Laos

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Lao People's Democratic Republic
  • ສາທາລະນະລັດ ປະຊາທິປະໄຕ ປະຊາຊົນລາວ (Lao)
  • Sathalanalat Paxathipatai Paxaxon Lao
Motto: ສັນຕິພາບ ເອກະລາດ ປະຊາທິປະໄຕ ເອກະພາບ ວັດທະນະຖາວອນ
Santiphap, Ekalat, Paxathipatai, Ekaphap, Vatthanathavon
"Peace, Independence, Democracy, Unity and Prosperity"
Anthem: ເພງຊາດລາວ
Pheng Xat Lao
"Lao National Anthem"
Laos (orthographic projection).svg
Location Laos ASEAN.svg
Location of Laos (green)

in Southeast Asia

Capital
and largest city
 Vientiane
17°58′N102°36′E / 17.967°N 102.600°E / 17.967; 102.600
Official languages Lao
Spoken languages
Ethnic groups
(2015 [2] )
Religion
Demonym Laotian
Government Communist state [5]
Thongloun Sisoulith
Sonexay Siphandone
Bounthong Chitmany
Pany Yathotou
Saysomphone Phomvihane
Viengthong Siphandone
Legislature National Assembly
Formation
1353–1707
• Kingdoms of Luang Prabang, Vientiane and Champasak
1707–1778
• Vassals of Siam
1778–1893
1893–1953
•  Lao Issara
1945–1949
11 May 1947
•  Independence from France
22 October 1953
•  Communist state established
2 December 1975
Area
• Total
236,800 km2 (91,400 sq mi) [6] (82nd)
• Water (%)
2
Population
• 2024 estimate
7,953,556 [6] (103rd)
• Density
26.7/km2 (69.2/sq mi)(183rd)
GDP  (PPP)2025 estimate
• Total
Increase2.svg $78.850 billion [7] (108th)
• Per capita
Increase2.svg $10,120 [7] (126th)
GDP  (nominal)2025 estimate
• Total
Increase2.svg $16.320 billion [7] (138th)
• Per capita
Increase2.svg $2,100 [7] (150th)
Gini  (2012)36.4 [8]
medium inequality
HDI  (2023)Decrease2.svg 0.617 [9]
medium (147th)
Currency Kip (₭) (LAK)
Time zone UTC+7 (ICT)
Calling code +856
ISO 3166 code LA
Internet TLD .la
  1. ↑ Including over 100 smaller ethnic groups
  2. ↑ "The State respects and protects all lawful activities of Buddhists and of followers of other religions, [and] mobilises and encourages Buddhist monks and novices as well as the priests of other religions to participate in activities that are beneficial to the country and people." [3]

Laos, [a] officially the Lao People's Democratic Republic (LPDR), [b] is the only landlocked country in Southeast Asia. Located on the Indochinese Peninsula, it is bordered by Myanmar and China to the northwest, Vietnam to the east, Cambodia to the southeast, and Thailand to the west and southwest. Having a population of approximately 8 million, [13] its capital and most populous city is Vientiane.

Contents

The country traces its historic and cultural identity to Lan Xang, a kingdom which existed from the 13th to 18th centuries. Through its location, the kingdom was a hub for overland trade. [14] In 1707, Lan Xang split into three kingdoms: Luang Prabang, Vientiane, and Champasak. In 1893, these kingdoms were unified under French protection as part of French Indochina. Laos was under Japanese administration during World War II, gaining independence in 1945 before returning to French administration until achieving autonomy in 1949. The country regained full independence in 1953 as the Kingdom of Laos, with a constitutional monarchy under Sisavang Vong. A Civil War from 1959 to 1975 saw the communist Pathet Lao, supported by North Vietnam, China and the Soviet Union, oppose the Royal Lao Armed Forces, backed by the United States. The war ended with the establishment of the Lao People's Democratic Republic in 1975 that aligned with the Soviet Union until the latter's dissolution in 1991.

Laos is home to several UNESCO World Heritage Sites, including the historic town of Luang Prabang, the ancient temple complex of Vat Phou, and the Plain of Jars. [15] As one of the five active communist states as of 2025, [5] and the only one that self-designates as a people's democratic state, [16] Laos has been governed by the Lao People's Revolutionary Party (LPRP) since 1975. It has used market-oriented reforms. [17] [18] Laos's development strategy emphasises regional connectivity through infrastructure development. The 2021 completion of the Laos–China Railway (LCR), connecting Vientiane to Kunming, has increased trade and tourism accessibility. [19] [20] The country participates in the Greater Mekong Subregion economic cooperation programme, focusing on cross-border infrastructure and energy projects. [21] The World Bank has recognised Laos as one of Southeast Asia and Pacific's fastest growing economies, with annual GDP growth averaging 7.4% since 2009, driven by expanding tourism, energy exports, and foreign investment. While classified as a least developed country by the United Nations, Laos is a member of ASEAN, the Asia-Pacific Trade Agreement, East Asia Summit, La Francophonie, and the World Trade Organization. [22]

History

Prehistory

In 2009, an anatomically modern human skull was recovered from the Tam Pa Ling Cave in the Annamite Mountains in northern Laos; the skull is at least 46,000 years old, making it the oldest modern human fossil found to date in Southeast Asia. [23] Stone artefacts including Hoabinhian types have been found at sites dating to the Pleistocene in northern Laos. [24]

Archaeological evidence suggests an agriculturist society developed during the 4th millennium BCE, [25] a society in which bronze objects appeared around 1500 BCE, and iron tools were known from 700 BCE. The proto-historic period is characterised by contact with Chinese and Indian civilisations. According to linguistic and other historical evidence, Tai-speaking tribes migrated southwestward to the territories of Laos and Thailand from Guangxi sometime between the 8th and 10th centuries. [26]

Lan Xang

Laos traces its history to the kingdom of Lan Xang ('million elephants'), which was founded in the 13th century by a Lao prince, Fa Ngum, [27] : 223  whose father had his family exiled from the Khmer Empire. Fa Ngum, with 10,000 Khmer troops, conquered some Lao principalities in the Mekong river basin, culminating in the capture of Vientiane. Ngum was descended from a line of Lao kings that traced back to Khoun Boulom. [28] He made Theravada Buddhism the state religion. His ministers, unable to tolerate his ruthlessness, forced him into exile to what is later the Thai province of Nan in 1373, [29] where he died. Fa Ngum's eldest son, Oun Heuan, ascended to the throne under the name Samsenethai and reigned for 43 years. Lan Xang became a trade centre during Samsenthai's reign, and after his death in 1421 it collapsed into warring factions for nearly a century. [30]

In 1520, Photisarath came to the throne and moved the capital from Luang Prabang to Vientiane to avoid a Burmese invasion. Setthathirath became king in 1548, after his father was killed, and ordered the construction of That Luang. Settathirath disappeared in the mountains on his way back from a military expedition into Cambodia, and Lan Xang fell into more than 70 years of "instability", involving Burmese invasion and civil war. [31]

In 1637, when Sourigna Vongsa ascended the throne, Lan Xang further expanded its frontiers. When he died without an heir, the kingdom split into three principalities. Between 1763 and 1769, Burmese armies overran northern Laos and annexed Luang Prabang, while Champasak eventually came under Siamese suzerainty. [32]

Chao Anouvong was installed as a vassal king of Vientiane by the Siamese. He encouraged a renaissance of Lao fine arts and literature and improved relations with Luang Phrabang. Under Vietnamese pressure, he rebelled against the Siamese in 1826. The rebellion failed, and Vientiane was ransacked. [33] Anouvong was taken to Bangkok as a prisoner, where he died. [34]

In a time period where the acquisition of humans was a priority over the ownership of land, the warfare of pre-modern Southeast Asia revolved around the seizing of people and resources from its enemies. A Siamese military campaign in Laos in 1876 was described by a British observer as having been "transformed into slave-hunting raids on a large scale". [35]

French Laos (1893–1953)

Local Lao soldiers in the French Colonial guard, c. 1900 Local Lao in the French Colonial guard.png
Local Lao soldiers in the French Colonial guard, c. 1900

In the 19th century, Luang Prabang was ransacked by the Chinese Black Flag Army. [36] France rescued King Oun Kham and added Luang Phrabang to the protectorate of French Indochina. The Kingdom of Champasak and the territory of Vientiane were added to the protectorate. King Sisavangvong of Luang Phrabang became ruler of a unified Laos, and Vientiane once again became the capital. [37]

Laos produced tin, rubber, and coffee; the country never accounted for more than 1% of French Indochina's exports. By 1940, around 600 French citizens lived in Laos. [38] Under French rule, the Vietnamese were encouraged to migrate to Laos; this was seen by the French colonists as a rational solution to a labour shortage within the confines of an Indochina-wide colonial space. [39] By 1943, the Vietnamese population stood at nearly 40,000, forming the majority in some cities of Laos and having the right to elect its own leaders. As a result, 53% of the population of Vientiane, 85% of Thakhek, and 62% of Pakse were Vietnamese; the exception was Luang Prabang, where the population was predominantly Lao. As late as 1945, the French drew up a plan to move a number of Vietnamese to three areas (i.e., the Vientiane Plain, Savannakhet region, and the Bolaven Plateau), which was derailed by the Japanese invasion of Indochina. Otherwise, according to Martin Stuart-Fox, the Lao might well have lost control over their own country. [40]

During World War II in Laos, Vichy France, Thailand, Imperial Japan and Free France occupied Laos. [41] On 9 March 1945, a nationalist group declared Laos once more independent, with Luang Prabang as its capital; on 7 April 1945, two battalions of Japanese troops occupied the city. The Japanese attempted to force Sisavang Vong (the king of Luang Phrabang) to declare Laotian independence, and on 8 April he instead declared an end to Laos's status as a French protectorate. The king then secretly sent Prince Kindavong to represent Laos to the Allied forces and Prince Sisavang as representative to the Japanese. [42] When Japan surrendered, some Lao nationalists (including Prince Phetsarath) declared Laotian independence, and by 1946, French troops had reoccupied the country and conferred autonomy on Laos. [43]

During the First Indochina War, the Indochinese Communist Party formed the Pathet Lao independence organisation. The Pathet Lao began a war against the French colonial forces with the aid of the Vietnamese independence organisation, the Viet Minh. In 1950, the French were forced to give Laos semi-autonomy as an "associated state" within the French Union. France remained in de facto control until 22 October 1953, when Laos gained full independence as a constitutional monarchy. [44] [43]

Independence and communist rule (1953–)

French general Raoul Salan and Prince Sisavang Vatthana in Luang Prabang, 4 May 1953 FrenchLaos1953.png
French general Raoul Salan and Prince Sisavang Vatthana in Luang Prabang, 4 May 1953

The First Indochina War took place across French Indochina and eventually led to French defeat and the signing of a peace accord for Laos at the Geneva Conference of 1954. In 1960, amidst a series of rebellions in the Kingdom of Laos, fighting broke out between the Royal Lao Army (RLA) and the communist North Vietnamese and Soviet Union-backed Pathet Lao guerillas. A second Provisional Government of National Unity formed by Prince Souvanna Phouma in 1962 was unsuccessful, and the situation turned into civil war between the Royal Laotian government and the Pathet Lao. The Pathet Lao were backed militarily by the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) and the Viet Cong. [44] [43]

Ruins of Muang Khoun, former capital of Xiangkhouang province, destroyed by the American bombing of Laos in the 1960s Muang Khoun - Laos - 01.JPG
Ruins of Muang Khoun, former capital of Xiangkhouang province, destroyed by the American bombing of Laos in the 1960s

Laos was a part of the Vietnam War since parts of Laos were invaded and occupied by North Vietnam since 1958 for use as a supply route for its war against South Vietnam. In response, the United States initiated a bombing campaign against the PAVN positions, supported regular and irregular anti-communist forces in Laos, and supported incursions into Laos by the Army of the Republic of Vietnam. [44] [43]

Aerial bombardments against the PAVN/Pathet Lao forces were carried out by the United States to prevent the collapse of the Kingdom of Laos central government, and to deny the use of the Ho Chi Minh Trail to attack US forces in South Vietnam. [44] Between 1964 and 1973, the US dropped 2 million tons of bombs on Laos, nearly equal to the 2.1 million tons of bombs the US dropped on Europe and Asia during all of World War II. This made Laos the most heavily bombed country in history relative to the size of its population; The New York Times notes this was "nearly a ton for every person in Laos". [45]

Some 80 million bombs failed to explode and remain scattered throughout the country. Unexploded ordnance (UXO), including cluster munitions and mines, kill or maim approximately 50 Laotians every year. [46] Due to the impact of cluster bombs during this war, Laos was an advocate of the Convention on Cluster Munitions to ban the weapons and was host to the First Meeting of States Parties to the convention in November 2010. [47]

Pathet Lao soldiers in Vientiane, 1973 Vientianne1973.jpg
Pathet Lao soldiers in Vientiane, 1973

In 1975, the Pathet Lao overthrew the royalist government, forcing King Savang Vatthana to abdicate on 2 December 1975. He later died in a re-education camp. Between 20,000 and 62,000 Laotians died during the civil war. [44] [48]

On 2 December 1975, after taking control of the country, the Pathet Lao government under Kaysone Phomvihane renamed the country as the Lao People's Democratic Republic; the government also signed agreements giving Vietnam the right to station armed forces and to appoint advisers to assist in overseeing the country. The ties between Laos and Vietnam were formalised via a treaty signed in 1977, which has since provided direction for Lao foreign policy, and provides the basis for Vietnamese involvement at levels of Lao political and economic life. [44] [49] In 1979, Laos was requested by Vietnam to end relations with the People's Republic of China; this led to isolation in trade by China, the United States, and other countries. [50] In 1979, there were 50,000 PAVN troops stationed in Laos and as many as 6,000 civilian Vietnamese officials including 1,000 directly attached to the ministries in Vientiane. [51] [52]

On 30 April 2024, Laos prohibited corporal punishment of children with the enactment of the Law on the Protection of the Rights and Interests of Children. It was the first ASEAN state to realise children's rights to protection from all violent punishment.

Relations with the Hmong

The conflict between Hmong rebels and Laos continued in areas of Laos, including in Saysaboune Closed Military Zone, Xaisamboune Closed Military Zone near Vientiane Province and Xiangkhouang Province. [53] In 1977, a communist newspaper promised the party would hunt down the "American collaborators" and their families "to the last root". [54] As many as 200,000 Hmong went into exile in Thailand, with some ending up in the US. Other Hmong fighters hid out in mountains in Xiangkhouang Province for years, with a remnant emerging from the jungle in 2003. [54]

In 1989, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), with the support of the US government, instituted the Comprehensive Plan of Action, a programme to stem the tide of Indochinese refugees from Laos, Vietnam, and Cambodia. Under the plan, refugee status was evaluated through a screening process. Recognised asylum seekers were given resettlement opportunities, while the remaining refugees were to be repatriated under guarantee of safety. After talks with the UNHCR and the Thai government, Laos agreed to repatriate the 60,000 Lao refugees living in Thailand, including several thousand Hmong people. Some of the Lao refugees were willing to return voluntarily. [55] Pressure to resettle the refugees grew as the Thai government worked to close its remaining refugee camps. While some Hmong people returned to Laos voluntarily, with development assistance from UNHCR, allegations of forced repatriation surfaced. [56] [57] Of those Hmong who did return to Laos, some escaped back to Thailand, describing discrimination and brutal treatment at the hands of Lao authorities. [58] In 1993, Vue Mai, a former Hmong soldier and leader of the largest Hmong refugee camp in Thailand, who had been recruited by the US Embassy in Bangkok to return to Laos as proof of the repatriation programme's success, disappeared in Vientiane. According to the US Committee for Refugees, he was arrested by Lao security forces and was never seen again. [59]

Following the Vue Mai incident, debate over the Hmong's planned repatriation to Laos intensified, including in the United States, where it drew opposition from American conservatives and some human rights advocates. [60] While some accusations of forced repatriation were denied, [61] thousands of Hmong people refused to return to Laos. In 1996 as the deadline for the closure of Thai refugee camps approached, and under mounting political pressure, the United States agreed to resettle Hmong refugees who passed a screening process. [62] Around 5,000 Hmong people who were not resettled at the time of the camp closures sought asylum at Wat Tham Krabok, a Buddhist monastery in central Thailand where more than 10,000 Hmong refugees had already been living. The Thai government attempted to repatriate these refugees, and the Wat Tham Krabok Hmong refused to leave and the Lao government refused to accept them, claiming they were involved in the illegal drug trade and were of non-Lao origin. [63] Following threats of forcible removal by the Thai government, the United States, in a victory for the Hmong, agreed to accept 15,000 of the refugees in 2003. [64] Several thousand Hmong people, fearing forced repatriation to Laos if they were not accepted for resettlement in the United States, fled the camp to live elsewhere within Thailand where a sizeable Hmong population has been present since the 19th century. [65]

In 2004 and 2005, thousands of Hmong fled from the jungles of Laos to a temporary refugee camp in the Thai province of Phetchabun. [66] Lending further support to earlier claims that the government of Laos was persecuting the Hmong, filmmaker Rebecca Sommer documented first-hand accounts in her documentary, Hunted Like Animals, [67] and in a comprehensive report that includes summaries of refugee claims, which was submitted to the UN in May 2006. [68]

Geography

Mekong River flowing through Luang Prabang Mekong River (Luang Prabang).jpg
Mekong River flowing through Luang Prabang

Laos is the only landlocked country in Southeast Asia. It lies mostly between latitudes 14° and 23°N (an area is south of 14°), and longitudes 100° and 108°E. Its forested landscape consists mostly of mountains, the highest of which is Phou Bia at 2,818 metres (9,245 ft), with some plains and plateaus. The Mekong River forms a part of the western boundary with Thailand, where the mountains of the Annamite Range form most of the eastern border with Vietnam and the Luang Prabang Range the northwestern border with the Thai highlands. There are two plateaus, the Xiangkhoang in the north and the Bolaven Plateau at the southern end. Laos can be considered to consist of three geographical areas: north, central, and south. [69] Laos had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 5.59/10, ranking it 98th globally out of 172 countries. [70]

In 1993, the Laos government set aside 21% of the nation's land area for habitat conservation preservation. [71] The country is one of four nations in the opium poppy growing region known as the "Golden Triangle". [72] According to the October 2007 UNODC fact book Opium Poppy Cultivation in South East Asia, the poppy cultivation area was 15 square kilometres (5.8 sq mi); this is down from 18 square kilometres (6.9 sq mi) in 2006. [73]

Climate

Koppen climate classification map of Laos Koppen-Geiger Map LAO present.svg
Köppen climate classification map of Laos

The climate is mostly tropical savanna and influenced by the monsoon pattern. There is a rainy season from May to October, followed by a dry season from November to April. Local tradition holds that there are three seasons: rainy, cool and hot. Further, the latter two months of the climatologically defined dry season are hotter than the earlier four months. [74]

Wildlife

Laos, with its forests and river systems, is home to an array of wildlife. [75] [76] National parks like Nam Et-Phou Louey are critical refuges, supporting endangered species such as the northern white-cheeked gibbon and the saola. [77] These forests shelter more than 50 mammal species and nearly 300 bird species, along with a variety of reptiles and amphibians. [c]

Administrative divisions

An updated map of Lao provinces (from 2014) Provinces-Laos.svg
An updated map of Lao provinces (from 2014)

Laos is divided into 17 provinces (khoueng) and one prefecture (kampheng nakhon), which includes the capital city Vientiane (Nakhon Louang Viangchan). [78]

No. Subdivisions CapitalArea (km2)Population
1 Attapeu Attapeu (Samakkhixay district)10,320114,300
2 Bokeo Houayxay (Houayxay district)6,196149,700
3 Bolikhamsai Paksan (Paksane District)14,863214,900
4 Champasak Pakse (Pakse District)15,415575,600
5 Houaphanh Xam Neua (Xamneua District)16,500322,200
6 Khammouane Thakhek (Thakhek District)16,315358,800
7 Luang Namtha Luang Namtha (Namtha District)9,325150,100
8 Luang Prabang Luang Prabang (Luang Prabang district)16,875408,800
9 Oudomxay Muang Xay (Xay District)15,370275,300
10 Phongsaly Phongsali (Phongsaly District)16,270199,900
11 Sainyabuli Sayabouly (Xayabury District)16,389382,200
12 Salavan Salavan (Salavan District)10,691336,600
13 Savannakhet Savannakhet (Kaysone Phomvihane District)21,774721,500
14 Sekong Sekong (Lamarm District)7,66583,600
15 Vientiane Prefecture Vientiane (Chanthabouly district)3,9201,001,477
16 Vientiane Province Phonhong (Phonhong District)15,927373,700
17 Xiengkhouang Phonsavan (Pek District)15,880229,521
18 Xaisomboun Anouvong (Anouvong district)8,30082,000

Governance and politics

The LPDR is a communist state that self-designates as a people's democratic state, [5] meaning that it is officially trying to transition the country from capitalism to socialism, before commencing to transition from socialism to communism. [16] In The Economist's Democracy Index 2016, Laos was classified as an "authoritarian regime", ranking lowest of the 9 ASEAN nations included in the study. [79] [80]


The Lao People's Revolutionary Party's leading role in state and society

Flag of the ruling Lao People's Revolutionary Party Flag of LPRP.svg
Flag of the ruling Lao People's Revolutionary Party

The Lao People's Revolutionary Party (LPRP) is the founding and ruling party of the Lao People's Democratic Republic. The leading role of the LPRP over state and society is enshrined in the constitution by stating that "The rights of the multi-ethnic people to be the masters of the country are exercised and ensured through the functioning of the political system with the Lao People's Revolutionary Party as its leading nucleus." [81] All Lao state organs operate under the leadership of the LPRP; because of the party's organizational principle of democratic centralism, all party members in state organs are required to implement the decisions of the Central Committee of the LPRP. All state organs consist of a majority of party members as well. The party also establishes party groups within state organs, which the LPRP Central Committee supervises through its Secretariat and the Organisation Commission. [82]

The highest organ of the LPRP is the party congress, which meets at least every fifth year. [83] It elects the members and candidates of the LPRP Central Committee. [84] At its first session after a party congress, the LPRP Central Committee elects its central leading organs: the Politburo, the Secretariat, the Inspection Commission, and the Defence and Public Security Commission (DPSC). [85] It also elects the party leader, the general secretary of the LPRP Central Committee. [86] The general secretary leads the work of the Politburo while concurrently serving as chairman of the DPSC. He co-leads the Secretariat with the Standing Member of the LPRP Secretariat. [87] These organs are delegated specific powers of the Central Committee when the latter is not in session; the Politburo is the party's highest decision-making organ when the Central Committee, the Conference, and the Congress are not in session. [88] The party heads are elected by a session of the LPRP Central Committee. On 15 January 2021, the 1st Plenary Session of the sitting 11th LPRP Central Committee elected Thongloun Sisoulith as general secretary, Bounthong Chitmany as standing member, and Khamphanh Phommathat as chair of the LPRP Inspection Commission. The session also elected the 11th Politburo, the 11th Secretariat, and the 11th Inspection Commission. [89]

The LPRP, as the leading force of state and society, has a legal monopoly on state power. [90] According to scholar Martin Stuart-Fox, the LPRP's control is cemented by populating every state organ, bureaucracy, transmission belt mass organisation, and the Lao People's Armed Forces (LPAF) with party members. He concludes, "In all four, it is virtually de rigueur for leading figures to be Party members. They would not be in those positions unless they were members of the Party. Party cells operate in all institutions, and there is active recruitment of promising younger personnel into the Party; membership is by invitation only." [91] Economist Bounlonh J.Soukamneuth concurs with Stuart-Fox's assessment and writes that the "Party monopolises political ambition and regulates public life. Party operatives penetrate all institutions of [state] and many areas of society. All party-state organisations (from the government bureaucracy, the mass organisation, to the military) implement party directives and administer its monopoly on power." [92] The LPAF is tasked by the state constitution to defend the gains of the revolution, but says little else about civil-military relations and political control over the armed forces. On the other hand, the LPRP's own statute makes clear that political leadership over the military and other security forces is in the hands of the LPRP DPSC, which maintains direct, united, and full control of the LPAF. [93]

The National Assembly's unified state power

The seat of the National Assembly of Laos, the supreme state organ of power. National Assembly of Laos (11888085666).jpg
The seat of the National Assembly of Laos, the supreme state organ of power.

The National Assembly is the Lao supreme state organ of power and formally holds the unified powers of the state. It is the only state organ that can adopt or amend the country's current communist state constitution, which was adopted on 14 August 1991 and last amended on 10 March 2025. [94] The National Assembly is officially considered the embodiment of popular sovereignty since it is elected through controlled elections in which candidates are vetted by the National Election Committee. The LPRP, state organs, the Lao Front for National Development as the largest transmission belt mass organisation in the country, and other transmission belt mass organisations are allowed to nominate candidates to the National Election Committee, which can either approve or reject them. [95]

The National Assembly is not a permanent organ, and in between its sessions, it is led by its permanent organ, the Standing Committee. As the state's highest organ, all other state organs are inferior to the National Assembly and accountable to it per democratic centralism since, according to the constitution, "The National Assembly, the Local People's Assemblies and other state organisations are established and function in accordance with the principle of democratic centralism." [96] As a result, the National Assembly establishes all other state organs that make up the unified state apparatus per the division of labour of state organs. The Lao constitution has created the following hierarchy of state organs: the National Assembly as the highest, followed by the president of Laos, the government of Laos, the system of people's councils and their governments, the People's Supreme Court, the People's Supreme Procuratorate, the State Inspection Authority, the State Audit Organisation, and the National Election Committee. All these organs are, in theory, accountable to the National Assembly: This is a formality since, in practice, the other state organs work highly independently from it. [97]

The National Assembly and its Standing Committee are headed by a chair and vice chairs. The chair concurrently serves ex officio as a member of the Standing Committee of the National Assembly, the LPRP Central Committee, and the LPRP Politburo. The National Assembly is empowered to adopt and amend laws and legislation. It can decide whether Laos should approve, withdraw, or cancel international treaties. It is responsible for adopting a five-year work plan for itself and for all inferior state organs. It can rescind legislation issued by other state organs if it conflicts with adopted laws or the constitution. It also adopts a five-year plan for economic development, known as the National Socio-Economic Development Plan, and a state budget plan. It has the right to hold individuals it elects or appoints to state organs accountable for their work and to check whether these individuals are implementing the policies adopted by the National Assembly. Moreover, since the National Assembly is not in permanent session, it delegates some of its powers to its Standing Committee under the constitution, and it can also delegate specific powers through a majority vote at one of its sessions. All inferior state organs and the Lao Front for National Development can propose legislation and amendments to the constitution to the National Assembly. [98] The current chair of the National Assembly and leader of its Standing Committee is Saysomphone Phomvihane. [99]

The president is the Lao head of state, and the officeholder concurrently serves as the LPRP general secretary. The officeholder is bound by a term limit of two consecutive electoral terms. [100] The officeholder is empowered to promulgate the constitution and law, issue presidential edicts and decrees, convene and preside over special sessions of the government, and attend sessions of the Standing Committee of the National Assembly if deemed necessary. The president can instigate the appointment, reassignment, and removal of deputy prime ministers and members of the government, the vice president of the People's Supreme Court and the Deputy People's Supreme Procurator, the vice president of the State Audit Organisation, and the vice president of the State Inspection Authority on the approval of the National Assembly. Should the president be incapacitated, the vice president takes over his duties. [98] The incumbent president is Thongloun Sisoulith. [99]

The Lao government is the supreme executive and administrative organ of state power and is headed by the prime minister, who serves as head of government. The prime minister is elected by the National Assembly on the president's recommendation. Neither the prime minister nor any member of the government may serve more than two electoral terms. [100] The members of the government are dually responsible to the president and the National Assembly, and can be removed by the National Assembly through a vote of no confidence. [101] The government is responsible for leading state economic policy and administering the Lao state on behalf of the National Assembly and the LPRP. [98] The current prime minister is Sonexay Siphandone. [102]

The National Assembly heads the system of people's councils, literally the system of state organs of power, that controls the state apparatus at lower levels, and these lower-level people's councils elect the people's governments at their corresponding level. People's councils exist at the provincial, district, and village levels. Their powers mirror those of the National Assembly in their own jurisdiction. The people's governments at the provincial, district, and village levels are elected by the people's councils, and are accountable to them and the government as the supreme executive and administrative organ of state power. [98]

Laos has two judicial organs: the People's Supreme Court (PSC), the supreme judicial organ, and the People's Supreme Procuratorate (PSP), the supreme procuratorial organ. Both are considered political organs because they implement the political line adopted by the National Assembly, which operates under the LPRP's leadership. The PSC, despite its formal title, is solely focused on adjudication. It heads the unified system of judicial organs and leads nationwide judicial work. The PSP monitors the implementation of the constitution and laws in all state organs and society at large. It is also empowered to initiate investigations against suspected wrongdoers and file cases against defendants in court. [98] The PSC is headed by Viengthong Siphandone, and the PSP is Xaysana Khotphouthone. [99]

Auditing and anti-corruption work are also handled by political organs, and are the responsibility of the State Audit Organisation (SAO), the supreme auditing organ, and the State Inspection Authority (SIA), the supreme supervisory organ. SAO is tasked with conducting an audit of the use of the state budget, finances, and use of state assets. It is responsible for auditing all state organs, transmission belt mass organisations, and organisations financed by the state budget, state funds, or state assets. The SAO president is responsible to the National Assembly and its permanent organ, and the prime minister. [98] The SIA leads anti-corruption work in all state organisations and organisations financed from the state budget, state funds, and state assets. The SAO is headed by President Viengthavisone Thephachanh, and the SIA is headed by President Khamphan Phommathat. [99]

The National Election Committee (NEC) is a non-permanent organ elected by the National Assembly. It is responsible for organising the elections of the people's councils and the National Assembly. It sets the date of election day, which is promulgated through a presidential decree. It is also responsible for disseminating information about the elections to the public. It also plans the composition of the National Assembly. For the 2026 elections, for example, the NEC set a target that at least 30% of elected members were to be female. [103] The sitting NEC president is Chaleun Yiapaoher, who concurrently serves as vice chair of the National Assembly. [104]

Foreign relations

Prime Minister Thongloun Sisoulith with Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi and ASEAN heads of state in New Delhi on 25 January 2018 Prime Minister Narendra Modi and ASEAN heads of state and government at the Rashtrapati Bhavan in New Delhi.jpg
Prime Minister Thongloun Sisoulith with Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi and ASEAN heads of state in New Delhi on 25 January 2018

The foreign relations of Laos after the takeover by the Pathet Lao in December 1975 were characterised by a hostile posture toward the West, with the government of the Lao PDR aligning itself with the Soviet Bloc, maintaining ties with the Soviet Union [105] and depending on the Soviets for most of its foreign assistance. [106]

Laos's emergence from international isolation has been marked through expanded relations with other countries including Russia, China, Thailand, Australia, Germany, Italy, Japan and Switzerland. [107] Trade relations with the United States were normalised in November 2004 through Congress approved legislation. [108] Laos was admitted into the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in July 1997 and acceded to the World Trade Organization in 2016. [109] In 2005, it attended the inaugural East Asia Summit. [110]

Human rights

Civil society advocates, human rights defenders, political and religious dissidents, and Hmong refugees have disappeared at the hands of Lao military and security forces.

Ostensibly, the Constitution of Laos that was promulgated in 1991 and amended in 2003 contains safeguards for human rights. For example, Article 8 makes it clear that Laos is a multinational state and is committed to equality between ethnic groups. The constitution contains provisions for gender equality, freedom of religion, freedom of speech, and freedom of press and assembly. [111] On 25 September 2009, Laos ratified the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, nine years after signing the treaty. The stated policy objectives of the Lao government and international donors remain focused upon achieving sustainable economic growth and poverty reduction. [112] [113]

An organisation raised concerns in relation to freedom of expression, prison conditions, restrictions on freedom of religions, protection of refugees and asylum-seekers, and the death penalty. [114] Laos has been cited as an origin country for human trafficking. [115] A number of citizens, primarily women and girls from ethnic groups and foreigners, have been victims of sex trafficking in Laos. [116] [117] [118] The Lao government sometimes controls media channels to prevent critique of its actions. [119] Lao citizens who have criticised the government have been subjected to enforced disappearances, arrests and torture. [120] [121]

Economy

GDP per capita development in Laos GDP per capita development in Laos.svg
GDP per capita development in Laos

The Lao economy depends on investment and trade with its neighbours, Thailand, Vietnam, and, especially in the north, China. Pakxe has experienced growth based on cross-border trade with Thailand and Vietnam. In 2009, the Obama administration in the US declared Laos was no longer a communist state and lifted bans on Laotian companies receiving financing from the US Export-Import Bank. [122] [123] In 2016, China was the biggest foreign investor in the Laotian economy, having invested US$5.395 billion since 1989, according to the Laos Ministry of Planning and Investment's 1989–2014 report. Thailand (invested US$4.489 billion) and Vietnam (invested US$3.108 billion) are the second and third largest investors respectively. [124] [ needs update ]

Subsistence agriculture accounts for half of the GDP and provides 80% of employment. 4% of the country is arable land and 0.3% used as permanent crop land, [125] the lowest percentage in the Greater Mekong Subregion. [126] The irrigated areas account for 28% of the total area under cultivation which, in turn, represents 12% of all of the agricultural land in 2012. [127] Rice dominates agriculture, with about 80% of the arable land area used for growing rice. [128] Approximately 77% of Lao farm households are self-sufficient in rice. [129]

Laos imports petroleum and gas. Metallurgy is an industry, and the government hopes to attract foreign investment to develop the deposits of coal, gold, bauxite, tin, copper, and other metals. The mining industry of Laos has received attention with foreign direct investments. More than 540 mineral deposits of gold, copper, zinc, lead and other minerals have been identified, explored and mined. [130] The country's water resources and mountainous terrain enable it to produce and export quantities of hydroelectric energy. [131] Of the potential capacity of approximately 18,000 megawatts, around 8,000 megawatts have been committed for export to Thailand and Vietnam. [132] As of 2021, Laos continues to rely on fossil fuels, coal in particular, in domestic electricity production. [133] In 2018, the country ranked 139th on the Human Development Index (HDI), indicating medium development. [134] According to the Global Hunger Index (2018), Laos ranks as the 36th hungriest nation in the world out of the list of the 52 nations with the worst hunger situation(s). [135] In 2019, the UN Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights conducted an official visit to Laos and found that the country's top-down approach to economic growth and poverty alleviation "is all too often counterproductive, leading to impoverishment and jeopardising the rights of the poor and marginalised." [136]

A product, Beerlao, was exported in 2017 to more than 20 countries worldwide. It is produced by the Lao Brewery Company. [137]

Tourism

Near the sanctuary on the upper level of Vat Phou, looking back towards the Mekong River ViewFromWatPhu.JPG
Near the sanctuary on the upper level of Vat Phou, looking back towards the Mekong River

The tourism sector has grown from 80,000 international visitors in 1990, to 1.876 million in 2010, [138] when tourism had been expected to rise to US$1.5857 billion by 2020. In 2010, 1 in every 11 jobs was in the tourism sector. Export earnings from international visitors and tourism goods are expected to generate 16% of total exports or US$270.3 million in 2010, growing in nominal terms to US$484.2 million (12.5% of the total) in 2020. [139] The European Council on Trade and Tourism awarded the country the "World Best Tourist Destination" designation for 2013 for architecture and history. [140] In 2024, tourist numbers topped 5 million, contributing over US$1 billion to the economy. [141]

The Lao National Tourism Administration, related government agencies and the private sector are working together to realise the vision put forth in the country's National Ecotourism Strategy and Action Plan. This includes decreasing the environmental and cultural impact of tourism; increasing awareness in the importance of ethnic groups and biological diversity; providing a source of income to conserve, sustain and manage the Lao protected area network and cultural heritage sites; and emphasising the need for tourism zoning and management plans for sites that will be developed as ecotourism destinations. [142]

Transportation

Rivers are a means of transport in Laos. Nam ou 1.jpg
Rivers are a means of transport in Laos.

The mountainous geography of Laos had impeded Laos's ground transportation development throughout the 20th century. Its first railway line, a 3-km long metre-gauge railway that connects southern Vientiane to Thailand, opened in 2009. In December 2021, the 422-km long Boten–Vientiane railway that runs from the capital Vientiane to Boten at the northern border with China, built as part of China's Belt and Road Initiative, was opened. [143] [144]

There is external and internal telecommunication. 93% of households have a telephone, either fixed line or mobile. [145] : 8  Electricity is available to 93% of the population. [145] : 8 

Water supply

According to the World Bank data conducted in 2014, Laos has met the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) targets on water and sanitation regarding the UNICEF/WHO Joint Monitoring Programme. As of 2018, there are approximately 1.9 million of Lao's population who could not access an improved water supply and 2.4 million people without access to improved sanitation. [146]

Laos has made progress increasing access to sanitation. [147] In 1990 8% of the rural population had access to improved sanitation. [147] Access rose from 10% in 1995 to 38% in 2008. Between 1995 and 2008, approximately 1,232,900 more people had access to improved sanitation in rural areas. [147] The authorities in Laos have developed an innovative regulatory framework for public–private partnership contracts signed with enterprises, in parallel with more conventional regulation of state-owned water enterprises. [148]

Demographics

Population graph of Laos, number of inhabitants in millions between 1800 and 2021 (Our World in Data data, 2022) Laos-demography.png
Population graph of Laos, number of inhabitants in millions between 1800 and 2021 (Our World in Data data, 2022)

The population of Laos in 2024 is estimated to be 7,953,556, with 3,966,320 males and 3,987,236 females, according to The World Factbook. This makes Laos the 103rd most populous country in the world. [149]

Ethnicity

The people of Laos are categorised by their distribution by elevation (lowlands, midlands and upper high lands), as this somewhat correlates with ethnic groupings. More than half of the nation's population is ethnic Lao—the principal lowland inhabitants. [150] The Lao belong to the Tai linguistic group [151] who began migrating south from China in the first millennium AD. [152] 10% belong to other "lowland" groups, which together with the Lao people make up the Lao Loum (lowland people). [150]

In the central and southern mountains, Mon-Khmer-speaking groups, known as Lao Theung or mid-slope Laotians, predominate. Other terms are Khmu, Khamu (Kammu) or Kha as the Lao Loum refer to them to indicate their Austroasiatic language affiliation. The latter is considered pejorative, meaning 'slave'. They were the indigenous inhabitants of northern Laos. Some Vietnamese, Laotian Chinese [153] and Thai minorities remain, particularly in the towns, and some left after independence in the 1940s, some of whom relocated either to Vietnam, Hong Kong, or to France. Lao Theung constitute about 30% of the population. [154]

Hill people and minority cultures of Laos such as the Hmong, Yao (Mien) (Hmong-Mien), Dao, Shan, and Tibeto-Burman speaking peoples have lived in isolated regions of Laos for years. Mountain/hill tribes of mixed ethno/cultural-linguistic heritage are found in northern Laos, which include the Lua and Khmu people who are indigenous to Laos. Collectively, they are known as Lao Soung or highland Laotians. Lao Soung account for about 10% of the population. [43]

Languages

The official language is Lao, a language of the Tai-Kadai language family. More than half of the population speaks Lao fluently. The remainder, particularly in rural areas, speak ethnic minority languages. The Lao alphabet, which evolved sometime between the 13th and 14th centuries, was derived from the Khmer script. [155] Languages like Khmu (Austroasiatic) and Hmong (Hmong-Mien) are spoken by minorities, particularly in the midland and highland areas. A number of Laotian sign languages are used in areas with higher rates of congenital deafness. [43]

French is used in government and commerce, and Laos is a member of the French-speaking organisation of La Francophonie. The organisation estimated in 2010 that there were 173,800 French speakers in Laos. [156] English, the language of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), has become increasingly studied. [157]

Religion

Wat Nong Sikhounmuang pagoda in Luang Prabang Vat Nong Sikhounmuang.jpg
Wat Nong Sikhounmuang pagoda in Luang Prabang

66% of Laotians were Theravada Buddhist, 1.5% Christian, 0.1% Muslim, 0.1% Jewish, and 32.3% were other or traditional (mostly practitioners of Satsana Phi) in 2010. [4] [158]

Health

Mahosot Hospital in Vientiane VientianeHospital.jpg
Mahosot Hospital in Vientiane

Male life expectancy at birth was at 67,4 years and female life expectancy was at 70,7 years in 2025. [159] Healthy life expectancy was 54 years in 2007. [160] Government expenditure on health is about 4% of GDP, [160] about US$18 (PPP) in 2006. [160]

Education

National University of Laos in Vientiane National University of Laos(NUOL)m.s - panoramio.jpg
National University of Laos in Vientiane

The adult literacy rate for women in 2017 was 62.9%; for adult men, 78.1%. [145] : 39–40 

In 2004, the net primary enrolment rate was 84%. [160] Laos was ranked 109th in the Global Innovation Index in 2025. [161] [162]

Culture

Cuisine

An example of Lao cuisine 3 Nagas Feast.jpg
An example of Lao cuisine

Sticky rice is a staple food. There are traditions and rituals associated with rice production in environments and among ethnic groups. For example, Khammu farmers in Luang Prabang plant the rice variety khao kam in quantities near the farm house in memory of dead parents, or at the edge of the rice field to indicate that parents are alive. [163]

A dish is larb in which chopped meat is blended with toasted rice and then seasoned with herbs, fish sauce, and lime. [164]

Cinema

The first feature-length film made after the monarchy was abolished is Gun Voice from the Plain of Jars directed by Somchith Pholsena in 1983 and its release was prevented by a censorship board. [165] A commercial feature-length film was Sabaidee Luang Prabang , made in 2008. [166] The 2017 documentary feature film Blood Road was predominantly shot and produced in Laos with assistance from the Lao government. It was recognised with a News and Documentary Emmy Award in 2018. [167]

Australian filmmaker Kim Mordount's first feature film was made in Laos and features a Laotian cast speaking their native language. Entitled The Rocket , the film appeared at the 2013 Melbourne International Film Festival and won three awards at the Berlin International Film Festival. [168] Examples of Lao feature films that have received international recognition include Lao New Wave Cinema's At the Horizon, directed by Anysay Keola, which was screened at the OzAsia Film Festival, [169] and Lao Art Media's Chanthaly (Lao: ຈັນທະລີ), directed by Mattie Do, which was screened at the 2013 Fantastic Fest. [170] [171] In September 2017, Laos submitted Dearest Sister (Lao: ນ້ອງຮັກ), Mattie Do's second feature film, to the 90th Academy Awards (or the Oscars) for consideration for Best Foreign Language Film, marking the country's first submission for the Oscars. [172]

As of 2018, Laos has three theatres dedicated to showing films. [173]

Festivals

Lao dancers during the New Year celebration Lao New Year, dancers.jpg
Lao dancers during the New Year celebration

There are public holidays, festivities and ceremonies in Laos.

Sport

The martial art of muay Lao, the national sport, [176] is a form of kickboxing similar to Thailand's muay Thai, Burmese Lethwei and Cambodian Pradal Serey. [177]

See also

Explanatory notes

  1. ↑ /laʊs/ ⓘ , /ˈlɑːoʊs,ˈlɑːɒs,ˈleɪɒs/ LOWSS, LAH-ohss, LAH-oss, LAY-oss [10] [11] [12]
  2. ↑ Lao: ສາທາລະນະລັດ ປະຊາທິປະໄຕ ປະຊາຊົນລາວ, romanised: Sathalanalat Paxathipatai Paxaxon Lao
  3. ↑ "The Nam Et-Phou Louey National Park harbors over 50 species of mammals, more than 300 species of birds, and reptiles and amphibians." [77]

References

Books

  • Bestari, Njoman George; Mongcopa, Caren Joy; Samson, Jindra; Ward, Keith (2006). Lao PDR: Governance Issues in Agriculture and Natural Resources (PDF). Asian Development Bank. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 July 2025. Retrieved 21 July 2025.
  • Chang, Wen-Chen; Thio, Li-ann; Tan, Kevin YL; Yeh, Jiunn-rong (2014). Constitutionalism in Asia: Cases and Materials. Hart Publishing. ISBN   978-1-84946-234-1.
  • Croissant, Aurel (2022). Comparative Politics of Southeast Asia: An Introduction to Governments and Political Regimes. Springer Publishing. doi:10.1007/978-3-031-05114-2. ISBN   978-3-031-05116-6.
  • Gunn, Geoffrey C. (1998). Theravadins, Colonialists, and Commissars in Laos. White Lotus Press. ISBN   9789748434391.
  • High, Holly (2014). Fields of Desire: Poverty and Policy in Laos. Singapore University Press. ISBN   978-9971-69-770-9.
  • Pholsena, Vatthana (2006). Post-war Laos: The Politics of Culture, History and Identity. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN   978-0-8014-7320-3.
  • Son, Bui Ngoc (2020). Constitutional Change in the Contemporary Socialist World. Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-885134-9.
  • Stuart-Fox, Martin (2002). Buddhist Kingdom, Marxist State: The Making of Modern Laos (2nd ed.). University of Michigan. ISBN   978-9748496481.

Book chapters

Dissertations

Journal entries

Web articles

Footnotes

  1. ↑ "The Languages spoken in Laos". Studycountry. Archived from the original on 25 February 2021. Retrieved 16 September 2018.
  2. ↑ "Results of Population and Housing Census 2015" (PDF). Lao Statistics Bureau. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 1 May 2020.
  3. ↑ "Lao People's Democratic Republic's Constitution of 1991 with Amendments through 2003" (PDF). constituteproject.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 December 2017. Retrieved 29 October 2017. Article 9: The State respects and protects all lawful activities of Buddhists and of followers of other religions, [and] mobilises and encourages Buddhist monks and novices as well as the priests of other religions to participate in activities that are beneficial to the country and people.
  4. 1 2 "Global Religious Landscape; Table: Religious Composition by Country" (PDF). Pew Research. 2010. p. 47. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 March 2018. Retrieved 16 April 2020.
  5. 1 2 3 Brown 1982, p. 30; Norindr 1982, pp. 39 & 44; Gunn 1998, p. 120; Pholsena 2006, pp. 91 & 142; Bestari et al. 2006, p. 2; High 2014, pp. 169–170; Rehbein 2019, p. 168; Son 2020, pp. 119–120; Central Intelligence Agency 2025.
  6. 1 2 "Laos". The World Factbook (2026 ed.). Central Intelligence Agency . Retrieved 24 September 2022.  (Archived 2022 edition.)
  7. 1 2 3 4 "World Economic Outlook Databases".
  8. ↑ "Gini Index". World Bank. Archived from the original on 9 February 2015. Retrieved 2 March 2011.
  9. ↑ "Human Development Report 2025" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 2025. Retrieved 14 May 2025.
  10. ↑ "Laos". Archived from the original on 25 February 2021. Retrieved 8 September 2016– via The Free Dictionary.
  11. ↑ "Laos – definition of Laos in English from the Oxford dictionary". 9 November 2015. Archived from the original on 9 November 2015.
  12. ↑ Oxford Dictionaries (American English)
  13. ↑ "About Laos: Geography". Asia Pacific Parliamentary Forum. Government of Laos. Archived from the original on 16 April 2016.
  14. ↑ Stuart-Fox, Martin (1998). The Lao Kingdom of Lan Xang: Rise and Decline. White Lotus Press. p. 49. ISBN   974-8434-33-8.
  15. ↑ Vongvilay, Xayaphone; Shin, Jai-Eok; Kang, Young-Hwan; Kim, E-Doo; Choi, Joong-Hyun (1 May 2015). "The Influence of French Colonial Rule on Lao Architecture with a Focus on Residential Buildings". Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering. 14 (2): 279–286. doi: 10.3130/jaabe.14.279 . ISSN   1346-7581.
  16. 1 2 Norindr 1982, pp. 50−51; Stuart-Fox 1997, pp. 201−202; Pholsena 2006, p. 5; Bestari et al. 2006, p. 2; High 2014, p. 91; Chang et al. 2014, pp. 173−174; Son 2020, p. 232.
  17. ↑ Lao PDR: Accelerating Structural Transformation for Inclusive Growth – Country Diagnostic Study. Asian Development Bank. 10 November 2017. doi:10.22617/tcs179052-2. ISBN   978-92-9257-993-7.
  18. ↑ Bird, Kelly; Hill, Hal (June 2010). "Tiny, Poor, Land-locked, Indebted, but Growing: Lessons for Late Reforming Transition Economies from Laos" . Oxford Development Studies. 38 (2): 117–143. doi:10.1080/13600811003753776. hdl: 1885/52194 . ISSN   1360-0818.
  19. ↑ Osaka City University, Japan; Yan, Xuchong (18 September 2024). "A Study on the China-Laos Railway's Economic and Strategic Significance" . Souphanouvong University Journal Multidisciplinary Research and Development. 10 (1): 115–123. doi:10.69692/SUJMRD1001115.
  20. ↑ Zhang, Zongshi; Zeng, Wenge (15 December 2023). "What Would Be Necessary to Construct a Rule Framework for Sustainability in the New Western Land–Sea Corridor? An Analysis Based on Green International Rule of Law". Sustainability. 15 (24) 16888. Bibcode:2023Sust...1516888Z. doi: 10.3390/su152416888 . ISSN   2071-1050.
  21. ↑ Verbiest, Jean-Pierre A. (2013). "Regional Cooperation and Integration in the Mekong Region" . Asian Economic Policy Review. 8 (1): 148–164. doi:10.1111/aepr.12015. ISSN   1748-3131.
  22. ↑ "Lao People's Democratic Republic and the WTO". World Trade Organization. Archived from the original on 12 August 2014. Retrieved 9 August 2014.
  23. ↑ Demeter, F; et al. (2012). "Anatomically modern human in Southeast Asia (Laos) by 46 ka". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 109 (36): 14375–14380. Bibcode:2012PNAS..10914375D. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1208104109 . ISSN   0027-8424. PMC   3437904 . PMID   22908291.
  24. ↑ White, J.C.; Lewis, H.; Bouasisengpaseuth, B.; Marwick, B.; Arrell, K (2009). "Archaeological Investigations in northern Laos: New contributions to Southeast Asian prehistory". Antiquity. 83 (319). Archived from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 18 September 2016.
  25. ↑ Marwick, Ben; Bouasisengpaseuth, Bounheung (2017). "History and Practice of Archaeology in Laos". In Habu, Junko; Lape, Peter; Olsen, John (eds.). Handbook of East and Southeast Asian Archaeology. Springer. Archived from the original on 6 July 2019. Retrieved 20 January 2018.
  26. ↑ Pittayaporn, Pittayawat (2014). "Layers of Chinese Loanwords in Proto-Southwestern Tai as Evidence for the Dating of the Spread of Southwestern Tai]" (PDF). MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities (Special Issue No 20): 47–64. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 June 2015.
  27. ↑ Coedès, George (1968). Walter F. Vella (ed.). The Indianized States of Southeast Asia. trans. Susan Brown Cowing. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN   978-0-8248-0368-1.
  28. ↑ "Fa Ngum". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 23 December 2019.
  29. ↑ "Fa Ngum". History.com. Archived from the original on 8 March 2010. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
  30. ↑ Sanda Simms, ch. 3, "Through Chaos to a New Order", in The Kingdoms of Laos (London: Taylor & Francis, 2013). ISBN   9781136863370
  31. ↑ Sanda Simms, ch. 6, "Seventy Years of Anarchy", in The Kingdoms of Laos (London: Taylor & Francis, 2013). ISBN   9781136863370; see also P.C. Sinha, ed., Encyclopaedia of South East and Far East Asia, vol. 3 (Anmol, 2006).
  32. ↑ Askew, Marc. (2010) [2007]. Vientiane: transformations of a Lao landscape. Logan, William Stewart, 1942–, Long, Colin, 1966–. London: Routledge. ISBN   978-0-415-59662-6. OCLC   68416667.
  33. ↑ "Let's hope Laos hangs on to its identity". Asianewsnet.net. Archived from the original on 26 November 2010. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
  34. ↑ Showalter, Dennis, ed. (2013). Imperial Wars 1815–1914. Encyclopedia of Warfare Series. London: Amber Books. ISBN   978-1-78274-125-1. OCLC   1152285624.
  35. ↑ "Slavery in Nineteenth-Century Northern Thailand: Archival Anecdotes and Village Voices". The New Kyoto Review of South East Asia Website. 12 October 2010. Archived from the original on 12 October 2010. Retrieved 16 May 2025.
  36. ↑ Librios Semantic Environment (11 August 2006). "Laos: Laos under the French". Culturalprofiles.net. Archived from the original on 18 July 2007. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
  37. ↑ Carine Hahn, Le Laos, Karthala, 1999, pp. 69–72
  38. ↑ "History of Laos". Lonely Planet. 9 August 1960. Archived from the original on 25 February 2021. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
  39. ↑ Ivarsson, Søren (2008). Creating Laos: The Making of a Lao Space Between Indochina and Siam, 1860–1945. NIAS Press. ISBN   978-87-7694-023-2. Archived from the original on 10 April 2023.
  40. ↑ Stuart-Fox, Martin (28 September 1997). A History of Laos. Cambridge University Press. ISBN   978-0-521-59746-3. Archived from the original on 5 April 2023.
  41. ↑ Paul Lévy, Histoire du Laos, PUF, 1974.
  42. ↑ Savada, Andrea Matles (editor) (1994). "Events in 1945". A Country Study: Laos Archived 21 July 2015 at the Wayback Machine . Federal Research Division, Library of Congress.
  43. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Laos – Overview". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
  44. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Laos profile". 9 January 2018. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 26 April 2019.
  45. ↑ Kiernan, Ben; Owen, Taylor (26 April 2015). "Making More Enemies than We Kill? Calculating U.S. Bomb Tonnages Dropped on Laos and Cambodia, and Weighing Their Implications". The Asia-Pacific Journal. Archived from the original on 1 March 2017. Retrieved 18 September 2016.
  46. ↑ Wright, Rebecca (6 September 2016). "'My friends were afraid of me': What 80 million unexploded US bombs did to Laos". CNN . Archived from the original on 17 January 2019. Retrieved 18 September 2016.
  47. ↑ "Disarmament". The United Nations Office at Geneva. United Nations. November 2011. Archived from the original on 21 September 2013. Retrieved 20 September 2013.
  48. ↑ Obermeyer, Ziad; Murray, Christopher J. L.; Gakidou, Emmanuela (2008). "Fifty years of violent war deaths from Vietnam to Bosnia: analysis of data from the world health survey programme". BMJ . 336 (7659): 1482–1486. doi:10.1136/bmj.a137. PMC   2440905 . PMID   18566045. See Table 3.
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