistic catch-all approach to appeal to the median Canadian voter ... adopting centrist policies and electoral coalitions to satisfy the short-term preferences of a majority of electors who are not located on the ideological fringe."[170][171] "The traditional brokerage model of Canadian politics leaves little room for ideology."[172][173][174][175]
↑ "The Royal Canadian Navy is composed of approximately 8,400 full-time sailors and 5,100 part-time sailors. The Army is composed of approximately 22,800 full-time soldiers, 18,700 reservists, and 5,000 Canadian Rangers. The Royal Canadian Air Force is composed of approximately 13,000 Regular Force personnel and 2,400 Air Reserve personnel."[249]
1 2 All citizens of Canada are classified as "Canadians" as defined by Canada's nationality laws. "Canadian" as an ethnic group has since 1996 been added to census questionnaires for possible ancestral origin or descent. "Canadian" was included as an example on the English questionnaire and "Canadien" as an example on the French questionnaire.[370] "The majority of respondents to this selection are from the eastern part of the country that was first settled. Respondents generally are visibly European (Anglophones and Francophones) and no longer self-identify with their ethnic ancestral origins. This response is attributed to a multitude or generational distance from ancestral lineage."[371][372]
↑ Indigenous peoples are not considered a visible minority in Statistics Canada calculations. Visible minorities are defined by Statistics Canada as "persons, other than aboriginal peoples, who are non-Caucasian in race or non-white in colour".[376]
Statistics Canada conducts a country-wide census that collects demographic data every five years on the first and sixth year of each decade. The 2021 Canadian census enumerated a total population of 36,991,981, an increase of around 5.2 percent over the 2016 figure, Between 2011 and May 2016, Canada's population grew by 1.7 million people, with immigrants accounting for two-thirds of the increase. Between 1990 and 2008, the population increased by 5.6 million, equivalent to 20.4 percent overall growth. The main driver of population growth is immigration, not fertility, and, to a lesser extent, natural growth.
The politics of Canada function within a framework of parliamentary democracy and a federal system of parliamentary government with strong democratic traditions. Canada is a constitutional monarchy, in which the monarch is head of state. In practice, the executive powers are directed by the Cabinet, a committee of ministers of the Crown responsible to the elected House of Commons of Canada and chosen and headed by the Prime Minister of Canada.
The economy of Canada is a highly developed mixed economy, with the world's eighth-largest economy as of 2022, and a nominal GDP of approximately US$2.221 trillion. It is one of the world's largest trading nations, with a highly globalized economy. In 2021, Canadian trade in goods and services reached $2.016 trillion. Canada's exports totalled over $637 billion, while its imported goods were worth over $631 billion, of which approximately $391 billion originated from the United States. In 2018, Canada had a trade deficit in goods of $22 billion and a trade deficit in services of $25 billion. The Toronto Stock Exchange is the ninth-largest stock exchange in the world by market capitalization, listing over 1,500 companies with a combined market capitalization of over US$2 trillion.
The culture of Canada embodies the artistic, culinary, literary, humour, musical, political and social elements that are representative of Canadians. Throughout Canada's history, its culture has been influenced by European culture and traditions, mostly by the British and French, and by its own indigenous cultures. Over time, elements of the cultures of Canada's immigrant populations have become incorporated to form a Canadian cultural mosaic. Certain segments of Canada's population have, to varying extents, also been influenced by American culture due to shared language, significant media penetration and geographic proximity.
The history of Canada covers the period from the arrival of the Paleo-Indians to North America thousands of years ago to the present day. Prior to European colonization, the lands encompassing present-day Canada were inhabited for millennia by Indigenous peoples, with distinct trade networks, spiritual beliefs, and styles of social organization. Some of these older civilizations had long faded by the time of the first European arrivals and have been discovered through archeological investigations.
Canada has ten provinces and three territories that are sub-national administrative divisions under the jurisdiction of the Canadian Constitution. In the 1867 Canadian Confederation, three provinces of British North America—New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and the Province of Canada —united to form a federation, becoming a fully independent country over the next century. Over its history, Canada's international borders have changed several times as it has added territories and provinces, making it the world's second-largest country by area.
Canadian Confederation was the process by which three British North American provinces—the Province of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick—were united into one federation called the Dominion of Canada, on July 1, 1867. Upon Confederation, Canada consisted of four provinces: Ontario and Quebec, which had been split out from the Province of Canada, and the provinces of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. Over the years since Confederation, Canada has seen numerous territorial changes and expansions, resulting in the current number of ten provinces and three territories.
The Royal Proclamation of 1763 was issued by King George III on 7 October 1763. It followed the Treaty of Paris (1763), which formally ended the Seven Years' War and transferred French territory in North America to Great Britain. The Proclamation forbade all settlements west of a line drawn along the Appalachian Mountains, which was delineated as an Indian Reserve. Exclusion from the vast region of Trans-Appalachia created discontent between Britain and colonial land speculators and potential settlers. The proclamation and access to western lands was one of the first significant areas of dispute between Britain and the colonies and would become a contributing factor leading to the American Revolution. The 1763 proclamation line is situated similar to the Eastern Continental Divide, extending from Georgia to the divide's northern terminus near the middle of the northern border of Pennsylvania, where it intersects the northeasterly St. Lawrence Divide, and extends further through New England.
The Liberal Party of Canada is a federal political party in Canada. The party espouses the principles of liberalism, and generally sits at the centre to centre-left of the Canadian political spectrum, with their rival, the Conservative Party, positioned to their right and the New Democratic Party, who at times aligned itself with the Liberals during minority governments, positioned to their left. The party is described as "big tent", practising "brokerage politics", attracting support from a broad spectrum of voters. The Liberal Party is the longest-serving and oldest active federal political party in the country, and has dominated federal politics of Canada for much of its history, holding power for almost 70 years of the 20th century. As a result, it has sometimes been referred to as Canada's "natural governing party".
The legal system of Canada is pluralist: its foundations lie in the English common law system, the French civil law system, and Indigenous law systems developed by the various Indigenous Nations.
The foreign relations of Canada are Canada's relations with other governments and nations. Canada is recognized as a middle power for its role in international affairs with a tendency to pursue multilateral solutions. Canada's foreign policy based on international peacekeeping and security is carried out through coalitions and international organizations, and through the work of numerous federal institutions. Canada's peacekeeping role during the 20th century has played a major role in its global image. The strategy of the Canadian government's foreign aid policy reflects an emphasis to meet the Millennium Development Goals, while also providing assistance in response to foreign humanitarian crises.
Religion in Canada encompasses a wide range of groups and beliefs. Christianity is the largest religion in Canada, with Catholicism being its largest denomination. Christians, representing 53.3% of the population in 2021, are followed by people having no religion at 34.6% of the total population. Other faiths include Islam (4.9%), Hinduism (2.3%), Sikhism (2.1%), Buddhism (1.0%), Judaism (0.9%), Indigenous spirituality (0.2%) and Jainism (0.1%).
Canada ranks 37th by population, comprising about 0.5% of the world's total, with over 39 million Canadians as of 2022. Being, however, the fourth-largest country by land area, the vast majority of the country is sparsely inhabited, with most of its population south of the 55th parallel north and just over 60 percent of Canadians live in just two provinces: Ontario and Quebec. Though Canada's population density is low, many regions in the south, such as the Quebec City–Windsor Corridor, have population densities higher than several European countries. Canada has six population centres with more than one million people: Toronto, Montreal, Vancouver, Calgary, Edmonton and Ottawa.
Poverty in Canada refers to the state or condition in which a person or household lacks essential resources—financial or otherwise—to maintain a modest standard of living in their community.
Canadians are people identified with the country of Canada. This connection may be residential, legal, historical or cultural. For most Canadians, many of these connections exist and are collectively the source of their being Canadian.
Multiculturalism in Canada was officially adopted by the government during the 1970s and 1980s. The Canadian federal government has been described as the instigator of multiculturalism as an ideology because of its public emphasis on the social importance of immigration. The 1960s Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism is often referred to as the origin of modern political awareness of multiculturalism, resulting in Canada being one of the most multicultural nations in the world. The official state policy of multiculturalism is often cited as one of Canada's significant accomplishments, and a key distinguishing element of Canadian identity and Canadian values.
This is a bibliography of works on Canada.
This is a brief timeline of the history of Canada, comprising important social, economic, political, military, legal, and territorial changes and events in Canada and its predecessor states.
Michael J. Prince is a Canadian political scientist and public policy and administration scholar. Prince is the Lansdowne Professor of Social Policy at the University of Victoria in Canada.
The Bagot commission was a royal commission in the province of Canada convened by Charles Bagot, the province's governor-general. It proposed reforms to predecessor legislation of the Indian Act and to provincial administration of Indigenous affairs. The commission was active from 1842 to 1844.
References
↑ "Royal Anthem". Government of Canada. August 11, 2017. Retrieved October 8, 2022.
↑ Thornton, Russell (2000). "Population history of Native North Americans". In Haines, Michael R; Steckel, Richard Hall (eds.). A population history of North America. Cambridge University Press. pp.13, 380. ISBN978-0-521-49666-7.
↑ O'Donnell, C. Vivian (2008). "Native Populations of Canada". In Bailey, Garrick Alan (ed.). Indians in Contemporary Society. Handbook of North American Indians. Vol.2. Government Printing Office. p.285. ISBN978-0-16-080388-8.
↑ Allaire, Gratien (May 2007). "From 'Nouvelle-France' to 'Francophonie canadienne': a historical survey". International Journal of the Sociology of Language. 2007 (185): 25–52. doi:10.1515/IJSL.2007.024. S2CID144657353.
↑ Romney, Paul (Spring 1989). "From Constitutionalism to Legalism: Trial by Jury, Responsible Government, and the Rule of Law in the Canadian Political Culture". Law and History Review. 7 (1): 121–174. doi:10.2307/743779. JSTOR743779. S2CID147047853.
↑ Mulvale, James P (July 11, 2008). "Basic Income and the Canadian Welfare State: Exploring the Realms of Possibility". Basic Income Studies. 3 (1). doi:10.2202/1932-0183.1084. S2CID154091685.
↑ Mackey, Eva (2002). The house of difference: cultural politics and national identity in Canada. University of Toronto Press. p.57. ISBN978-0-8020-8481-1.
↑ Landry, Rodrigue; Forgues, Éric (May 2007). "Official language minorities in Canada: an introduction". International Journal of the Sociology of Language. 2007 (185): 1–9. doi:10.1515/IJSL.2007.022. S2CID143905306.
↑ Légaré, André (2008). "Canada's Experiment with Aboriginal Self-Determination in Nunavut: From Vision to Illusion". International Journal on Minority and Group Rights. 15 (2–3): 335–367. doi:10.1163/157181108X332659. JSTOR24674996.
↑ Munroe, HD (2009). "The October Crisis Revisited: Counterterrorism as Strategic Choice, Political Result, and Organizational Practice". Terrorism and Political Violence. 21 (2): 288–305. doi:10.1080/09546550902765623. S2CID143725040.
↑ Etkin, David; Haque, CE; Brooks, Gregory R (April 30, 2003). An Assessment of Natural Hazards and Disasters in Canada. Springer. pp.569, 582, 583. ISBN978-1-4020-1179-5.
↑ "Wild Species 2015: The General Status of Species in Canada"(PDF). National General Status Working Group: 1. Canadian Endangered Species Conservation Council. 2016. p.2. The new estimate indicates that there are about 80,000 known species in Canada, excluding viruses and bacteria
↑ Christopher Cochrane (2010). Left/Right Ideology and Canadian Politics. Canadian Journal of Political Science / Revue Canadienne De Science Politique, 43(3), 583–605. Retrieved January 21, 2021,
↑ Brooks, Stephen (2004). Canadian Democracy: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. p.265. ISBN978-0-19-541806-4. Two historically dominant political parties have avoided ideological appeals in favour of a flexible centrist style of politics that is often labelled brokerage politics
39,566,248 [3] (37th)
$2.385 trillion [5] (15th)
$2.090 trillion [5] (9th)
30.3 [6] 
