According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the English name Russia first appeared in the 14th century, borrowed from Medieval Latin: Russia, used in the 11th century and frequently in 12th-century British sources, in turn derived from Russi, 'the Russians' and the suffix -ia.[22][23] In modern historiography, this state is usually denoted as Kievan Rus' after its capital city.[24] Another Medieval Latin name for Rus' was Ruthenia.[25]
In Russian, the current name of the country, Россия (Rossiya), comes from the Byzantine Greek name for Rus', Ρωσία (Rosía).[26] A new form of the name Rus', Росия (Rosiya), was borrowed from the Greek term and first attested in 1387.[27][failed verification] The name Rossiia appeared in Russian sources in the late 15th century, but until the end of the 17th century the country was more often referred to by its inhabitants as Rus', the Russian land (Russkaia zemlia), or the Muscovite state (Moskovskoe gosudarstvo), among other variations.[28][29][30] In 1721, Peter the Great changed the name of the state from Tsardom of Russia (Russian: Русское царство, romanized:Russkoye tsarstvo) or Tsardom of Muscovy (Russian: Московское царство, romanized:Moskovskoye tsarstvo)[31][32] to Russian Empire (Rossiiskaia imperiia).[28][30]
There are several words in Russian which translate to "Russians" in English. The noun and adjective русский, russkiy refers to ethnic Russians. The adjective российский, rossiiskiy denotes Russian citizens regardless of ethnicity. The same applies to the more recently coined noun россиянин, rossiianyn, "Russian" in the sense of citizen of the Russian state.[29][33]
According to the Primary Chronicle, the word Rus' is derived from the Rus' people, who were a Swedish tribe, and where the three original members of the Rurikid dynasty came from.[34] The Finnish word for Swedes, ruotsi, has the same origin.[35] Later archeological studies mostly confirmed this theory.[36][bettersourceneeded]
In the 3rd to 4th centuries CE, the Gothic kingdom of Oium existed in southern Russia, which was later overrun by Huns. Between the 3rd and 6th centuries CE, the Bosporan Kingdom, which was a Hellenistic polity that succeeded the Greek colonies,[56] was also overwhelmed by nomadic invasions led by warlike tribes such as the Huns and Eurasian Avars.[57] The Khazars, who were of Turkic origin, ruled the steppes between the Caucasus in the south, to the east past the Volga river basin, and west as far as Kyiv on the Dnieper river until the 10th century.[58] After them came the Pechenegs who created a large confederacy, which was subsequently taken over by the Cumans and the Kipchaks.[59]
The ancestors of Russians are among the Slavic tribes that separated from the Proto-Indo-Europeans, who appeared in the northeastern part of Europe c.1500 years ago.[60] The East Slavs gradually settled western Russia (approximately between modern Moscow and Saint-Petersburg) in two waves: one moving from Kiev towards present-day Suzdal and Murom and another from Polotsk towards Novgorod and Rostov.[61] Prior to Slavic migration, that territory was populated by Finno-Ugrian peoples. From the 7th century onwards, the incoming East Slavs slowly assimilated the native Finno-Ugrians.[62][63]
The establishment of the first East Slavic states in the 9th century coincided with the arrival of Varangians, the Vikings who ventured along the waterways extending from the eastern Baltic to the Black and Caspian Seas. According to the Primary Chronicle, a Varangian from the Rus' people, named Rurik, was elected ruler of Novgorod in 862. In 882, his successor Oleg ventured south and conquered Kiev, which had been previously paying tribute to the Khazars.[62] Rurik's son Igor and Igor's son Sviatoslav subsequently subdued all local East Slavic tribes to Kievan rule, destroyed the Khazar Khaganate,[64] and launched several military expeditions to Byzantium and Persia.[65][66]
In the 10th to 11th centuries, Kievan Rus' became one of the largest and most prosperous states in Europe. The reigns of Vladimir the Great (980–1015) and his son Yaroslav the Wise (1019–1054) constitute the Golden Age of Kiev, which saw the acceptance of Orthodox Christianity from Byzantium, and the creation of the first East Slavic written legal code, the Russkaya Pravda.[62] The age of feudalism and decentralisation had come, marked by constant in-fighting between members of the Rurik dynasty that ruled Kievan Rus' collectively. Kiev's dominance waned, to the benefit of Vladimir-Suzdal in the north-east, the Novgorod Republic in the north, and Galicia-Volhynia in the south-west.[62] By the 12th century, Kiev lost its pre-eminence and Kievan Rus' had fragmented into different principalities.[67] Prince Andrey Bogolyubsky sacked Kiev in 1169 and made Vladimir his base,[67] leading to political power being shifted to the north-east.[62]
Kievan Rus' finally fell to the Mongol invasion of 1237–1240, which resulted in the sacking of Kiev and other cities, as well as the death of a major part of the population.[62] The invaders, later known as Tatars, formed the state of the Golden Horde, which ruled over Russia for the next two centuries.[70] Only the Novgorod Republic escaped foreign occupation after it agreed to pay tribute to the Mongols.[62] Galicia-Volhynia would later be absorbed by Lithuania and Poland, while the Novgorod Republic continued to prosper in the north. In the northeast, the Byzantine-Slavic traditions of Kievan Rus' were adapted to form the Russian autocratic state.[62]
The destruction of Kievan Rus' saw the eventual rise of the Grand Duchy of Moscow, initially a part of Vladimir-Suzdal.[71]:11–20 While still under the domain of the Mongol-Tatars and with their connivance, Moscow began to assert its influence in the region in the early 14th century,[72] gradually becoming the leading force in the "gathering of the Russian lands".[73][74] When the seat of the Metropolitan of the Russian Orthodox Church moved to Moscow in 1325, its influence increased.[75] Moscow's last rival, the Novgorod Republic, prospered as the chief fur trade centre and the easternmost port of the Hanseatic League.[76]
Led by Prince Dmitry Donskoy of Moscow, the united army of Russian principalities inflicted a milestone defeat on the Mongol-Tatars in the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380.[62] Moscow gradually absorbed its parent duchy and surrounding principalities, including formerly strong rivals such as Tver and Novgorod.[73]
Feodor Godunov's map of Russia, as published by Hessel Gerritsz in 1614
The death of Ivan's sons marked the end of the ancient Rurik dynasty in 1598, and in combination with the disastrous famine of 1601–1603, led to a civil war, the rule of pretenders, and foreign intervention during the Time of Troubles in the early 17th century.[82] The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, taking advantage, occupied parts of Russia, extending into the capital Moscow.[83] In 1612, the Poles were forced to retreat by the Russian volunteer corps, led by merchant Kuzma Minin and prince Dmitry Pozharsky.[84] The Romanov dynasty acceded to the throne in 1613 by the decision of the Zemsky Sobor, and the country started its gradual recovery from the crisis.[85]
Russia continued its territorial growth through the 17th century, which was the age of the Cossacks.[86] In 1654, the Ukrainian leader, Bohdan Khmelnytsky, offered to place Ukraine under the protection of the Russian tsar, Alexis; whose acceptance of this offer led to another Russo-Polish War. Ultimately, Ukraine was split along the Dnieper, leaving the eastern part, (Left-bank Ukraine and Kiev) under Russian rule.[87] In the east, the rapid Russian exploration and colonisation of vast Siberia continued, hunting for valuable furs and ivory. Russian explorers pushed eastward primarily along the Siberian River Routes, and by the mid-17th century, there were Russian settlements in eastern Siberia, on the Chukchi Peninsula, along the Amur River, and on the coast of the Pacific Ocean.[86] In 1648, Semyon Dezhnyov became the first European to navigate through the Bering Strait.[88]
Under Peter the Great, Russia was proclaimed an empire in 1721, and established itself as one of the European great powers. Ruling from 1682 to 1725, Peter defeated Sweden in the Great Northern War (1700–1721), securing Russia's access to the sea and sea trade. In 1703, on the Baltic Sea, Peter founded Saint Petersburg as Russia's new capital. Throughout his rule, sweeping reforms were made, which brought significant Western European cultural influences to Russia.[89] He was succeeded by Catherine I (1725–1727), followed by Peter II (1727–1730), and Anna. The reign of PeterI's daughter Elizabeth in 1741–1762 saw Russia's participation in the Seven Years' War (1756–1763). During the conflict, Russian troops overran East Prussia, reaching Berlin.[90] However, upon Elizabeth's death, all these conquests were returned to the Kingdom of Prussia by pro-Prussian Peter III of Russia.[91]
The officers who pursued Napoleon into Western Europe brought ideas of liberalism back to Russia, and attempted to curtail the tsar's powers during the abortive Decembrist revolt of 1825.[103] At the end of the conservative reign of Nicholas I (1825–1855), a zenith period of Russia's power and influence in Europe, was disrupted by defeat in the Crimean War.[104]
Great liberal reforms and capitalism
Nicholas's successor AlexanderII (1855–1881) enacted significant changes throughout the country, including the emancipation reform of 1861.[105] These reforms spurred industrialisation, and modernised the Imperial Russian Army, which liberated much of the Balkans from Ottoman rule in the aftermath of the 1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War.[106] During most of the 19th and early 20th century, Russia and Britain colluded over Afghanistan and its neighbouring territories in Central and South Asia; the rivalry between the two major European empires came to be known as the Great Game.[107]
The late 19th century saw the rise of various socialist movements in Russia. AlexanderII was assassinated in 1881 by revolutionary terrorists.[108] The reign of his son AlexanderIII (1881–1894) was less liberal but more peaceful.[109]
An alternative socialist establishment co-existed, the Petrograd Soviet, wielding power through the democratically elected councils of workers and peasants, called soviets. The rule of the new authorities only aggravated the crisis in the country instead of resolving it, and eventually, the October Revolution, led by Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin, overthrew the Provisional Government and gave full governing power to the soviets, leading to the creation of the world's first socialist state.[115] The Russian Civil War broke out between the anti-communistWhite movement and the Bolsheviks with its Red Army.[118] In the aftermath of signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk that concluded hostilities with the Central Powers of World WarI; Bolshevist Russia surrendered most of its western territories, which hosted 34% of its population, 54% of its industries, 32% of its agricultural land, and roughly 90% of its coal mines.[119]
The Allied powers launched an unsuccessful military intervention in support of anti-communist forces.[120] In the meantime, both the Bolsheviks and White movement carried out campaigns of deportations and executions against each other, known respectively as the Red Terror and White Terror.[121] By the end of the violent civil war, Russia's economy and infrastructure were heavily damaged, and as many as 10 million perished during the war, mostly civilians.[122] Millions became White émigrés,[123] and the Russian famine of 1921–1922 claimed up to fivemillion victims.[124]
On 30 December 1922, Lenin and his aides formed the Soviet Union, by joining the Russian SFSR into a single state with the Byelorussian, Transcaucasian, and Ukrainian republics.[125] Eventually internal border changes and annexations during World War II created a union of 15 republics; the largest in size and population being the Russian SFSR, which dominated the union politically, culturally, and economically.[126]
Under Stalin's leadership, the government launched a command economy, industrialisation of the largely rural country, and collectivisation of its agriculture. During this period of rapid economic and social change, millions of people were sent to penal labour camps, including many political convicts for their suspected or real opposition to Stalin's rule;[131] and millions were deported and exiled to remote areas of the Soviet Union.[132] The transitional disorganisation of the country's agriculture, combined with the harsh state policies and a drought,[133] led to the Soviet famine of 1932–1933; which killed 5.7[134] to 8.7 million, 3.3 million of them in the Russian SFSR.[135] The Soviet Union, ultimately, made the costly transformation from a largely agrarian economy to a major industrial powerhouse within a short span of time.[136]
Two teen girls assemble PPD-40 submachine guns during the siege of Leningrad in 1942The Battle of Stalingrad, the largest and bloodiest battle in the history of warfare, ended in 1943 with a decisive Soviet victory against the German army.
Eventually, some 5 million Red Army troops were captured by the Nazis;[144]:272 the latter deliberately starved to death or otherwise killed 3.3million Soviet POWs, and a vast number of civilians, as the "Hunger Plan" sought to fulfil Generalplan Ost.[145]:175–186 Although the Wehrmacht had considerable early success, their attack was halted in the Battle of Moscow.[146] Subsequently, the Germans were dealt major defeats first at the Battle of Stalingrad in the winter of 1942–1943,[147] and then in the Battle of Kursk in the summer of 1943.[148] Another German failure was the Siege of Leningrad, in which the city was fully blockaded on land between 1941 and 1944 by German and Finnish forces, and suffered starvation and more than a million deaths, but never surrendered.[149] Soviet forces steamrolled through Eastern and Central Europe in 1944–1945 and captured Berlin in May 1945.[150] In August 1945, the Red Army invaded Manchuria and ousted the Japanese from Northeast Asia, contributing to the Allied victory over Japan.[151]
After World War II, according to the Potsdam Conference, the Red Army occupied parts of Eastern and Central Europe, including East Germany and the eastern regions of Austria.[158] Dependent communist governments were installed in the Eastern Bloc satellite states.[159] After becoming the world's second nuclear power,[160] the Soviet Union established the Warsaw Pact alliance,[161] and entered into a struggle for global dominance, known as the Cold War, with the rivalling United States and NATO.[162]
From 1985 onwards, the last Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, who sought to enact liberal reforms in the Soviet system, introduced the policies of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring) in an attempt to end the period of economic stagnation and to democratise the government.[171] This, however, led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements across the country.[172] Prior to 1991, the Soviet economy was the world's second-largest, but during its final years, it went into a crisis.[173]
By 1991, economic and political turmoil began to boil over as the Baltic states chose to secede from the Soviet Union.[174] On 17 March, a referendum was held, in which the vast majority of participating citizens voted in favour of changing the Soviet Union into a renewed federation.[175] In June 1991, Boris Yeltsin became the first directly elected President in Russian history when he was elected President of the Russian SFSR.[176] In August 1991, a coup d'état attempt by members of Gorbachev's government, directed against Gorbachev and aimed at preserving the Soviet Union, instead led to the end of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.[177] On 25 December 1991, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, along with contemporary Russia, fourteen other post-Soviet states emerged.[178]
The economic and political collapse of the Soviet Union led Russia into a deep and prolonged depression. During and after the disintegration of the Soviet Union, wide-ranging reforms including privatisation and market and trade liberalisation were undertaken, including radical changes along the lines of "shock therapy".[179] The privatisation largely shifted control of enterprises from state agencies to individuals with inside connections in the government, which led to the rise of Russian oligarchs.[180] Many of the newly rich moved billions in cash and assets outside of the country in an enormous capital flight.[181] The depression of the economy led to the collapse of social services—the birth rate plummeted while the death rate skyrocketed,[182][183] and millions plunged into poverty;[184] while extreme corruption,[185] as well as criminal gangs and organised crime rose significantly.[186]
In late 1993, tensions between Yeltsin and the Russian parliament culminated in a constitutional crisis which ended violently through military force. During the crisis, Yeltsin was backed by Western governments, and over 100 people were killed.[187]
Modern liberal constitution, international cooperation and economic stabilization
In December, a referendum was held and approved, which introduced a new constitution, giving the president enormous powers.[188] The 1990s were plagued by armed conflicts in the North Caucasus, both local ethnic skirmishes and separatist Islamist insurrections.[189] From the time Chechen separatists declared independence in the early 1990s, an intermittent guerrilla war was fought between the rebel groups and Russian forces.[190]Terrorist attacks against civilians were carried out by Chechen separatists, claiming the lives of thousands of Russian civilians.[e][191]
After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Russia assumed responsibility for settling the latter's external debts.[192] In 1992, most consumer price controls were eliminated, causing extreme inflation and significantly devaluing the rouble.[193] High budget deficits coupled with increasing capital flight and inability to pay back debts, caused the 1998 Russian financial crisis, which resulted in a further GDP decline.[194]
Movement towards a modernized economy, political centralization and democratic backsliding
In early 2014, following a pro-Western revolution in Ukraine, Russia annexed Crimea from neighbouring Ukraine after a disputed referendum on the status of Crimea was staged under Russian occupation.[206][207] The annexation generated an insurgency in the Donbas region of Ukraine, supported by Russian military intervention as part of an undeclared war against Ukraine.[208] Russian mercenaries and military forces, with the support of local separatist militias, waged a war in eastern Ukraine against the new Ukrainian government after the Russian government fostered anti-government and pro-Russian protests in the region,[209] although most residents had opposed secession from Ukraine.[210][211]
Russia's vast landmass stretches over the easternmost part of Europe and the northernmost part of Asia.[229] It spans the northernmost edge of Eurasia; and has the world's fourth-longest coastline, of over 37,653km (23,396mi).[f][231] Russia lies between latitudes 41° and 82° N, and longitudes 19° E and 169° W, extending some 9,000km (5,600mi) east to west, and 2,500 to 4,000km (1,600 to 2,500mi) north to south.[232] Russia, by landmass, is larger than three continents,[g] and has the same surface area as Pluto.[233]
The size of Russia and the remoteness of many of its areas from the sea result in the dominance of the humid continental climate throughout most of the country, except for the tundra and the extreme southwest. Mountain ranges in the south and east obstruct the flow of warm air masses from the Indian and Pacific oceans, while the European Plain spanning its west and north opens it to influence from the Atlantic and Arctic oceans.[246] Most of northwest Russia and Siberia have a subarctic climate, with extremely severe winters in the inner regions of northeast Siberia (mostly Sakha, where the Northern Pole of Cold is located with the record low temperature of −71.2°C or −96.2°F),[239] and more moderate winters elsewhere. Russia's vast coastline along the Arctic Ocean and the Russian Arctic islands have a polar climate.[246]
The coastal part of Krasnodar Krai on the Black Sea, most notably Sochi, and some coastal and interior strips of the North Caucasus possess a humid subtropical climate with mild and wet winters.[246] In many regions of East Siberia and the Russian Far East, winter is dry compared to summer; while other parts of the country experience more even precipitation across seasons. Winter precipitation in most parts of the country usually falls as snow. The westernmost parts of Kaliningrad Oblast and some parts in the south of Krasnodar Krai and the North Caucasus have an oceanic climate.[246] The region along the Lower Volga and Caspian Sea coast, as well as some southernmost slivers of Siberia, possess a semi-arid climate.[247]
Throughout much of the territory, there are only two distinct seasons, winter and summer; as spring and autumn are usually brief.[246] The coldest month is January (February on the coastline); the warmest is usually July. Great ranges of temperature are typical. In winter, temperatures get colder both from south to north and from west to east. Summers can be quite hot, even in Siberia.[248]Climate change in Russia is causing more frequent wildfires,[249] and thawing the country's large expanse of permafrost.[250]
Russia's entirely natural ecosystems are conserved in nearly 15,000 specially protected natural territories of various statuses, occupying more than 10% of the country's total area.[251] They include 45 biosphere reserves,[255] 64 national parks, and 101 nature reserves.[256] Although in decline, the country still has many ecosystems which are still considered intact forest; mainly in the northern taiga areas, and the subarctic tundra of Siberia.[257] Russia had a Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 9.02 in 2019, ranking 10th out of 172 countries; and the first ranked major nation globally.[258]
Russia, by 1993 constitution, is a symmetric (with the possibility of an asymmetric configuration) federation. Unlike the Soviet asymmetric model of the RSFSR, where only republics were "subjects of the federation", the current constitution raised the status of other regions to the level of republics and made all regions equal with the title "subject of the federation". The regions of Russia have reserved areas of competence, but no regions have sovereignty, do not have the status of a sovereign state, do not have the right to indicate any sovereignty in their constitutions and do not have the right to secede from the country. The laws of the regions cannot contradict federal laws.[272]
The federal subjects[j] have equal representation—two delegates each—in the Federation Council, the upper house of the Federal Assembly.[273] They do, however, differ in the degree of autonomy they enjoy.[274] The federal districts of Russia were established by Putin in 2000 to facilitate central government control of the federal subjects.[275] Originally seven, currently there are eight federal districts, each headed by an envoy appointed by the president.[276]
Each is nominally autonomous—home to a specific ethnic minority, and has its own constitution, language, and legislature, but is represented by the federal government in international affairs.[278]
For all intents and purposes, krais are legally identical to oblasts. The title "krai" ("frontier" or "territory") is historic, related to geographic (frontier) position in a certain period of history. The current krais are not related to frontiers.[279]
Occasionally referred to as "autonomous district", "autonomous area", and "autonomous region", each with a substantial or predominant ethnic minority.[280]
In the 21st century, Russia has pursued an aggressive foreign policy aimed at securing regional dominance and international influence, as well as increasing domestic support for the government. Military intervention in the post-Soviet states include a war with Georgia in 2008 and a war with Ukraine beginning in 2014. Russia has also sought to increase its influence in the Middle East, most significantly through military intervention in the Syrian civil war. Cyberwarfare and airspace violations, along with electoral interference, have been used to increase perceptions of Russian power.[299] Russia's relations with neighbouring Ukraine and the Western world—especially the United States, the European Union, the United Nations and NATO—have collapsed; especially since the annexation of Crimea in 2014 and the beginning of a full-scale invasion in 2022.[300][301] Relations between Russia and China have significantly strengthened bilaterally and economically; due to shared political interests.[302]Turkey and Russia share a complex strategic, energy, and defence relationship.[303] Russia maintains cordial relations with Iran, as it is a strategic and economic ally.[304] Russia has also increasingly pushed to expand its influence across the Arctic,[305] Asia-Pacific,[306] Africa,[307] the Middle East,[308] and Latin America.[309] According to the Economist Intelligence Unit, two-thirds of the world's population live in countries such as China or India that are neutral or leaning towards Russia.[310][311]
Following the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, anti-war protests broke out across Russia. The protests have been met with widespread repression, leading to about 15,000 people being arrested.
Violations of human rights in Russia have been increasingly reported by leading democracy and human rights groups. In particular, Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch say that Russia is not democratic and allows few political rights and civil liberties to its citizens.[321][322]
Muslims, especially Salafis, have faced persecution in Russia.[333][334] To quash the insurgency in the North Caucasus, Russian authorities have been accused of indiscriminate killings,[335] arrests, forced disappearances, and torture of civilians.[336][337] In Dagestan, some Salafis along with facing government harassment based on their appearance, have had their homes blown up in counterinsurgency operations.[338][339] Chechens and Ingush in Russian prisons reportedly take more abuse than other ethnic groups.[340] During the 2022 invasion of Ukraine, Russia has set up filtration camps where many Ukrainians are subjected to abuses and forcibly sent to Russia; the camps have been compared to those used in the Chechen Wars.[341][342] Political repression also increased following the start of the invasion, with laws adopted that establish punishments for "discrediting" the armed forces.[343]
Russia has the world's second-largest illegal arms trade market, after the United States, is ranked first in Europe and 32nd globally in the Global Organized Crime Index, and is among the countries with the highest number of people in prison.[362][363][364]
After over a decade of post-Soviet rapid economic growth, backed by high oil prices and a surge in foreign exchange reserves and investment,[200] Russia's economy was damaged by a wave of international sanctions imposed in 2014 following the Russo-Ukrainian War and annexation of Crimea.[382] In the aftermath of the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, the country has faced revamped sanctions and corporate boycotts,[383] becoming the most sanctioned country in the world,[384] in a move described as an "all-out economic and financial war" to isolate the Russian economy from the Western financial system.[215] Due to the resulting negative impact, the Russian government has stopped publishing a raft of economic data since April 2022.[385] Although Russia has maintained relative economic stability and even growth—driven primarily by high military spending, household consumption, and capital investment—economists suggest the sanctions will have a long-term effect over the Russian economy.[386][387][388]
In the mid-2000s, the share of the oil and gas sector in GDP was around 20%, and in 2013 it was 20–21% of GDP.[407] The share of oil and gas in Russia's exports (about 50%) and federal budget revenues (about 50%) is large, and the dynamics of Russia's GDP are highly dependent on oil and gas prices,[408] but the share in GDP is much less than 50%. According to the first such comprehensive assessment published by the Russian statistics agency Rosstat in 2021, the maximum total share of the oil and gas sector in Russia's GDP—including extraction, refining, transport, sale of oil and gas, all goods and services used, and all supporting activities—amounts to 19.2% in 2019 and 15.2% in 2020; this is comparable to the share of GDP in Norway and Kazakhstan, and much lower than the share of GDP in Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates.[409][410][411][412][413]
Russia ratified the Paris Agreement in 2019.[420] The country's greenhouse gas emissions are the world's fourth-largest.[421] Coal still accounts for nearly one-fifth of electricity generation (17.64%).[416] Russia is the fifth-largest hydroelectric producer as of 2022,[422] with hydro power also contributing to almost a fifth of total electricity generation (17.54%).[416] The use and development of other renewable energy resources remains negligible, as Russia is among the few countries without strong governmental or public support for expanding these energy resources.[419]
Russia's agriculture sector contributes about 5% of the country's total GDP, although the sector employs about one-eighth of the total labour force.[423] It has the world's third-largest cultivated area, at 1,265,267 square kilometres (488,522sqmi). However, due to the harshness of its environment, only about 13.1% of its land is agricultural,[9] with an additional 7.4% being arable.[424] The country's agricultural land is considered part of the "breadbasket" of Europe.[425] More than one-third of the sown area is devoted to fodder crops, and the remaining farmland is used industrial crops, vegetables, and fruits.[423] The main product of Russian farming has always been grain, which occupies well over half the cropland.[423] Russia is the world's largest exporter of wheat,[426][427] the largest producer of barley and buckwheat, among the largest exporters of maize and sunflower oil, and the leading producer of fertilizer.[428]
Various analysts of climate change adaptation foresee large opportunities for Russian agriculture during the rest of the 21st century as arability increases in Siberia, which would lead to both internal and external migration to the region.[429] Owing to its large coastline along three oceans and twelve marginal seas, Russia maintains the world's sixth-largest fishing industry; capturing nearly 5 million tons of fish in 2018.[430] It is home to the world's finest caviar, the beluga; and produces about one-third of all canned fish, and some one-fourth of the world's total fresh and frozen fish.[423]
Russia had 172 active satellites in space in April 2022, the world's third-highest.[462] Between the final flight of the Space Shuttle program in 2011 and the 2020 SpaceX's first crewed mission, Soyuz rockets were the only launch vehicles capable of transporting astronauts to the ISS.[463]Luna 25 launched in August 2023, was the first of the Luna-Glob Moon exploration programme.[464]
According to the World Tourism Organization, Russia was the sixteenth-most visited country in the world, and the tenth-most visited country in Europe, in 2018, with over 24.6 million visits.[465] According to Federal Agency for Tourism, the number of inbound trips of foreign citizens to Russia amounted to 24.4 million in 2019.[466] Russia's international tourism receipts in 2018 totaled $11.6 billion.[465] In 2019, travel and tourism accounted for about 4.8% of country's total GDP.[467] In the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic, tourism declined precipitously in 2020, to just over 6.3 million foreign visitors.[468]
Moscow, the nation's cosmopolitan capital and historic core, is a bustling modern megacity; it retains classical and Soviet-era architecture while boasting high art, world class ballet, and modern skyscrapers.[472]Saint Petersburg, the imperial capital, is famous for its classical architecture, cathedrals, museums and theatres, white nights, crisscrossing rivers and numerous canals.[473] Russia is famed worldwide for its rich museums, such as the State Russian, the State Hermitage, and the Tretyakov Gallery; and for theatres such as the Bolshoi and the Mariinsky. The Moscow Kremlin and the Saint Basil's Cathedral are among the cultural landmarks of Russia.[474]
Russia's population peaked at over 148 million in 1993, having subsequently declined due to its death rate exceeding its birth rate, which some analysts have called a demographic crisis.[478] In 2009, it recorded annual population growth for the first time in fifteen years, and subsequently experienced annual population growth due to declining death rates, increased birth rates, and increased immigration.[479] However, these population gains have been reversed since 2020, as excessive deaths from the COVID-19 pandemic resulted in the largest peacetime decline in its history.[480] Following the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, the demographic crisis has deepened,[481] owing to reportedly high military fatalities and renewed emigration caused by Western mass-sanctions and boycotts.[482]
Russia is a multilingual nation; approximately 100–150 minority languages are spoken across the country.[496][497] According to the Russian Census of 2010, 137.5million across the country spoke Russian, 4.3million spoke Tatar, and 1.1million spoke Ukrainian.[498] The constitution gives the country's individual republics the right to establish their own state languages in addition to Russian, as well as guarantee its citizens the right to preserve their native language and to create conditions for its study and development.[499] However, various experts have claimed Russia's linguistic diversity is rapidly declining due to many languages becoming endangered.[500][501]
Russia is constitutionally a secular state that officially enshrines freedom of religion.[502] The largest religion is Eastern Orthodox Christianity, chiefly represented by the Russian Orthodox Church,[503] which is legally recognised for its "special role" in the country's "history and the formation and development of its spirituality and culture."[502]Christianity, Islam, Judaism, and Buddhism are recognised by Russian law as the "traditional" religions of the country constituting its "historical heritage".[504][505]
In 2012, the research organisation Sreda, in cooperation with the Ministry of Justice, published the Arena Atlas, an adjunct to the 2010 census, enumerating in detail the religious populations and nationalities of Russia, based on a large-sample country-wide survey. The results showed that 47.3% of Russians declared themselves Christians—including 41% Russian Orthodox, 1.5% simply Orthodox or members of non-Russian Orthodox churches, 4.1% unaffiliated Christians, and less than 1% Old Believers, Catholics or Protestants—25% were believers without affiliation to any specific religion, 13% were atheists, 6.5% were Muslims,[k] 1.2% were followers of "traditional religions honouring gods and ancestors" (Rodnovery, other Paganisms, Siberian shamanism and Tengrism), 0.5% were Buddhists, 0.1% were religious Jews and 0.1% were Hindus.[503]
Russia's pre-school education system is highly developed and optional,[521] some four-fifths of children aged 3 to 6 attend day nurseries or kindergartens. Primary school is compulsory for eleven years, starting from age 6 to 7, and leads to a basic general education certificate.[517] An additional two or three years of schooling are required for the secondary-level certificate, and some seven-eighths of Russians continue their education past this level.[522]
Russia, by constitution, guarantees free, universal health care for all Russian citizens, through a compulsory state health insurance program.[526] The Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation oversees the Russian public healthcare system, and the sector employs more than two million people. Federal regions also have their own departments of health that oversee local administration. A separate private health insurance plan is needed to access private healthcare in Russia.[527]
Russia spent 5.65% of its GDP on healthcare in 2019.[528] Its healthcare expenditure is notably lower than other developed nations.[529] Russia has one of the world's most female-biased sex ratios, with 0.859 males to every female,[9] due to its high male mortality rate.[530] In 2021, the overall life expectancy in Russia at birth was 70.06 years (65.51 years for males and 74.51 years for females),[531] and it had a very low infant mortality rate (5 per 1,000 live births).[532]
The Scarlet Sails being celebrated along the Neva in Saint Petersburg
Russia has eight—public, patriotic, and religious—official holidays.[553] The year starts with New Year's Day on 1 January, soon followed by Russian Orthodox Christmas on 7 January; the two are the country's most popular holidays.[554]Defender of the Fatherland Day, dedicated to men, is celebrated on 23 February.[555]International Women's Day on 8 March, gained momentum in Russia during the Soviet era. The annual celebration of women has become so popular, especially among Russian men, that Moscow's flower vendors often see profits of "15 times" more than other holidays.[556]Spring and Labour Day, originally a Soviet era holiday dedicated to workers, is celebrated on 1 May.[557]
There are many popular non-public holidays. Old New Year is celebrated on 14 January.[562]Maslenitsa is an ancient and popular East Slavic folk holiday.[563]Cosmonautics Day on 12 April, in tribute to the first human trip into space.[564] Two major Christian holidays are Easter and Trinity Sunday.[565]
After the Russian Revolution of 1917, Russian literature split into Soviet and white émigré parts. In the 1930s, Socialist realism became the predominant trend in Russia. Its leading figure was Maxim Gorky, who laid the foundations of this style.[615]Mikhail Bulgakov was one of the leading writers of the Soviet era.[616]Nikolay Ostrovsky's novel How the Steel Was Tempered has been among the most successful works of Russian literature. Influential émigré writers include Vladimir Nabokov,[617] and Isaac Asimov; who was considered one of the "Big Three" science fiction writers.[618] Some writers dared to oppose Soviet ideology, such as Nobel Prize-winning novelist Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, who wrote about life in the Gulag camps.[619]
The 1960s and 1970s saw a greater variety of artistic styles in Soviet cinema.[546] The comedies of Eldar Ryazanov and Leonid Gaidai of that time were immensely popular, with many of the catchphrases still in use today.[659][660] In 1961–68 Sergey Bondarchuk directed an Oscar-winning film adaptation of Leo Tolstoy's epic War and Peace, which was the most expensive film made in the Soviet Union.[546] In 1969, Vladimir Motyl's White Sun of the Desert was released, a very popular film in a genre of ostern; the film is traditionally watched by cosmonauts before any trip into space.[661] After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Russian cinema industry suffered large losses—however, since the late 2000s, it has seen growth once again, and continues to expand.[662]
↑ Russia has an additional 850km (530mi) of coastline along the Caspian Sea, which is the world's largest inland body of water, and has been variously classified as a sea or a lake.[230]
↑ Russia, by land area, is larger than the continents of Australia, Antarctica, and Europe; although it covers a large part of the latter itself. Its land area could be roughly compared to that of South America.
↑ In 2020, constitutional amendments were signed into law that limit the president to two terms overall rather than two consecutive terms, with this limit reset for current and previous presidents.[265]
↑ The Sreda Arena Atlas 2012 did not count the populations of two federal subjects of Russia where the majority of the population is Muslim, namely Chechnya and Ingushetia, which together had a population of nearly 2 million, thus the proportion of Muslims was possibly slightly underestimated.[503]
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This is a select bibliography of English language books and journal articles about the history of Russia and its empire from 1991 to present. It specifically excludes topics related to the Dissolution of the Soviet Union; see Bibliography of the Post Stalinist Soviet Union for information on this subject. This bibliography is restricted to works about Russian history, and specifically excludes items such modern travel logs and guide books, popular culture, etc.
1 2 Chevalier, Joan F. (2006). "Russian as the National Language: An Overview of Language Planning in the Russian Federation". Russian Language Journal. 56 (1). American Councils for International Education ACTR / ACCELS: 25–36. doi:10.70163/0036-0252.1233. JSTOR43669126.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: ignored DOI errors (link)
↑ "Русская православная церковь" (in Russian). Фонд Общественное Мнение, ФОМ (Public Opinion Foundation). 2 May 2024. Archived from the original on 16 May 2024. Retrieved 10 June 2024.
↑ "Русская православная церковь" (in Russian). Фонд Общественное Мнение, ФОМ (Public Opinion Foundation). 2 May 2024. Archived from the original on 3 May 2024. Retrieved 10 June 2024.
↑ Kuchkin, V. A. (2014). Русская земля[Russian land]. In Melnikova, E. A.; Petrukhina, V. Ya. (eds.). Древняя Русь в средневековом мире[Old Rus' in the medieval world] (in Russian). Moscow: Institute of General History of the Russian Academy of Sciences; Ladomir. pp.700–701.
↑ Kort, Michael (2008). A Brief History of Russia. New York: Checkmark Books. p.6. ISBN978-0816071135.
↑ Nazarenko, Aleksandr Vasilevich (2001). "1. Имя "Русь" в древнейшей западноевропейской языковой традиции (XI–XII века)"[The name Rus' in the old tradition of Western European language (XI-XII centuries)]. Древняя Русь на международных путях: междисциплинарные очерки культурных, торговых, политических связей IX–XII веков[Old Rus' on international routes: interdisciplinary essays on cultural, trade, and political ties in the 9th–12th centuries] (in Russian). Languages of the Rus' culture. pp.40, 42–45, 49–50. ISBN978-5-7859-0085-1. Archived from the original on 14 August 2011.
↑ Milner-Gulland, R. R. (1997). The Russians: The People of Europe. Blackwell Publishing. pp.1–4. ISBN978-0-631-21849-4.
↑ Pritsak, Omeljan (5 April 1977). "The Origin of Rus'". The Russian Review. 36 (3): 249–273. doi:10.2307/128848. JSTOR128848. Archived from the original on 25 October 2023. Retrieved 19 October 2023.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link).
↑ Shchelinsky, V.E.; Gurova, M.; Tesakov, A.S.; Titov, V.V.; Frolov, P.D.; Simakova, A.N. (30 January 2016). "The Early Pleistocene site of Kermek in western Ciscaucasia (southern Russia): Stratigraphy, biotic record and lithic industry (preliminary results)". Quaternary International. 393: 51–69. Bibcode:2016QuInt.393...51S. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2015.10.032.
↑ Igor V. Ovchinnikov; Anders Götherström; Galina P. Romanova; Vitaliy M. Kharitonov; Kerstin Lidén; William Goodwin (30 March 2000). "Molecular analysis of Neanderthal DNA from the northern Caucasus". Nature. 404 (6777): 490–493. Bibcode:2000Natur.404..490O. doi:10.1038/35006625. PMID10761915. S2CID3101375.
1 2 Drews, Robert (2004). Early Riders: The beginnings of mounted warfare in Asia and Europe. New York: Routledge. p.50. ISBN978-0-415-32624-7.
↑ Koryakova, L. "Sintashta-Arkaim Culture". The Center for the Study of the Eurasian Nomads (CSEN). Archived from the original on 28 February 2019. Retrieved 13 May 2021.
↑ Tsetskhladze, G. R. (1998). The Greek Colonisation of the Black Sea Area: Historical Interpretation of Archaeology. F. Steiner. p.48. ISBN978-3-515-07302-8.
↑ Turchin, P. (2003). Historical Dynamics: Why States Rise and Fall. Princeton University Press. pp.185–186. ISBN978-0-691-11669-3.
↑ Bogolitsyna, Anna; Pichler, Bernhard; Vendl, Alfred; Mikhailov, Alexander; Sizov, Boris (2009). "Investigation of the Brass Monument to Minin and Pozharsky, Red Square, Moscow". Studies in Conservation. 54 (1). Taylor & Francis: 12–22. doi:10.1179/sic.2009.54.1.12. JSTOR27867061. S2CID138066784.
↑ Frost, Robert I. (2000). The Northern Wars: War, State and Society in Northeastern Europe, 1558–1721. Routledge. p.13. ISBN978-0-58206-429-4.
↑ Oliver, James A. (2006). The Bering Strait Crossing: A 21st Century Frontier between East and West. Information Architects. pp.36–37. ISBN978-0-9546995-8-1.
1 2 Curtis, Glenn E. (1998). "Russia – Early Imperial Russia". Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress. Archived from the original on 14 August 2023. Retrieved 25 June 2021.
↑ Ragsdale, Hugh (1992). "Russia, Prussia, and Europe in the Policy of Paul I". Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas. 31 (1). Franz Steiner Verlag: 81–118. JSTOR41046596.
↑ King, Charles (July 1993). "Moldova and the New Bessarabian Questions". The World Today. 49 (7). Royal Institute of International Affairs (Chatham House): 135–139. JSTOR40396520.
↑ Kroll, Mark J.; Toombs, Leslie A.; Wright, Peter (February 2000). "Napoleon's Tragic March Home from Moscow: Lessons in Hubris". The Academy of Management Executive. 14 (1). Academy of Management: 117–128. JSTOR4165613.
↑ Mosse, W. E. (April 1964). "Interlude: The Russian Provisional Government 1917". Soviet Studies (Europe-Asia Studies). 15 (4). Taylor & Francis: 408–419. JSTOR149631.
↑ Szporluk, Roman (1973). "Nationalities and the Russian Problem in the U.S.S.R.: an Historical Outline". Journal of International Affairs. 27 (1). Journal of International Affairs Editorial Board: 22–40. JSTOR24356607.
↑ Kuromiya, Hirosaki (2005). "Accounting for the Great Terror". Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas. 53 (1). Franz Steiner Verlag: 86–101. JSTOR41051345.
↑ Rosefielde, Steven (January 1981). "An Assessment of the Sources and Uses of Gulag Forced Labour 1929–1956". Soviet Studies (Europe-Asia Studies). 33 (1). Taylor & Francis: 51–87. JSTOR151474.
↑ Kreindler, Isabelle (July 1986). "The Soviet Deported Nationalities: A Summary and an Update". Soviet Studies (Europe-Asia Studies). 38 (3). Taylor & Francis: 387–405. JSTOR151700.
↑ Davies, Robert W.; Wheatcroft, Stephen G. (2010). The Industrialisation of Soviet Russia Volume 5: The Years of Hunger. Palgrave Macmillan. p.415. doi:10.1057/9780230273979. ISBN9780230238558.
↑ Roberts, Geoffrey (1992). "The Soviet Decision for a Pact with Nazi Germany". Soviet Studies (Europe-Asia Studies). 44 (1). Taylor & Francis: 57–78. JSTOR152247.
↑ Spring, D. W. (April 1986). "The Soviet Decision for War against Finland, 30 November 1939". Soviet Studies (Europe-Asia Studies). 38 (2). Taylor & Francis: 207–226. JSTOR152247.
↑ Jones, Polly (2006). The Dilemmas of De-Stalinization: Negotiating Cultural and Social Change in the Khrushchev Era. Routledge. pp.2–4. ISBN978-1-134-28347-7.
↑ Hollander, D. (1997). "In Post-Soviet Russia, Fertility Is on the Decline; Marriage and Childbearing are Occurring Earlier". Family Planning Perspectives. 29 (2). Guttmacher Institute: 92–94. doi:10.2307/2953371. JSTOR2953371.
↑ Plokhy, Serhii (2023). The Russo-Ukrainian war: the return of history. New York, NY: WW Norton. pp.123–26. ISBN978-1-324-05119-0. ... The relative ease with which Russian mercenaries, supported by local separatist forces, were able to capture and hold hostage the inhabitants of the Ukrainian Donbas, most of whom wanted to stay in Ukraine, has a number of explanations.
↑ "Europe – Land". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 15 March 2022. Retrieved 4 April 2022. The lowest terrain in Europe, virtually lacking relief, stands at the head of the Caspian Sea; there the Caspian Depression reaches some 95 feet (29 metres) below sea level.
1 2 3 4 5 Glenn E. Curtis, ed. (1998). "Climate". Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress. Archived from the original on 9 April 2016. Retrieved 10 July 2021.
↑ Drozdov, V. A.; Glezer, O. B.; Nefedova, T. G.; Shabdurasulov, I. V. (1992). "Ecological and Geographical Characteristics of the Coastal Zone of the Black Sea". GeoJournal. 27 (2): 169. Bibcode:1992GeoJo..27..169D. doi:10.1007/BF00717701. S2CID128960702.
↑ KARTASHKIN, V.A.; ABASHIDZE, A.KH. (2004). "Autonomy in the Russian Federation: Theory and Practice". International Journal on Minority and Group Rights. 10 (3). Brill: 203–220. doi:10.1163/1571811031310738. JSTOR24675138.
↑ Orttung, Robert; Lussier, Danielle; Paetskaya, Anna (2000). The Republics and Regions of the Russian Federation: A Guide to Politics, Policies, and Leaders. New York: EastWest Institute. pp.523–524. ISBN978-0-7656-0559-7.
↑ Sweijs, T.; De Spiegeleire, S.; de Jong, S.; Oosterveld, W.; Roos, H.; Bekkers, F.; Usanov, A.; de Rave, R.; Jans, K. (2017). Volatility and friction in the age of disintermediation. The Hague Centre for Strategic Studies. p.43. ISBN978-94-92102-46-1. Retrieved 29 April 2022. We qualify the following states as great powers: China, Europe, India, Japan, Russia and the United States.
↑ Šćepanović, Janko (22 March 2023). "Still a great power? Russia's status dilemmas post-Ukraine war". Journal of Contemporary European Studies. 32 (1). Informa UK Limited: 80–95. doi:10.1080/14782804.2023.2193878. ISSN1478-2804.
↑ Sadri, Houman A. (2014). "Eurasian Economic Union (Eeu): a good idea or a Russian takeover?". Rivista di studi politici internazionali. 81 (4). Maria Grazia Melchionni: 553–561. JSTOR43580687.
↑ Swanström, Niklas (2012). "Central Asia and Russian Relations: Breaking Out of the Russian Orbit?". Brown Journal of World Affairs. 19 (1): 101–113. JSTOR24590931. The Central Asian states have been dependent on Russia since they gained independence in 1991, not just in economic and energy terms, but also militarily and politically.
↑ Kanerva, Ilkka (2018). "Russia and the West". Horizons: Journal of International Relations and Sustainable Development (12). Center for International Relations and Sustainable Development: 112–119. JSTOR48573515.
↑ Cerulli, Rossella (1 September 2019). Russian Influence in the Middle East: Economics, Energy, and Soft Power (Report). American Security Project. pp.1–21. JSTORresrep19825.
↑ —Rosefielde, Steven, and Natalia Vennikova. “Fiscal Federalism in Russia: A Critique of the OECD Proposals". Cambridge Journal of Economics, vol. 28, no. 2, Oxford University Press, 2004, pp. 307–18, JSTOR23602130. —Robinson, Neil. “August 1998 and the Development of Russia's Post-Communist Political Economy". Review of International Political Economy, vol. 16, no. 3, Taylor & Francis, Ltd., 2009, pp. 433–55, JSTOR27756169. —Charap, Samuel. “No Obituaries Yet for Capitalism in Russia". Current History, vol. 108, no. 720, University of California Press, 2009, pp. 333–38, JSTOR45319724. —Rutland, Peter. “Neoliberalism and the Russian Transition". Review of International Political Economy, vol. 20, no. 2, Taylor & Francis, Ltd., 2013, pp. 332–62, JSTOR42003296. —Kovalev, Alexandre, and Alexandre Sokalev. “Russia: Towards a Market Economy". New Zealand International Review, vol. 18, no. 1, New Zealand Institute of International Affairs, 1993, pp. 18–21, JSTOR45234200. —Czinkota, Michael R. “Russia's Transition to a Market Economy: Learning about Business". Journal of International Marketing, vol. 5, no. 4, American Marketing Association, 1997, pp. 73–93, JSTOR25048706.
↑ Davydova, Angelina (24 November 2021). "Will Russia ever leave fossil fuels behind?". BBC. Retrieved 3 March 2022. Overall in Russia, oil and gas provided 39% of the federal budget revenue and made up 60% of Russian exports in 2019.
↑ Wadhams, Nick (8 March 2022). "Russia Is Now the World's Most-Sanctioned Nation". Bloomberg L.P. Retrieved 2 October 2022. Russia has vaulted past Iran and North Korea to become the world's most-sanctioned nation in the span of just 10 days following President Vladimir Putin's invasion of Ukraine.
↑ Lustgarten, Abrahm (16 December 2020). "How Russia Wins the Climate Crisis". The New York Times. Retrieved 15 June 2021. Across Eastern Russia, wild forests, swamps and grasslands are slowly being transformed into orderly grids of soybeans, corn and wheat. It's a process that is likely to accelerate: Russia hopes to seize on the warming temperatures and longer growing seasons brought by climate change to refashion itself as one of the planet's largest producers of food
↑ Foltynova, Kristyna (19 June 2020). "Migrants Welcome: Is Russia Trying To Solve Its Demographic Crisis By Attracting Foreigners?". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Retrieved 9 July 2021. Russia has been trying to boost fertility rates and reduce death rates for several years now. Special programs for families have been implemented, anti-tobacco campaigns have been organized, and raising the legal age to buy alcohol was considered. However, perhaps the most successful strategy so far has been attracting migrants, whose arrival helps Russia to compensate population losses.
↑ "Russia – The Indo-European Group". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 18 July 2021. East Slavs—mainly Russians but including some Ukrainians and Belarusians—constitute more than four-fifths of the total population and are prevalent throughout the country.
↑ Lazarev, Vladimir; Pravikova, Ludmila (2005). "The North Caucasus Bilingualism and Language Identity"(PDF). In Cohen, James; McAlister, Kara T.; Rolstad, Kellie; MacSwan, Jeff (eds.). ISB4: Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on Bilingualism. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Press. p.1325. The North Caucasus, inhabited by more than 100 of autochthonous and allochthonous peoples, including Russians, is a unique locus for conducting a large-scale research in the area of bilingualism and multilingualism.
1 2 "Russian". University of Toronto. Retrieved 9 July 2021. Russian is the most widespread of the Slavic languages and the largest native language in Europe. Of great political importance, it is one of the official languages of the United Nations – making it a natural area of study for those interested in geopolitics.
↑ "Russia – Ethnic groups and languages". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 8 November 2020. Although ethnic Russians comprise more than four-fifths of the country's total population, Russia is a diverse, multiethnic society. More than 120 ethnic groups, many with their own national territories, speaking some 100 languages live within Russia's borders.
↑ "Chapter 3. The Federal Structure". Constitution of Russia. Retrieved 27 December 2007. 2. The Republics shall have the right to establish their own state languages. In the bodies of state authority and local self-government, state institutions of the Republics they shall be used together with the state language of the Russian Federation. 3. The Russian Federation shall guarantee to all of its peoples the right to preserve their native language and to create conditions for its study and development.
↑ Andreeva, Julia Olegovna (2012). "Представления о народных традициях в движении 'Звенящие кедры России'"[Representations of national traditions in the movement 'Ringing Cedars of Russia'](PDF). In T. B. Shchepanskaya (ed.). Аспекты будущего по этнографическим и фольклорным материалам: сборник научных статей[Prospects of the future in ethnographic and folklore materials: Collection of scientific articles] (in Russian). Saint Petersburg: Kunstkamera. pp.231–245. Archived from the original(PDF) on 6 August 2020.
↑ Tkatcheva, Anna (1994). "Neo-Hindu Movements and Orthodox Christianity in Post-Communist Russia". India International Centre Quarterly. 21 (2/3): 151–162. JSTOR23003642.
↑ Bourdeaux, Michael; Filatov, Sergey, eds. (2006). Современная религиозная жизнь России. Опыт систематического описания[Contemporary religious life of Russia. Systematic description of experiences] (in Russian). Vol.4. Moscow: Keston Institute; Logos. ISBN5987040574.
↑ The Lancet (5 October 2019). "Russia's alcohol policy: a continuing success story". The Lancet. 394 (10205): 1205. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(19)32265-2. PMID31591968. Russians are officially drinking less and, as a consequence, are living longer than ever before...Russians are still far from being teetotal: a pure ethanol per capita consumption of 11·7 L, reported in 2016, means consumption is still one of the highest worldwide, and efforts to reduce it further are required.
↑ Salmond, Wendy (2002). "The Russian Avant-Garde of the 1890s: The Abramtsevo Circle". The Journal of the Walters Art Museum. 60/61. The Walters Art Museum: 7–13. JSTOR20168612.
↑ Jarzombek, Mark M.; Prakash, Vikramaditya; Ching, Frank (2010). A Global History of Architecture (2nded.). John Wiley & Sons. p.544. ISBN978-0-470-40257-3.
↑ Letopisi: Literature of Old Rus'. Biographical and Bibliographical Dictionary. ed. by Oleg Tvorogov. Moscow: Prosvescheniye ("Enlightenment"), 1996. (Russian: Летописи // Литература Древней Руси. Биобиблиографический словарь / под ред. О.В. Творогова. – М.: Просвещение, 1996.)
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↑ Curtis, Michele (2018). In the Kitchen: The New Bible of Home Cooking. Hardie Grant Publishing. p.66. ISBN978-1-743-58555-9.
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Recognised territory of Russia is shown in dark green; claimed but internationally unrecognised territory is shown in light green. [a] 
$6.909 trillion [18] (4th)
36.0 [19] 
