Optometry is a specialized health care profession that involves examining the eyes and related structures for defects or abnormalities. Optometrists are health care professionals who typically provide comprehensive eye care.
In the United States of America and Canada, optometrists are those that hold a Doctor of Optometry degree. They are trained and licensed to practice medicine for eye related conditions, in addition to providing refractive (optical) eye care. Within their scope of practice, optometrists are considered physicians and bill medical insurance(s) (example: Medicare) accordingly.
In the United Kingdom, optometrists may also provide some medical care (e.g. prescribe some medications) for eye-related conditions in addition to providing refractive care. The Doctor of Optometry degree is rarer in the UK.
Many optometrists participate in academic research for eye-related conditions and diseases. Optometrists receive training in refraction and monitoring of common uncomplicated eye conditions. They are not trained in any forms of surgery or laser procedures. Ophthalmologists are medical doctors and surgeons who typically hold a four-year college degree, a four-year medical degree, and at least four years of residency training after medical school.
Etymology
The term "optometry" comes from the Greek words ὄψις (opsis; "view") and μέτρον (metron; "something used to measure", "measure", "rule"). The word entered the language when the instrument for measuring vision was called an optometer, (before the terms phoropter or refractor were used). The root word opto is a shortened form derived from the Greek word ophthalmos meaning, "eye." Like most healthcare professions, the education and certification of optometrists are regulated in most countries. Optometric professionals and optometry-related organizations interact with governmental agencies, other healthcare professionals, and the community to deliver eye and vision care.[citation needed]
Definition of optometry and optometrist
An optometrist examining the eyes of a patient with a slit lamp biomicroscope
Optometry is a healthcare profession that is autonomous, educated, and regulated (licensed/registered), and optometrists are the primary healthcare practitioners of the eye and visual system who provide comprehensive eye and vision care, which includes refraction and dispensing, detection/diagnosis and management of disease in the eye, and the rehabilitation of conditions of the visual system.[2]
History
Page 423 from "A treatise on the eye, the manner and phaenomena of vision" by William Porterfield, Published 1759 in Edinburgh. In this book the word "optometer" appears for the first time.
Optometric history is tied to the development of[citation needed]
vision science (related areas of medicine, microbiology, neurology, physiology, psychology, etc.)
The history of optometry can be traced back to the early studies on optics and image formation by the eye. The origins of optical science (optics, as taught in a basic physics class) date back a few thousand years as evidence of the existence of lenses for decoration has been found in Greece and the Netherlands.[citation needed]
It is unknown when the first spectacles were made. The British scientist and historian Sir Joseph Needham, in his Science and Civilization in China, reported the earliest mention of spectacles was in Venetian guild regulations c.1300. He suggested that the occasional claim that spectacles were invented in China may have come from a paper by German-American anthropologist Berthold Laufer. Per Needham, the paper by Laufer had many inconsistencies, and that the references in the document used by Laufer were not in the original copies but added during the Ming dynasty. Early Chinese sources mention the eyeglasses were imported.[3]
Research by David A. Goss in the United States shows they may have originated in the late 13th century in Italy as stated in a manuscript from 1305 where a monk from Pisa named Rivalto stated "It is not yet 20 years since there was discovered the art of making eyeglasses".[4] Spectacles were manufactured in Italy, Germany, and the Netherlands by 1300. Needham stated spectacles were first made shortly after 1286.[5]
In 1907, Laufer stated in his history of spectacles 'the opinion that spectacles originated in India is of the greatest probability and that spectacles must have been known in India earlier than in Europe'.[6][7] However, as already mentioned, Joseph Needham showed that the references Laufer cited were not in the older and best versions of the document Laufer used, leaving his claims unsupported.
In Sri Lanka, it is well-documented [citation needed]that during the reign of King Bhuvanekabahu the IV (AD 1346 – 1353) of the Gampola period the ancient tradition of optical lens making with a natural stone called Diyatarippu was given royal patronage. A few of the craftsmen still live and practice in the original hamlet given to the exponents of the craft by royal decree. But the date of King Bhuvanekabahu is decades after the mention of spectacles in the Venetian guild regulations [8] and after the 1306 sermon by Dominican friar Giordano da Pisa, where da Pisa said the invention of spectacles was both recent and that he had personally met the inventor [9]
The German word brille (eyeglasses) is derived from Sanskritvaidurya.[10] Etymologically, brille is derived from beryl, Latin beryllus, from Greek beryllos, from Prakritverulia, veluriya, from Sanskrit vaidurya, of Dravidian origin from the city of Velur (modern Belur). Medieval Latin berillus was also applied to eyeglasses, hence German brille, from Middle High German berille, and French besicles (plural) spectacles, altered from old French bericle.[11]
Benito Daza de Valdes published the first full book on opticians in 1623, where he mentioned the use and fitting of eyeglasses.[12] In 1692, William Molyneux wrote a book on optics and lenses where he stated his ideas on myopia and problems related to close-up vision. The scientists Claudius Ptolemy and Johannes Kepler also contributed to the creation of optometry. Kepler discovered how the retina in the eye creates vision. From 1773 until around 1829, Thomas Young discovered the disability of astigmatism and it was George Biddell Airy who designed glasses to correct that problem that included sphero-cylindrical lens.[13]
Although the term optometer appeared in the 1759 book A Treatise on the Eye: The Manner and Phenomena of Vision by Scottish physician William Porterfield, it was not until the early twentieth century in the United States and Australia that "optometry" began to be used to describe the profession. By the early twenty-first century, however, marking the distinction with dispensing opticians, it had become the internationally accepted term.
Diseases
A partial list of the common diseases optometrists diagnose/manage:[citation needed]
Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is a medical technological platform used to assess ocular structures. The information is then used by eye doctors to assess staging of pathological processes and confirm clinical diagnoses. Subsequent OCT scans are used to assess the efficacy of managing diabetic retinopathy, age-related macular degeneration, and glaucoma
Training, licensing, representation and scope of practice
Optometry is officially recognized in many jurisdictions.[14] Most have regulations concerning education and practice. Optometrists, like many other healthcare professionals, are required to participate in ongoing continuing education courses to stay current on the latest standards of care.
Africa
In 1993 there were five countries in Africa with optometric teaching institutes: Sudan, Ghana, Nigeria, South Africa and Tanzania.[15] Ethiopia started in 2002 at UoG. There are currently two universities (MMUST & Kaimosi Friends University) offering Bachelor of Science in Optometry and Vision Sciences in Kenya.
Sudan
Sudan's major institution for the training of optometrists is the Faculty of Optometry and Visual Sciences (FOVS), originally established in 1954 as the Institute of Optometry in Khartoum; the Institute joined with the Ministry of Higher Education in 1986 as the High Institute of Optometry, and was ultimately annexed into Alneelain University in 1997 when it was renamed the FOVS. The FOVS offers several programs: a BSc in Optometry, which takes 5 years and includes sub-specialization in orthoptics, contact lenses, ocular photography, or ocular neurology; a BSc in Ophthalmic Technology, requiring 4 years of training; and a BSc in Optical Dispensary, completed in 4 years. The FOVS also offers MSc and PhD degrees in optometry. The FOVS is the only institute of its kind in Sudan and was the first institution of higher education in Optometry in the Middle East and Africa.[citation needed] In 2010, Alneelain University Eye Hospital was established as part of the FOVS to expand training capacity and to serve broader Sudanese community.
Ghana
The Ghana Optometric Association (GOA) regulates the practice of Optometry in Ghana. After the six-year training at any of the two universities offering the course, the O.D degree is awarded. The new optometrist must write a qualifying exam, after which the optometrist is admitted as a member of the GOA, leading to the award of the title MGOA.
In Nigeria, optometry is regulated by the Optometrists and Dispensing Opticians Registration Board of Nigeria established under the Optometrists and Dispensing Opticians (Registration etc.) Act of 1989 (Cap O9 Laws of Federation of Nigeria 2004). The Board publishes from time to time lists of approved qualifications and training institutions in the federal government gazette.[17]
Optometry education began at the University of Benin in 1970, initially as a four-year bachelor's degree program, making it the first optometry school in West Africa. In 1980, Abia State University introduced the Doctor of Optometry program. The University of Benin upgraded its program to the Doctor of Optometry degree in 1994. Subsequently, Doctor of Optometry programs were established at other public and private universities. The Doctor of Optometry degree is awarded after six years of training at one of the accredited universities located in Edo, Imo, Kano, Kwara, and Abia states.[18][19]
Asia
Bangladesh
Optometry was first introduced in Bangladesh in 2010 at the Institute of Community Ophthalmology under the Faculty of Medicine, University of Chittagong. This institute offers a four-year Bachelor of Science in Optometry (B.Optom) course. As of 2017, there are 200 graduate optometrists in Bangladesh.[20] The association that controls the quality of optometry practice across the country is the Optometrists Association of Bangladesh, which is also a country member of the World Council of Optometry (WCO).
In 2018, Chittagong Medical University was established, and the BSc in Optometry course was transferred to this university.
In Bangladesh, optometrists perform primary eye care like diagnosis and primary management of some ocular diseases, prescribe eye glasses, low vision rehabilitation, provide vision therapy, contact lens practice and all type of orthoptic evaluations and therapies.
Registration from Government’s Health Ministry is still pending for unknown reason.
China
In China, optometric education only began in 1988 at the Wenzhou Medical University. Since that time, the discipline and the profession have emerged as a five-year, medically based program within the medical education system of China. Students in the program receive the highest level of training in Optometry and are provided with the credentials needed to assume positions of leadership in China's medical education and health care systems. In 2000, the Ministry of Health formally accepted Optometry as a subspecialty of medicine.
Hong Kong
The Optometrists Board of the Supplementary Medical Professions Council regulates the profession in Hong Kong.[21] Optometrists are listed in separate parts of the register based on their training and ability. Registrants are subject to restrictions depending on the part they are listed in.[22] Those who pass the examination on refraction conducted by the Board may be registered to Part III, thereby restricted to practice only work related to refraction. Those who have a Higher Certificate in Optometry or have passed the Board's optometry examination may be registered to Part II, thereby restricted in their use of diagnostic agents, but may otherwise practice freely. Part I optometrists may practice without restrictions and generally hold a bachelor's degree or a Professional Diploma.[23]
There are around 2000 optometrists registered in Hong Kong, 1000 of which are Part I.[24] There is one Part I optometrist to about 8000 members of the public. The Polytechnic University runs the only optometry school. It produces around 35 Part I optometrists a year.[25]
India
In 2010, it was estimated that India needed 115,000 optometrists. In contrast, India has approximately 15,000 optometrists Bachelor of Optometry (4-year trained as per University Grant Commission Notification 5 July 2014 ) and 50,000 Diploma in Optometry (2-year trained diploma conferred By State Medical Faculty). In order to prevent blindness or visual impairment more well-trained optometrists are required in India.[26] The definition of optometry differs considerably in different countries.[27] India needs more optometry schools offering four-year degree courses with a syllabus similar to that in force in those countries where the practice of optometry is statutorily regulated and well established with an internationally accepted definition.
In 2013, it was reported in the Indian Journal of Ophthalmology that poor spectacle compliance amongst school children in rural Pune resulted in significant vision loss.[28]
In 2015, it was reported that optometrists need to be more involved in providing core optometry services like binocular vision and low vision.[29]
History of Optometry Education in India
1. In the beginning optometry education started in India during British rule in 1927, the first college was established in West Bengal with the name The Indian College of Optics and the certification was diploma in optometry.[30]
After the independence of India, the Directorate General Of Health Services (DGHS) Government of India in 1958, introduced the first (by the Central Government of india) optometry education in the form of a Diploma in Optometry with the collaboration of UP State Medical Faculty, Government Of Utter Pradesh, under the 2nd 5-year plan. The government offered diplomas in optometry courses of two years duration conferred by State Medical Faculties, empowered under the Indian Medical Degree Act, 1916 (as per Government of India Notification Department of Education, Health and Lands No,1964 dated 16 December 1926, effective from 15 November 1929). The first two schools of optometry were established at Gandhi Eye Hospital, Aligarh in Uttar Pradesh, (the first School of Optometry started by Prof.(Dr) Mohan Lal) and at Sarojini Devi Eye Hospital, Hyderabad in Telangana.
2. Subsequently, four more schools were opened across India, situated at Sitapur Eye Hospital, Sitapur in Uttar Pradesh; Chennai (formerly Madras) in Tamil Nadu; Bengalooru (formerly Bangalore) in Karnataka; and the Regional Institute of Ophthalmology, Thiruvananthapuram (formerly Trivandrum) in Kerala.[31]
3. The Elite School of Optometry (ESO) was established in 1985 in Chennai (The first school of optometry/college started by Prof.(Dr) S. Badrinath) and was the first to offer a four-year degree course Baccalaureate of Science in Optometry (B.S. Optometry).[30] The degree was conferred only by the Shanker Netraliya (Elite School of Optometry and the first principal was Dr. E. Vaithilingam) instead of any University or State Government Authority etc. After that, the B.S. in Optometry (under off-campus mode) was affiliated with Bitis Pilani University, Rajasthan, and now the same course re-affiliated with the new University of State of Tamilnadu, India.
4. The School of Optometry at Bharati Vidyapeeth Deemed University, Pune, established in 1998, was the first to offer a four-year degree course and confer a Bachelor of Clinical Optometry. The university also provided a pathway for diploma holders to upgrade their education to a Degree of Optometry through a lateral entry program. Also, the first 2 years of the Master of Optometry course were introduced in 2003.
5. AIIMS-Delhi introduced a two-year Diploma in Clinical Technology-Optometry (D.C.T. in Optometry) in 1973 and then upgraded the Diploma course to a 3-year B.Sc. (H) in Ophthalmic Technique in 1975. After that, the nomenclature to degree and course of duration changed from B.Sc. (H) to Bachelor of Optometry, four-year duration as per UGC Notification 2014 in the year new first batch of students passed out in the year 2019.
6. At present, there are more than fifty schools of optometry and colleges in India, and over 100 universities confer Bachelor of Optometry (B.Optom) and Master of Optometry (M.Optom) professional degrees. Additionally, Doctor of Philosophy degrees in Optometry are awarded by universities recognized by the University Grants Commission (India), a statutory body responsible for maintaining standards of higher education in India.[32]
Optometrists across India are encouraged to register under the National Commission for Allied and Healthcare Professions Act, 2021, which was enacted by the Parliament of India in 2021. The Delhi Optometrists Association (DOA) has endorsed all updates related to optometry education in India.
The Association of Malaysian Optometrists (AMO) is the only body that represents the Malaysian optometrist profession. All of the members are either local or overseas graduates in the field of optometry.[34]
Pakistan
Optometry is taught as a five/four-year Doctor/ Bachelors/ Bachelors with Honors course at many institutions notable among which are Department of Optometry & Vision Sciences (DOVS) FAHS, ICBS, Lahore, Pakistan Institute of Community Ophthalmology (PICO) Peshawar, Pakistan institute of Rehabilitation science Isra University campus Islamabad (PIRS), College of Ophthalmology & Allied Vision Sciences (COAVS) Lahore and Al-Shifa Institute of Ophthalmology Islamabad. After graduation, the optometrists can join a four-tiered service delivery level (Centre of Excellence, Tertiary/Teaching, District headquarter and sub-district /Tehsil headquarters). M.Phil. in Optometry is also available at select institutions such as King Edward Medical University, Lahore. Department of Optometry & Vision Sciences (DOVS) FAHS, ICBS, Lahore started bridging programmes for Bachelors/ Bachelors with Honors to become Doctor of Optometry OD, Post Professional Doctor of Optometry (PP-OD), Transitional Doctor of Optometry (t-OD). Optometry is not yet a regulated field in Pakistan as there is no professional licensing board or authority responsible for issuing practise licenses to qualified optometrists. This creates difficulty for Pakistani optometrists who wish to register abroad. The University of Lahore has recently launched Doctor of Optometry (OD). Imam Hussain Medical University also launched the Doctor of Optometry Program. The chairman of Imam Hussain Medical University, Sabir Hussain Babachan, vowed to regulate the OD curriculum according to international standards.
Philippines
Optometry is regulated by the Professional Regulation Commission of the Philippines. To be eligible for licensing, each candidate must have satisfactorily completed a doctor of optometry course at an accredited institution and demonstrate good moral character with no previous record of professional misconduct. Professional organizations of optometry in the Philippines include Optometric Association of the Philippines[35] and Integrated Philippine Association of Optometrists, Inc. (IPAO).
Saudi Arabia
In Saudi Arabia, optometrists must complete a five-year doctor of optometry degree from Qassim University and King Saud University. Also, they must complete a one-year residency.
The Law of Optometrists was established in Taiwan in 2015; since then, optometry students after obtaining optometry degrees, need to pass the National Optometry Examination of Taiwan to be registered as optometrists.[38][39] There are approximately 4,000 optometrists in Taiwan as of 2020, and around 400 new optometrists register annunally (2018-2020).[40]
Thailand
Since late 1990, Thailand has set a goal to provide more than 600 optometrists to meet the minimal public demands and international standards in vision care. There are more than three university degree programs in Thailand. Each program accepts students that have completed grade 12th or the third year in high school (following US education model). These programs offer "Doctor of Optometry" degree to graduates from the program that will take six years to complete the courses. Practising optometrists will also be required to pass licensing examination (three parts examinations) that is administrated through a committee under the Ministry of Public Health.
As of 2015, the number of practicing optometrists in Thailand is still fewer than one hundred. However, it has projected that the number of practising optometrists in Thailand will greatly increase within the next ten years. In the theoretical scenario, the number of optometrists should be able to meet minimal public demands around 2030 or earlier.
Europe
Since the formation of the European Union, "there exists a strong movement, headed by the Association of European Schools and Colleges of Optometry (AESCO), to unify the profession by creating a European-wide examination for optometry" and presumably also standardized practice and education guidelines within EU countries.[41] The first examinations of the new European Diploma in Optometry were held in 1998 and this was a landmark event for optometry in continental Europe.[42]
France
As of July 2003, there was no regulatory framework and optometrists were sometimes trained by completing an apprenticeship at an ophthalmologists' private office.[43]
Germany
Optometric tasks are performed by ophthalmologists and professionally trained and certified opticians.
Greece
Hellenic Ministry of Education founded the first department of Optometry at Technological Educational Institute of Patras in 2007. After protests from the department of Optics at Technological Educational Institute of Athens (the only department of Optics in Greece, until 2006), the Government changed the names of the departments to "Optics and Optometry" and included lessons in both optics and optometry. Optometrists-Opticians have to complete a 4-year undergraduate honours degree. Then the graduates can be admitted to postgraduate courses in Optometry at universities around the world.
Since 2015, a Master of Science (MSc) course in Optometry is offered by the Technological Educational Institute of Athens.
The Institute of Vision and Optics (IVO) of the University of Crete focuses on the sciences of vision and is active in the fields of research, training, technology development and provision of medical services. Professor Ioannis Pallikaris has received numerous awards and recognitions for the institute's contribution to ophthalmology. In 1989 he performed the first LASIK procedure on a human eye.
Hungary
Optometrist education takes 4 years in the medical universities in Hungary, and they will get a Bachelor of Science degree. They work in networks and retail stores and private optics, very few are located in the Health Care care system as ophthalmologists as an assistant.[44]
Ireland
The profession of Optometry has been represented for over a century by the Association of Optometrists, Ireland [AOI]. In Ireland an optometrist must first complete a four-year degree in optometry at Dublin Institute of Technology. Following successful completion of the degree, an optometrist must then complete professional qualifying examinations to enter the register of the Opticians Board [Bord na Radharcmhaistoiri]. Optometrists must be registered with the Board to practice in the Republic of Ireland.[citation needed]
The A.O.I. runs a comprehensive continuing education and professional development program on behalf of Irish optometrists. The legislation governing optometry was drafted in 1956. Some feel that the legislation restricts optometrists from using their full range of skills, training and equipment for the benefit of the Irish public. The amendment to the Act in 2003 addressed one of the most significant restrictions: the use of cycloplegic drugs to examine children.[citation needed]
Italy
In Italy Optometry is an unregulated profession. It is taught at seven universities: Padua, Turin, Milan, Salento,[45] Florence, Naples and Rome, as three years course (like a BSc) of "Scienze e tecnologie fisiche" as a sector of the Physics Department. Additionally, courses are available at some private institutions (as at Vinci Institute near Firenze) that offer advanced professional education for already qualified opticians (most of the Italian optometrists are also qualified opticians, i.e. "ottico abilitato"). In the last thirty years several verdicts from High Court (Cassazione) proof that optometry is a free practice and has truly education path.[46]
Norway
In Norway, the optometric profession has been regulated as a healthcare profession since 1988. After a three-year bachelor program, one can practice basic optometry. At least one year in clinical practice qualify for a post-degree half-year sandwich course in contact lens fitting, which is regulated as a healthcare speciality. A separate regulation for the use of diagnostic drugs in optometric practice was introduced in 2004.
Russia
In Russia, optometry education has been accredited by the Federal Agency of Health and Social Development.[citation needed] There are only two educational institutions that teach optometry in Russia: Saint Petersburg Medical Technical College, formerly known as St. Petersburg College of Medical Electronics and Optics, and The Helmholtz Research Institute for Eye Diseases. They both belong and are regulated by the Ministry of Health. The optometry program is a four-year program. It includes one to two science foundation years, one yer focused on clinical and proficiency skills, and one year of clinical rotations in hospitals. Graduates take college/state examinations and then receive a specialist diploma. This diploma is valid for only five years and must be renewed every five years after receiving additional training at state-accredited programs.
The scope of practice for optometrists in Russia includes refraction, contact lens fitting, spectacles construction and lens fitting (dispensing), low vision aids, foreign body removal, referrals to other specialists after clinical condition diagnoses (management of diseases in the eye).
United Kingdom
Licensing
Optometrists in the United Kingdom are regulated by the General Optical Council under the Opticians Act 1989 and distinguished from medical practitioners.[47] Registration with the GOC is mandatory to practice optometry in the UK. Members of the College of Optometrists (incorporated by a Royal Charter granted by Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II)[48] may use the suffix MCOptom.
The National Health Service provides free sight tests and spectacle vouchers for children and those on very low incomes. The elderly and those with some chronic conditions like diabetes get free periodic tests.[49] Treatment for eye conditions such as glaucoma and cataracts is free and checked for during normal eye examinations.
Training
In the United Kingdom, optometrists have to complete a 4 year undergraduate honours degree followed by a minimum of a one-year "pre-registration period", (internship), where they complete clinical practice under the supervision of a qualified and experienced practitioner. During this year the pre-registration candidate is given a number of quarterly assessments, often including temporary posting at a hospital, and on successfully passing all of these assessments, a final one-day set of examinations (details correct for candidates from 2006 onwards). Following successful completion of these assessments and having completed one year's supervised practice, the candidate is eligible to register as an optometrist with the General Optical Council (GOC) and, should they so wish, are entitled to membership of the College of Optometrists. Twelve universities offer Optometry in the UK: Anglia Ruskin, Aston, Bradford, Cardiff, City, Glasgow Caledonian, Hertfordshire, Manchester, University of Plymouth, Ulster University at Coleraine, University of Portsmouth and University of the West of England.
Parts of this article (those related to list of universities appears very inaccurate) need to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.(April 2024)
In 2008 the UK moved forward to offer the Doctor of Optometry postgraduate program. This became available at the Institute of Optometry in London in partnership with London South Bank University.[50][51] The Doctor of Optometry postgraduate degree is also offered at one other UK institution.Aston University
Scope of Practice
In 1990, a survey of the opinions of British medical practitioners regarding the services provided by British optometrists was carried out by Agarwal[52] at City, University of London. A majority of respondents were in favour of optometrists extending their professional role by treating external eye conditions and prescribing broad-spectrum topical antibiotics through additional training and certification.
Since 2009, optometrists in the UK have been able to undertake additional postgraduate training and qualifications that allow them to prescribe medications to treat and manage eye conditions.[53] There are currently three registerable specialities:
Additional supply speciality - to write orders for, and supply in an emergency, a range of drugs in addition to those ordered or supplied by a normal optometrist.
Supplementary prescribing speciality - to manage a patient's clinical condition and prescribe medicines according to a clinical management plan set up in conjunction with an independent prescriber, such as a GP or ophthalmologist or qualified optometrist.
Independent prescribing specialty - to take responsibility for the clinical assessment of a patient, establish a diagnosis and determine the clinical management required, including prescribing where necessary.[54]
Optometrists in the United Kingdom are able to diagnose and manage most ocular diseases, and may also undertake further training to perform certain surgical procedures.
North America
A technician at Aviano Air Base Optometry Clinic measures the intraocular pressure of a patient with a handheld tonometer, July 7, 2015.
Canada
Training
In Canada, Doctors of Optometry typically complete four years of undergraduate studies followed by four to five years of optometry studies, accredited by the Accreditation Council on Optometric Education. There are two such schools of optometry located in Canada — the University of Waterloo and the Université de Montreal. Canada also recognizes degrees from the twenty US schools.
Licensing
In Canada, Doctors of Optometry must write national written and practical board exams. Additionally, optometrists are required to become licensed in the province in which they wish to practice. Regulation of professions is within provincial jurisdiction. Therefore, regulation of optometry is unique to individual provinces and territories. In Ontario, optometrists are licensed by the College of Optometrists of Ontario.
Representation
In Canada, the profession is represented by the Canadian Association of Optometrists. In the province of Ontario, the Ontario Association of Optometrists is the designated representative of optometrists to the provincial government.
Scope of Practice
Optometrists in Canada are trained and licensed to be primary eye care providers. They provide optical and medical eye care. They are able to diagnose and treat most eye diseases and can prescribe both topical and oral medications.[55] They can also undertake further qualifications in order to perform some surgical procedures.
United States
Optometrists or Optometry Doctors usually function as primary eye care providers - they have a degree in eye care. They provide comprehensive optical and medical eye care, but usually not surgery. They are trained and licensed to practice medicine for eye related conditions - prescribe topical medications (prescription eye drops), oral medications as well as administer diagnostic agents.[56][57][58] In some states, optometrists may also be licensed to perform certain types of eye surgery.[59]
Scope of practice
Optometrists provide optical and medical eye care. They prescribe corrective lenses to aid refractive errors (e.g. myopia, hyperopia, presbyopia, astigmatism, double vision). They manage vision development in children including amblyopia diagnosis/treatment. Some perform vision therapy. They are trained to diagnose and manage any eye disease and their associations with systemic health. Optometrists are trained and licensed to practice medicine for eye-related conditions (including bacterial/viral infections, inflammation, glaucoma, macular degeneration, and diabetic retinopathy). They can prescribe all topical medications (eye drops) and most oral medications (taken by mouth), including scheduled controlled substances. They may also remove ocular foreign bodies and order blood panels or imaging studies such as CT or MRI. Optometrists do not perform invasive surgery, however In Oklahoma and Louisiana, Optometrists may perform superficial surgeries within the anterior segment of the eye. Legislation permits Optometrists in Oklahoma and Kentucky to perform certain laser procedures.
Within their scope of practice optometrists are considered physicians and bill medical insurance plans accordingly.
Optometrists in the United States are regulated by state boards, which vary from state to state.
The Association of Regulatory Boards of Optometry (ARBO) assists these state board licensing agencies in regulating the practice of optometry.
Licensing
Optometrists must complete all course work and graduate from an accredited College of Optometry. This includes passage of all parts of the national board examinations as well as local jurisprudence examinations, which vary by state.
Education and Training
Optometrists typically complete four years of undergraduate studies followed by four years of Optometry school. Some complete a 5th year of training. Their program is highly specific to the eyes and related structures. Optometrists receive their medical eye training while enrolled in Optometry school and during internships. Training may take place in colleges of Optometry, hospitals, clinics and private practices. In many instances Optometry students and Ophthalmology residents will co-manage medical cases. Instructors may be Optometrists, professors or physicians. The program includes extensive classroom and clinical training in geometric, physical, physiological and ophthalmic optics, specialty contact lens evaluation, general anatomy, ocular anatomy, ocular disease, pharmacology, ocular pharmacology, neuroanatomy and neurophysiology of the visual system, pediatric visual development, gerontology, binocular vision, color vision, form, space, movement and vision perception, systemic disease, histology, microbiology, sensory and perceptual psychology, biochemistry, statistics and epidemiology.
Optometrists are required to obtain continuing education credit hours to maintain licensure - number of hours varies by state.
Optometrists prescribing schedule controlled substances are required to renew their DEA license every few years.
Oceania
Australia
Australia currently has six recognized courses in optometry, and one course seeking to obtain accreditation with the Optometry council of Australia and New Zealand:
Bachelor of Vision Science and Master of Optometry (BVisSci MOptom), Deakin University
Bachelor of Medical Science (Vision Science) and Master of Optometry, Flinders University
To support these courses the Australian College of Optometry provides clinical placements to undergraduate students from Australian Universities and abroad.
in 2016, almost 5000 optometrists in general practice were licensed with their regulatory body, the Optometry Board of Australia. Of these, approximately 2300 were registered with the scheduled medicines endorsement, which enables them to prescribe some medicines for the treatment of conditions of the eye.[62] The Optometrists Association of Australia works to protect the interests of optometrists in Australia.
New Zealand
New Zealand currently has one recognised course in optometry:
In July 2014, the Medicines Amendment Act 2013 and Misuse of Drugs Amendment Regulations 2014 came into effect. Among other things, the changes to the Act name optometrists as authorised prescribers. This change enables optometrists with a therapeutic pharmaceutical agent (TPA) endorsement to prescribe all medicines appropriate to their scope of practice, rather than limiting them to a list of medicines specified in the regulation; this recognises the safe and appropriate prescribing practice of optometrists over the previous nine years.[63]
South America
Brazil
The CBOO (Brazilian Council of Optics and Optometry), which is affiliated to the WCO (World Council of Optometry), represents Brazilian optometrists. In conjunction with organizations representative weight of Brazilian companies, including the National Commerce Confederation for goods, services and tourism (CNC), through the CBÓptica/CNC, its defence arm of the optometric and optical industry, are defending the right of free and independent practice of optometrists, even if it is against the interests of ophthalmologists.
The Federal Supreme Court (STF), the Brazilian Court of Justice and the Superior Court of Justice (STJ), another important National Court, ruled several processes granting inquestionable victories to ophthalmologists.
In Brazilian law, however, there is an explicit recommendation that the one prescribing corrective lenses are prohibited to sell them. This restricting rule to the ophthalmologists has to keep the optic shops away from Hospitals and Eye Care Clinics since 1930, and it has to be reviewed before any further regulation for the optometrists.
Colombia
In Colombia, optometry education has been accredited by the Ministry of Health. The last official revision to the laws regarding healthcare standards in the country was issued in 1992 through the Law 30.[64] Currently there are eight official universities that are entitled by ICFES to grant the optometrist certification. The first optometrists arrived in the country from North America and Europe c.1914. These professionals specialized in optics and refraction. In 1933, under Decrees 449 and 1291, the Colombian Government officially set the rules for the formation of professionals in the field of optometry. In 1966 La Salle University opened its first Faculty of Optometry after a recommendation from a group of professionals. At present optometrists are encouraged to keep up with new technologies through congresses and scholarships granted by the government or the private sector (such as Bausch & Lomb).
The British Optical Association (BOA) was founded in February 1895 as the first professional body for ophthalmic opticians (optometrists) in the world. The British Optical Association Museum and Library was founded in 1901; it retains the BOA name but is now part of the College of Optometrists, located in Craven Street, Charing Cross, central London.
An optician is an individual who fits eyeglasses or contact lenses by filling a refractive prescription from an optometrist or ophthalmologist. They are able to translate and adapt ophthalmic prescriptions, dispense products, and work with accessories. There are several specialties within the field.
The State University of New York College of Optometry is a public school of optometry in New York City. It is part of the State University of New York (SUNY) system and was established in 1971 as result of a legislative mandate of New York. It is located in midtown Manhattan in what was originally the Aeolian Building, which was built in 1912 for the Aeolian Company, a piano manufacturer. It is a center for research on vision and the only school of optometry in New York.
The Optometric Extension Program Foundation (OEPF) is an international, non-profit organization dedicated to the advancement of the discipline of optometry, with recent emphasis on behavioral optometry and vision therapy.
The American Optometric Association (AOA), founded in 1898, represents approximately 37,000 doctors of optometry, optometry students and para-optometric assistants and technicians in the United States.
An eye care professional is an individual who provides a service related to the eyes or vision. It is any healthcare worker involved in eye care, from one with a small amount of post-secondary training to practitioners with a doctoral level of education.
The Illinois College of Optometry (ICO) is a private optometry college in Chicago, Illinois. Graduating approximately 160 optometrists a year, it is the largest optometry college in the United States and the oldest continually operating educational facility dedicated solely to the teaching of optometrists. The college complex incorporates more than 366,000 square feet (34,000 m2) including an on-site eye care clinic, electronically enhanced lecture center, library, computerized clinical learning equipment, cafeteria, fitness center, and living facilities.
The School of Optometry and Vision Science is one of the professional schools at the University of Waterloo. It is a school within the university's Faculty of Science and is the larger of the two optometry schools in Canada. The School is the only English speaking Optometry School in the country; the Francophone Université de Montréal program operates in Quebec.
Optometry is a health care profession that provides comprehensive eye and vision care, which includes the diagnosis and management of eye diseases.
Marshall B. Ketchum University is a private university focused on graduate programs in healthcare and located in Fullerton, California. MBKU expanded from the Southern California College of Optometry which was founded in 1904. The university was officially established as a multidisciplinary university with the addition of School of PA Studies in 2011 and College of Pharmacy in 2013. Along with Hope International University, the campus bookends the north and south sides of the Cal State Fullerton campus respectively.
The Herbert Wertheim School of Optometry & Vision Science at the University of California, Berkeley is an optometry school at the University of California, Berkeley. It offers a graduate-level, four-year professional program leading to the Doctor of Optometry degree (OD), and a one-year, ACOE-accredited residency program in clinical optometry specialties. It is also the home department for the multidisciplinary Vision Science Group at UC Berkeley, whose graduate students earn either MS or PhD degrees.
The eye care system in Ghana can be said to be one in its infant or growing stages. Today there are less than 300 eye care professionals taking care of the eye needs of over 23 million Ghanaians.
Optometry is a relatively new field in eye care in Ghana.
Konrad Pesudovs is an Australian optometrist and outcomes researcher in ophthalmology; recognised as the leading optometrist researcher worldwide in terms of H-Index and total citations. He is SHARP Professor of Optometry and Vision Science at the University of New South Wales (2020-). He was the Foundation Chair of Optometry and Vision Science at Flinders University from 2009 to 2017.
The Association of Optometrists (AOP) is the leading representative membership organisation for optometrists in the United Kingdom.
Dean Evan Hart, O.D., M.A., M.S., B.S., A.A.S., F.A.A.O. is an American scientist, clinical optometrist, professor, and the founder of Woodbury Ophthalmic Group and Woodbury Optical Studio. Dean ran for Nassau County Legislature in 2015. He was a candidate for the New York State Assembly in the 15th Assembly District of the 2016 election. Hart also ran for town office in 2017.
Irvin M. Borish was an American optometrist who is widely considered "The Father of Modern Optometry". Even though he entered the field of optometry because his family could only afford to pay for two years of college, he left a lasting impression in the field. He wrote one of the most renowned textbooks of optometry, Clinical Refraction. He worked to create several educational and research institutions for optometry. He also lobbied tirelessly to establish optometry as a mainstream medical practice. His contribution to optometry has been recognized through prestigious awards and recognition from his peers.
Bachelor of Optometry is a four-year degree programme in the field of optometry, awarded upon graduation from an optometry school under a recognised university. Its curriculum is designed to impart knowledge related to eye and its connected organs, the correction of refractive errors, and the treatment and management of eye diseases. This degree comprises four years of education, including one year of clinical internship at a tertiary eye care center. This degree is the minimum required qualification to be called an optometrist and to practice optometry in several countries of the world.
The Optometrists and Dispensing Opticians Registration Board of Nigeria (ODORBN) is a government agency responsible for regulating the practice of optometry and dispensing opticianry in Nigeria. It was established by the Optometrists and Dispensing Opticians (Registration, etc.) decree of 1989, now cap 09 laws of the Federation of Nigeria 2004. The Board evaluates training quality to ensure practitioners acquire the necessary knowledge and skills for their practice, while also ensuring that practitioners conduct themselves lawfully and professionally in their daily activities.
↑ Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Part 1. page 120
↑ Laufer, Berthold (1907), Geschichte der Brille, Mitteilungen Zur Geschichte der Medizin und der Naturwissenschaften, no. 23, vi Bd., no.4, Leipzig,1907, pages 379-385
↑ Anon (2011), Eyecare for 11 million vision impaired children in India, Optometry and Vision Science, Volume 88, Number 12, page 1532.
↑ Agarwal, R. K. (1985), Optometry in the Indian sub-continent, Optometry Today, Volume 25, No. 14, page 475 (published by the Association of Optometrists, London, England)
↑ Hamakiotes DS, Thal LS (December 1991). "The unification of European optometry: how the profession will change after 1992". J Am Optom Assoc. 62 (12): 904–13. PMID1814983.
↑ Agarwal, R. (1998), European Diploma in Optometry, British Journal of Optometry and Dispensing, 6(3), 84.
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