Irreligion

"Irreligious" redirects here. For the album by Moonspell, see Irreligious (album).

See also: Secularity, Secularism, Atheism, Agnosticism, Agnostic atheism, Antitheism, Antireligion, and Religious skepticism

Irreligion is the absence or rejection of religious beliefs or practices. It encompasses a wide range of viewpoints drawn from various philosophical and intellectual perspectives, including atheism, agnosticism, religious skepticism, rationalism, secularism, and non-religious spirituality. These perspectives can vary, with individuals who identify as irreligious holding diverse beliefs about religion and its role in their lives. ^[1]

Relatively little scholarly research was published on non-belief until 15 years ago. ^[2]

Over the past several decades, the number of secular persons has increased, with a rapid rise, early 21st century, in many countries. ^{[3] [4] : 4  [1] [5] : 112  [6]} In virtually every high-income country and many poor countries, religion has declined. ^{[5] : 112} However, irreligious people might decline as a share of the world population because of faster population growth in highly religious countries. ^{[1] [7]} Pew Research Center (Pew) expects it to probably decrease, at least for a time, from 16.4% to 13.2% by 2050 for this reason. ^[7] It's also possible that many countries are gradually becoming more secular, generation by generation. ^[7] Younger generations tend to be less religious than their elders. ^{[7] [8] [9] : 5} They might become more religious as they age, but still be less religious than previous generations if their countries become more affluent and stable. ^{[9] : 13} Measures of religion are complex and not linear as is shown from decades of research on belief, belonging, and behavior. ^{[10] [ page needed ]} Consistency among an individual's religious beliefs and attitudes is rare as is shown from decades of anthropological, sociological, and psychological research. ^{[11] [12]}

Estimating the number of irreligious people in the world is difficult. ^{[13] [1]} Those who do not affiliate with a religion are diverse. In many countries censuses and demographic surveys do not separate atheists, agnostics and those responding "nothing in particular" as distinct populations, obscuring significant differences that may exist between them. ^{[14] : 60} People can feel reasonable anxieties about giving a politically ‘wrong’ answer – in either direction. ^[13] Measurement of irreligiosity requires a high degree of cultural sensitivity, especially outside the West, where the concepts of "religion" or "the secular" are not always rooted in local culture or even exist. ^{[4] : 13-15,31-34} Also, there's considerable prevalence of atheism and agnosticism in ancient Asian texts. ^[15] Atheistic traditions have played a significant part in those cultures for millennia. ^[15] "Cultural religion" must be taken into account: non-religious people can be found in religious categories, especially where religion has very deep-seated religious roots in a culture. ^{[14] : 59} Many of the religiously unaffiliated have some religious beliefs. ^{[16] [17] : 24} Also, some of them engage in certain kinds of religious practices. ^{[16] [17] : 24} In 2016, Zuckerman, Galen and Pasquale estimated there were 400 million nonreligious or nontheistic people. ^[18] A 2022 Gallup International Association (GIA) survey, done in 61 countries, reported that 62% of respondents said they are religious, one in four that they aren't, 10% that they're atheists and the rest are not sure. ^[19] In 2016, it found similar results (62%, 25%, 9% and 5%), also in 2014. ^{[19] [20] : 1 : 3} People in the European Union, East Asia and Oceania were the least religious. ^[19] In 2010, according to Pew, the religiously unaffiliated numbered more than 1.1 billion, about one-in-six people (16.3% of an estimated 6.9 billion). ^{[21] [16] [17] : 24 : 25} 76% of them resided in the 60 countries of Asia-Pacific. ^{[16] [17] : 25 : 46 : 66} China, an atheist state and the world's most populous country, alone held the majority (62.2% or about 700 million). ^{[22] [1] [16] [17] : 25 : 46 : 66} Several smaller countries eclipse China's percent of residents who are irreligious. ^[22] Shares were relatively similar in three of the six regions: Asia-Pacific (21.2% of more than 4 billion), Europe (18.2% of more than 742 thousands) and North America (17.1% of more than 344 thousands). ^{[16] [17] : 25}

Etymology

irreligion is either a borrowing from French or from Latin. ^[23] The term irreligion is a combination of the noun religion and the ir- form of the prefix in-, signifying "not" (similar to irrelevant). It was first attested in French as irréligion in 1527, then in English as irreligion in 1598. It was borrowed into Dutch as irreligie in the 17th century, though it is not certain from which language. ^[24]

Definition

According to the encyclopedia Britannica , the term irreligion is frequently characterized differently depending on context. ^[1] Sometimes, surveys of religious belief use lack of identification with a religion as a marker of irreligion. ^[1] This can be misleading: in some cases a person may identify with a religious cultural institution but not hold the doctrines of that institution or take part in its religious practice. ^[1]

Some scholars define irreligion as the active rejection of religion, as opposed to the mere absence of religion. ^[1] The Encyclopedia of Religion and Society defines it as: "Active rejection of religion in general or any of its more specific organized forms. It is thus distinct from the secular, which simply refers to the absence of religion. [...] In contemporary usage, it is increasingly employed as a synonym for unbelief [...]" ^{[25] [26]}

The Oxford English Dictionary has two definitions, one of which is labelled obsolete (first published in 1900). ^[23] It is want of religion; hostility to or disregard of religious principles; irreligious conduct. ^[23]

The Merriam Webster Dictionary defines it as "the quality or state of being irreligious" and "irreligious" as "neglectful of religion: lacking religious emotions, doctrines, or practices", also "indicating lack of religion". ^[27]

Types

• Agnostic atheism is a philosophical position that encompasses both atheism and agnosticism. Agnostic atheists are atheistic because they do not believe in the existence of any deity and agnostic because they claim that the existence of a deity is either unknowable in principle or unknown in fact.
• Agnosticism is the view that the existence of God, the divine, and the supernatural are unknown or unknowable.
• Alatrism or alatry (Greek: from the privative ἀ- + λατρεία (latreia) = worship) is the recognition of the existence of one or more gods, but with a deliberate lack of worship of any deity. Typically, it includes the belief that religious rituals have no supernatural significance and that gods ignore all prayers and worship.
• Anti-clericalism is opposition to religious authority, typically in social or political matters.
• Antireligion is opposition to or rejection of religion of any kind.
• Apatheism is the attitude of apathy or indifference toward the existence or non-existence of any deity.
• Atheism is the lack of belief that any deities exist; in a narrower sense, positive atheism is specifically the position that there are factually no deities. There are ranges of negative and positive atheism.
• Antitheism is the explicit opposition to theism. The term has had a range of applications. It typically refers to direct opposition to belief in any deity.
• "Cultural religion" ^{[14] : 59}
• Deism is a philosophical position and rationalistic theology that rejects revelation as a source of knowledge and asserts that empirical reason and observation of the natural world are exclusively logical, reliable, and sufficient to determine the existence of a Supreme Being as the creator of the universe.
• Freethought holds that positions regarding truth should be formed on the basis of logic, reason, and empiricism rather than authority, tradition, revelation, or dogma.
• Ignosticism, also known as igtheism, is the idea that the question of the existence of God is meaningless because the word "God" has no coherent, unambiguous definition.
• Ietsism is an unspecified belief in an undetermined transcendent reality.
• Naturalism is the idea or belief that only natural (as opposed to supernatural or spiritual) laws and forces operate in the universe.
• New Atheism is the position of some atheist academics, writers, scientists, and philosophers of the 20th and 21st centuries, such as Richard Dawkins, Sam Harris, and Daniel Dennett.
• Nones can be used to refer to those who are unaffiliated with any organized religion. This use derives from surveys of religious affiliation, in which "None" (or "None of the above") is typically the last choice. Since this status refers to lack of organizational affiliation rather than lack of personal belief, it is a more specific concept than irreligion. A 2015 Gallup, Inc. poll concluded that in the United States "nones" were the only "religious" group that was growing as a percentage of the population. ^[28]
• Secular ethics is a branch of moral philosophy in which ethics is based solely on human faculties, such as logic, empathy, reason, and ethical intuition, and not derived from belief in supernatural revelation or guidance—a source of ethics in many religions.
• Secular humanism is a system of thought that prioritizes human rather than divine matters.
• Secular liberalism is a form of liberalism in which secularist principles and values, and sometimes non-religious ethics, are especially emphasised.
• Secular paganism is an outlook that upholds the virtues and principles associated with paganism while maintaining a secular worldview.
• Post-theism is a variant of nontheism that proposes that the division of theism and atheism is obsolete and that the God-idea belongs to a stage of human development now past. Within nontheism, post-theism can be contrasted with antitheism.
• Religious skepticism is a type of skepticism about religion.
• Secularism. ^[3] It is also used to describe a political conviction in favor of minimizing religion in the public sphere that may be advocated for regardless of personal religiosity. Sometimes, especially in the United States, it is also a synonym for naturalism or atheism. ^[29]
• "Spiritual but not religious" (SBNR) is a designation coined by Robert C. Fuller for people who reject traditional or organized religion but have strong metaphysical beliefs. The SBNR may be included under the definition of nonreligion, ^[30] but are sometimes classified as a wholly distinct group. ^[31]
• Theological noncognitivism is the argument that religious language—specifically, words such as God—are not cognitively meaningful. It is sometimes considered synonymous with ignosticism.
• Transtheism refers to a system of thought or religious philosophy that is neither theistic nor atheistic but beyond them.

Human rights

Main article: Freedom of religion

In 1993, the United Nations Human Rights Committee declared that article 18 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights "protects theistic, non-theistic and atheistic beliefs, as well as the right not to profess any religion or belief." ^[32] The committee further stated that "the freedom to have or to adopt a religion or belief necessarily entails the freedom to choose a religion or belief, including the right to replace one's current religion or belief with another or to adopt atheistic views." Signatories to the convention are barred from "the use of threat of physical force or penal sanctions to compel believers or non-believers" to recant their beliefs or convert. ^{[33] [34]}

Most democracies protect the freedom of religion or belief, and it is largely implied in respective legal systems that those who do not believe or observe any religion are allowed freedom of thought.

A noted exception to ambiguity, explicitly allowing non-religion, is Article 36 of the Constitution of China (as adopted in 1982), which states that "No state organ, public organization or individual may compel citizens to believe in, or not believe in, any religion; nor may they discriminate against citizens who believe in, or do not believe in, any religion." ^[35] Article 46 of China's 1978 Constitution was even more explicit, stating that "Citizens enjoy freedom to believe in religion and freedom not to believe in religion and to propagate atheism." ^[36]

Demographics

Main article: List of countries by irreligion

Nonreligious population by country, in 2010

Women in the labor force are more like men in religiosity. ^[38] When they are out of it, they tend to be more religious. ^[38]

In many countries censuses and demographic surveys do not separate atheists, agnostics and those responding "nothing in particular" as distinct populations. ^{[14] : 60}

Eleven countries have nonreligious majorities. In 2020, the countries with the highest percentage of "Non-Religious" ("Term encompassing both (a) agnostics; and (b) atheists") were North Korea, the Czech Republic and Estonia. ^[39] According to the 2018 Chinese General Social Survey, the country had the largest count of unaffiliated people: about one billion adults. ^[40] Some boadly religious practices continue to play a significant role in the lives of a substantial shares of the Chinese population. ^[40]

Determining objective irreligion, as part of societal or individual levels of secularity and religiosity, requires a high degree of cultural sensitivity from researchers. This is especially so outside the Western world, where the concepts of "religious" and "secular" are not necessarily rooted in local culture or even exist. ^{[4] : 13-15,31-34} "Cultural religion" is a vivid reality. ^{[14] : 59} It must be taken into account when trying to ascertain the numeric strength of atheism and agnosticism in a country. ^{[14] : 59} It is generally not considered more important than self-identification measures. ^{[14] : 59} Non-religious people can be found in religious categories. ^{[14] : 59} This is especially the case where religion has very deep-seated religious roots in a culture, such as with Christianity in Europe, Islam in the Middle East, Hinduism in India, and Buddhism in South-east Asia. ^{[14] : 59} For instance, Scandinavian countries have among the highest measures of nonreligiosity and even atheism in Europe. For example, 58% of the Swedish population identify with the Church of Sweden. ^[41] Yet, 47% of atheists who live in those countries are still formally members of the national churches. ^{[42] [ pages needed ]} Many East Asians identify as "without religion" (wú zōngjiào in Chinese, mu shūkyō in Japanese, mu jong-gyo in Korean), but "religion" in that context refers only to Buddhism or Christianity. Most of the people "without religion" practice Shinto and other folk religions. In the Muslim world, those who claim to be "not religious" mostly imply not strictly observing Islam, and in Israel, being "secular" means not strictly observing Orthodox Judaism. Vice versa, many American Jews share the worldviews of nonreligious people though affiliated with a Jewish denomination, and in Russia, growing identification with Eastern Orthodoxy is mainly motivated by cultural and nationalist considerations, without much concrete belief. ^[43]

In 2016, Zuckerman, Galen and Pasquale estimated there were 400 million nonreligious or nontheistic people. ^[18] In their 2013 essay, Ariela Keysar and Juhem Navarro-Rivera estimated there were about 450 to 500 million nonbelievers, including both "positive" and "negative" atheists, or approximately 7% of the world population. ^[44] These estimates come from the International Social Survey Programme 2008 survey in which 40 countries took part. ^[45] In 2010, the religiously unaffiliated numbered more than 1.1 billion (around 1,126,500,000 persons), about one-in-six people (16.3% of an estimated 6,9 billion world population), according to Pew Research Center. ^{[21] [16] [17] : 24 : 25} In Pew reports, "unaffiliated" are atheists, agnostics, and people who checked "nothing in particular". ^{[14] : 60} 76% of them resided in one of the six regions: Asia-Pacific. ^{[16] [17] : 25} A 2012 WIN/Gallup International report on a poll from 57 countries reported that 59% of the world's population identified as a religious person, 23% as not a religious person, 13% as "convinced atheists", and also a 9% decrease in identification as "religious" when compared to the 2005 average from 39 countries. ^[46] A 2015 WIN/Gallup International poll found that 63% of the globe identified as a religious person, 22% as not a religious person, and 11% as "convinced atheists". ^[47] Their 2016 survey found that 62% of the globe identified as a religious person, less than 25% as not a religious person, 9% others as "convinced atheists" and 5% others "Do not know/no response". ^[20] Keysar and Navarro-Rivera advised caution with these figures since other surveys have consistently reached lower figures for the number of atheists worldwide. ^{[48] : 553 : 554}

Inverse association between intelligence and religiosity, and the inverse correlation between intelligence and fertility might lead to a decline in non-religious identity (contra-secularization hypothesis) in the foreseeable future. ^{[49] [50] : 2} In 2007, sociologist Phil Zuckerman's global studies on atheism have indicated that global atheism may be in decline due to irreligious countries having the lowest birth rates in the world and religious countries having higher birth rates in general. ^[51] A Pew 2015 global projection study for religion and nonreligion, projected that between 2010 and 2050, there will be some initial increases of the unaffiliated followed by a decline by 2050. ^[52] Some theorists think religion will fade away but Pew reveals a more complicated picture. ^[7] Pew predicts the unaffiliated share of the world population will decrease, at least for a while, from 16.4% to 13.2% by 2050. ^{[53] [7]} Pew states that religious areas are experiencing the fastest growth because of higher fertility and younger populations. ^{[7] [54]} By 2060, Pew says the number of unaffiliated will increase by over 35 million, but the overall population-percentage will decrease to 13% because the total population will grow faster. ^{[55] [56]} This would be mostly because of relatively old age and low fertility rates in less religious societies such as East Asia, particularly China and Japan, but also Western Europe. ^{[53] [1]} By 2019, 43 out of 49 countries studied continued to become less religious. ^{[5] : 110  [6]}

Being nonreligious is not necessarily equivalent to being an atheist or agnostic. Many of the nonreligious have some religious beliefs. ^{[16] [17] : 24} Also, some of the unaffiliated engage in certain kinds of religious practices. ^{[16] [17] : 24} For example, "belief in God or a higher power is shared by 7% of Chinese unaffiliated adults, 30% of French unaffiliated adults and 68% of unaffiliated U.S. adults. ^{[16] [17] : 24} Being unaffiliated with a religion on polls does not automatically mean objectively nonreligious since there are, for example, unaffiliated people who fall under religious measures, just as some unbelievers may still attend a church or other place of worship. ^{[14] [ pages needed ]} Out of the global nonreligious population, 76.2% reside in Asia-Pacific, while the remainder reside in Europe (12%), North America (5.2%), Latin America and the Caribbean (4%), sub-Saharan Africa (2.4%) and the Middle East and North Africa (0.2%). ^{[16] [17] : 24}

By population

The Pew Research Centre in the table below reflects "religiously unaffiliated" in 2010 which "include atheists, agnostics, and people who do not identify with any particular religion in surveys".

The Zuckerman data on the table below only reflect the number of people who have an absence of belief in a deity only (atheists, agnostics). These do not include the broader number of people who do not identify with a particular religion, such as deists, pantheists, and spiritual but not religious people.

Country	Pew (2012) [16]	Zuckerman (2004) [57] [58]
China	700,680,000	103,907,840 – 181,838,720
India		102,870,000
Japan	72,120,000	81,493,120 – 82,766,450
Vietnam	26,040,000	66,978,900
Russia	23,180,000	34,507,680 – 69,015,360
Germany	20,350,000	33,794,250 – 40,388,250
France	17,580,000	25,982,320 – 32,628,960
United Kingdom		18,684,010 – 26,519,240
South Korea	22,350,000	14,579,400 – 25,270,960
Ukraine		9,546,400
United States	50,980,000	8,790,840 – 26,822,520
Netherlands		6,364,020 – 7,179,920
Canada		6,176,520 – 9,752,400
Spain		6,042,150 – 9,667,440
Taiwan		5,460,000
Hong Kong		5,240,000
Czech Republic		5,328,940 – 6,250,121
Australia		4,779,120 – 4,978,250
Belgium		4,346,160 – 4,449,640
Sweden		4,133,560 – 7,638,100
Italy		3,483,420 – 8,708,550
North Korea	17,350,000	3,404,700
Hungary		3,210,240 – 4,614,720
Bulgaria		2,556,120 – 3,007,200
Denmark		2,327,590 – 4,330,400
Turkey		1,956,990 - 6,320,550
Belarus		1,752,870
Greece		1,703,680
Kazakhstan		1,665,840 – 1,817,280
Argentina		1,565,800 – 3,131,600
Austria		1,471,500 – 2,125,500
Finland		1,460,200 – 3,129,000
Norway		1,418,250 – 3,294,000
Switzerland		1,266,670 – 2,011,770
Israel		929,850 – 2,293,630
New Zealand		798,800 – 878,680
Cuba		791,630
Slovenia		703,850 – 764,180
Estonia		657,580
Dominican Republic		618,380
Singapore		566,020
Slovakia		542,400 – 1,518,720
Lithuania		469,040
Latvia		461,200 – 668,740
Portugal		420,960 – 947,160
Armenia		118,740
Uruguay		407,880
Kyrgyzstan		355,670
Croatia		314,790
Albania		283,600
Mongolia		247,590
Iceland		47,040 – 67,620
Brazil	15,410,000

Historical trends

Since 2007, there has been a surprising remarkably sharp trend away from religion. ^{[6] [5]} From about 2007 to 2019, 43 out of 49 countries studied became less religious. ^[6] Past influential thinkers from Karl Marx to Max Weber to Émile Durkheim thought that the spread of scientific knowledge would dispel religion throughout the world. ^{[5] : 112} Industrialization also didn't cause religion to disappear. ^{[5] : 110} Political scientists Ronald Inglehart and Pippa Norris argue faith is "more emotional than cognitive", and both advance an alternative thesis termed "existential security." They postulate that rather than knowledge or ignorance of scientific learning, it is the weakness or vulnerability of a society that determines religiosity. They claim that increased poverty and chaos make religious values more important to a society, while wealth and security diminish its role. As need for religious support diminishes, there is less willingness to "accept its constraints, including keeping women in the kitchen and gay people in the closet". ^[59]

Prior to the 1980s

Rates of people identifying as non-religious began rising in most societies at least as early as the turn of the 20th century. ^[60] In 1968, sociologist Glenn M. Vernon wrote that US census respondents who identified as "no religion" were insufficiently defined because they were defined in terms of a negative. He contrasted the label with the term "independent" for political affiliation, which still includes people who participate in civic activities. He suggested this difficulty in definition was partially due to the dilemma of defining religious activity beyond membership, attendance, or other identification with a formal religious group. ^[60] During the 1970s, social scientists still tended to describe irreligion from a perspective that considered religion as normative for humans. Irreligion was described in terms of hostility, reactivity, or indifference toward religion, and or as developing from radical theologies. ^[61]

1981–2019

In a study of religious trends in 49 countries (they contained 60 percent of the world’s population) from 1981 to 2007, Inglehart and Norris found an overall, but not universal, increase in religiosity. ^{[5] : 110} Respondents in 33 of 49 countries rated themselves higher on a scale from one to ten when asked how important God was in their lives. This increase occurred in most former communist and developing countries. Most high-income countries became less religious. ^{[5] : 112} A sharp reversal of the global trend occurred from 2007 to 2019, when 43 out of 49 countries studied became less religious. This reversal appeared across most of the world. ^[5] The decline in belief was not confined to high-income countries and appeared across most of the world. ^[6] In virtually every high-income country, religion has continued to decline. ^{[5] : 112} At the same time, many poor countries, together with most of the former communist states, have also become less religious. ^{[5] : 112} From 2007 to 2019, only five countries became more religious, whereas the vast majority of the countries studied moved in the opposite direction. ^{[5] : 112} India is the most important exception to the general pattern of declining religiosity. ^{[5] : 112} The United States was a dramatic example of declining religiosity –with the mean rating of importance of religion dropping from 8.2 to 4.6 –while India was a major exception. Research in 1989 recorded disparities in religious adherence for different faith groups, with people from Christian and tribal traditions leaving religion at a greater rate than those from Muslim, Hindu, or Buddhist faiths. ^[62]

Inglehart and Norris speculate that the decline in religiosity comes from a decline in the social need for traditional gender and sexual norms, ("virtually all world religions instilled" pro-fertility norms such as "producing as many children as possible and discouraged divorce, abortion, homosexuality, contraception, and any sexual behavior not linked to reproduction" in their adherents for centuries) as life expectancy rose and infant mortality dropped. They also argue that the idea that religion was necessary to prevent a collapse of social cohesion and public morality was belied by lower levels of corruption and murder in less religious countries. They argue that both of these trends are based on the theory that as societies develop, survival becomes more secure: starvation, once pervasive, becomes uncommon; life expectancy increases; murder and other forms of violence diminish. As this level of security rises, there is less social/economic need for the high birthrates that religion encourages and less emotional need for the comfort of religious belief ^[5] Change in acceptance of "divorce, abortion, and homosexuality" has been measured by the World Values Survey and shown to have grown throughout the world outside of Muslim-majority countries. ^[5]

See also

• Apostasy
• Faith deconstruction
• Importance of religion by country
• Infidel
• Laїcité
• Pantheism
• Secular religion
• Growth of religion

References

1. Eldridge, Stephen. "irreligion". In Duignan, Brian (ed.). Britannica . Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Archived from the original on 1 September 2024. Retrieved 1 December 2024.
2. "Resources Overview". Explaining Atheism. Queen’s University Belfast . Retrieved 9 December 2024.
3. "The Nonreligious: Understanding Secular People and Societies". Oxford Academic. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199924950.001.0001 . Retrieved 9 December 2024.
4. Zuckerman, Phil; Galen, Luke W.; Pasquale, Frank L. (24 March 2016). "The Nonreligious: Understanding Secular People and Societies". Oxford Academic. Oxford University Press: 226. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199924950.001.0001. ISBN   978-0-19-992495-0 . Retrieved 9 December 2024.
5. Inglehart, Ronald F. (11 August 2020). "Giving Up on God: The Global Decline of Religion". Foreign Affairs . pp. 110–118. Archived from the original on 22 September 2020. Retrieved 1 December 2024.
6. Inglehart, Ronald (20 February 2021). "Giving Up on God: The Global Decline of Religion - Revisited". World Values Survey . World Values Survey Association. Retrieved 1 December 2024.
7. "Key Findings From the Global Religious Futures Project". Pew Research Center . 21 December 2022. Retrieved 1 December 2024.
8. "The Age Gap in Religion Around the World". Pew Research Center . 13 June 2018. Retrieved 7 December 2024.
9. Hackett, Conrad (13 June 2018). "The Age Gap in Religion Around the World" (PDF). Pew Research Center . Retrieved 7 December 2024.
10. Chaves, Mark (March 2010). "SSSR Presidential Address Rain Dances in the Dry Season: Overcoming the Religious Congruence Fallacy". Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion . 49 (1): 1–14. doi:10.1111/j.1468-5906.2009.01489.x.
11. "SSSR Presidential Address Rain Dances in the Dry Season: Overcoming the Religious Congruence Fallacy". Wiley (publisher) . Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion. doi:10.1111/j.1468-5906.2009.01489.x . Retrieved 9 December 2024.
12. "Rain Dances in the Dry Season: Overcoming the Religious Congruence Fallacy". JSTOR . Ithaka Harbors . Retrieved 9 December 2024.
13. "59 - Atheism Throughout the World". Cambridge Core. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108562324.060 . Retrieved 9 December 2024.
14. Johnson, Todd; Zurlo, Gina (2016). "Unaffiliated, Yet Religious: A Methodological and Demographic Analysis". In Cipriani, Roberto; Garelli, Franco (eds.). Annual Review of the Sociology of Religion: Volume 7: Sociology of Atheism. Leiden: Brill Publishers. pp. 50–74. ISBN   9789004317536 . Retrieved 30 November 2024.
15. Cohen, Signe (1 April 2019). "Atheism has been part of many Asian traditions for millennia". The Conversation (website) . The Conversation Media Group Ltd. Retrieved 7 December 2024.  This article incorporates text by Signe Cohen available under the CC BY 4.0 license.
16. "Religiously Unaffiliated". The Global Religious Landscape: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World’s Major Religious Groups as of 2010. Pew Research Center’s Forum on Religion & Public Life. 18 December 2012. Archived from the original on 9 July 2024. Retrieved 30 November 2024.
17. Hackett, Conrad; Grim, Brian J. (December 2012). "Religiously Unaffiliated" (PDF). The Global Religious Landscape:A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World’s Major Religious Groups as of 2010. Pew Research Center’s Forum on Religion & Public Life. p. 82. Retrieved 30 November 2024.
18. Zuckerman, Phil; Galen, Luke W.; Pasquale, Frank L. (March 2016). "Secularity around the World". Oxford Academic. Oxford University Press. pp. 30–52. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199924950.003.0003. ISBN   978-0-19-992495-0 . Retrieved 1 December 2024.
19. "More Prone to Believe in God than Identify as Religious. More Likely to Believe in Heaven than in Hell". Gallup International Association. 4 December 2023. Retrieved 9 December 2024.
20. "Religion prevails in the world" (PDF). WIN/Gallup International. p. 9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 November 2017. Retrieved 9 December 2024.
21. "The Global Religious Landscape". The Global Religious Landscape: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World’s Major Religious Groups as of 2010. Pew Research Center’s Forum on Religion & Public Life. 18 December 2012. Archived from the original on 26 December 2018. Retrieved 4 November 2024.
22. "Least Religious Countries 2024". World Population Review. Retrieved 9 December 2024.
23. "irreligion" . Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press.(Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
24. "Irreligie". Instituut voor Nederlandse Lexicologie . Instituut voor de Nederlandse Taal. 2007. Archived from the original on 29 January 2019. Retrieved 29 January 2019.
25. Campbell, Colin (1998). "Irreligion". In Swatos, William H. Jr. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Religion and Society. Walnut Creek, California: AltaMira Press. p. 239. ISBN   0-7619-8956-0. OCLC   37361790.
26. Campbell, Colin. "Irreligion". In Swatos, William H. Jr. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Religion and Society. Hartford Institute for Religion Research: AltaMira Press . Retrieved 1 December 2024.
27. Merriam Webster, irreligious
28. Newport, Frank (24 December 2015). "Percentage of Christians in U.S. Drifting Down, but Still High". Gallup. Archived from the original on 6 January 2024. Retrieved 30 November 2024.
29. Jacques Berlinerblau, How to be Secular: A Call to Arms for Religious Freedom (2012, Houghton-Mifflin Harcourt). p. 53.
30. Zuckerman, Galen et al., p. 119.
31. Zuckerman, Shook, (in bibliography), p. 575.
32. "CCPR General Comment 22: 30/07/93 on ICCPR Article 18". Minority Rights Group. Archived from the original on 16 January 2015.
33. "Discrimination against religious minorities in Iran" (PDF). International Federation for Human Rights. 1 August 2003. Archived (PDF) from the original on 31 October 2006. Retrieved 3 March 2009.
34. Davis, Derek H. "The Evolution of Religious Liberty as a Universal Human Right: Examining the Role of the 1981 United Nations Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief" (PDF). BYU Law Review. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 July 2011. Retrieved 3 March 2009.
35. "Chapter two – the fundamental rights and duties of citizens". Constitution of the People's Republic of China. Hong Kong Human Rights Monitor. Archived from the original on 23 March 2018. Retrieved 9 June 2013.
36. 中华人民共和国宪法 (1978年) [People's Republic of China 1978 Constitution] (in Chinese). 1978. Archived from the original on 24 May 2021. Retrieved 24 May 2021– via Wikisource.
37. "Religious Composition by Country, 2010–2050". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. 2 April 2015. Archived from the original on 5 April 2019. Retrieved 27 April 2020.
38. Bullard, Gabe (22 April 2016). "The World's Newest Major Religion: No Religion". National Geographic . National Geographic Society . Retrieved 9 December 2024.
39. "World Religion". Association of Religion Data Archives. Retrieved 30 November 2024.
40. Hackett, Conrad (30 August 2023). "Is China a religious country or not? It's a tricky question to answer". Pew Research Center . The Pew Charitable Trusts . Retrieved 7 December 2024.
41. "Svenska kyrkan i siffror". www.svenskakyrkan.se (in Swedish). 11 November 2024. Archived from the original on 1 November 2017. Retrieved 30 November 2024.
42. Zuckerman, Phil, ed. (2010). "Ch. 9 Atheism And Secularity: The Scandinavian Paradox". Atheism and Secularity Vol.2. Praeger. ISBN   978-0313351815.
43. Zuckerman, Galen et al., "Secularity Around the World". pp. 30–32, 37–40, 44, 50–51.
44. "36 A World of Atheism: Global Demographics". Oxford Academic. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199644650.013.011 . Retrieved 9 December 2024.
45. "Book Chapter The Oxford Handbook of Atheism". Public Religion Research Institute (PRRI). 31 January 2014. Retrieved 9 December 2024.
46. "Global Index of Religion and Atheism" (PDF). WIN/Gallup International. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 October 2012. Retrieved 13 January 2015.
47. "Losing our Religion? Two Thirds of People Still Claim to be Religious" (PDF). WIN/Gallup International. 13 April 2015. Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 April 2015.
48. Keysar, Ariela; Navarro-Rivera, Juhem (1 October 2013). "36. A World of Atheism: Global Demographics". In Bullivant, Stephen; Ruse, Michael (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Atheism. Oxford University Press. pp. 553–586. ISBN   978-0199644650 . Retrieved 9 December 2024.
49. Ellis, Lee; Hoskin, Anthony W.; Dutton, Edward; Nyborg, Helmuth (8 March 2017). "The Future of Secularism: a Biologically Informed Theory Supplemented with Cross-Cultural Evidence". Evolutionary Psychological Science. 3 (3): 224–242. doi:10.1007/s40806-017-0090-z . Retrieved 7 December 2024.
50. Ellis, Lee; Hoskin, Anthony W.; Dutton, Edward; Nyborg, Helmuth (8 March 2017). "The Future of Secularism: a Biologically Informed Theory Supplemented with Cross-Cultural Evidence". Evolutionary Psychological Science. 3 (3): 224–242. doi:10.1007/s40806-017-0090-z . Retrieved 7 December 2024.
51. Zuckerman, Phil (2007). Martin, Michael (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Atheism . Cambridge Univ. Press. p.  59. ISBN   978-0521603676.
52. "The Future of World Religions: Population Growth Projections, 2010–2050". Pew Research Center. 5 April 2012. Archived from the original on 25 December 2018. Retrieved 18 May 2015.
53. Lipka, Michael (2 April 2015). "7 key changes in the global religious landscape". Pew Research Center . Archived from the original on 19 January 2022. Retrieved 1 December 2024.
54. "The Age Gap in Religion Around the World". Pew Research Center . 13 June 2018. Retrieved 1 December 2024.
55. "Why People With No Religion Are Projected To Decline As A Share Of The World's Population". Pew Research Center. 7 April 2017. Archived from the original on 1 July 2015. Retrieved 29 June 2015.
56. "The Changing Global Religious Landscape: Babies Born to Muslims will Begin to Outnumber Christian Births by 2035; People with No Religion Face a Birth Dearth". Pew Research Center. 5 April 2017. Archived from the original on 6 April 2017. Retrieved 2 June 2018.
57. "The Cambridge Companion to Atheism". PDF Drive. Archived from the original on 24 October 2021. Retrieved 27 April 2022.
58. "81-F77-Aeb-A404-447-C-8-B95-Dd57-Adc11-E98". Archived from the original on 24 October 2021. Retrieved 27 April 2022.
59. Ikenberry, G. John (November–December 2004). "Book review. Sacred and Secular: Religion and Politics Worldwide". Foreign Affairs. 83 (November/December 2004). doi:10.2307/20034150. JSTOR   20034150. Archived from the original on 1 September 2020. Retrieved 20 September 2020.
60. Vernon, Glenn M. (1968). "The Religious "Nones": A Neglected Category". Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion. 7 (2): 219–229. doi:10.2307/1384629. JSTOR   1384629.
61. Schumaker, John F. (1992). Religion and Mental Health. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 54. ISBN   0-19-506985-4.
62. Duke, James T.; Johnson, Barry L. (1989). "The Stages of Religious Transformation: A Study of 200 Nations". Review of Religious Research . 30 (3): 209–224. doi:10.2307/3511506. JSTOR   3511506.

Bibliography

• Coleman, Thomas J.; Hood, Ralph W.; Streib, Heinz (2018). "An introduction to atheism, agnosticism, and nonreligious worldviews". Psychology of Religion and Spirituality. 10 (3): 203–206. doi:10.1037/rel0000213. S2CID   149580199. Archived from the original on 19 June 2021. Retrieved 8 April 2021.
• Arie Johan Vanderjagt, Richard Henry Popkin, ed. (1993). Scepticism and irreligion in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Brill. ISBN   978-90-04-09596-0.
• Eric Wright (2010). Irreligion: Thought, Rationale, History. BiblioBazaar. ISBN   978-1-171-06863-1.
• Dillon, Michele (2015). "Christian Affiliation and Disaffiliation in the United States: Generational and Cultural Change". In Hunt, Stephen J. (ed.). Handbook of Global Contemporary Christianity: Themes and Developments in Culture, Politics, and Society. Brill Handbooks on Contemporary Religion. Vol. 10. Leiden: Brill Publishers. pp. 346–365. doi:10.1163/9789004291027_019. ISBN   978-90-04-26538-7. ISSN   1874-6691.
• Eller, Jack David (2010). "What Is Atheism?". In Zuckerman, Phil (ed.). Atheism and Secularity. Volume 1: Issues, Concepts, Definitions. Santa Barbara, California: Praeger. pp. 1–18. ISBN   978-0-313-35183-9.
•  ———  (2017). "Varieties of Secular Experience". In Zuckerman, Phil; Shook, John R. (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Secularism. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 499ff. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199988457.013.31. ISBN   978-0-19-998845-7.
• Glasner, Peter E. (1977). The Sociology of Secularisation: A Critique of a Concept. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN   978-0-7100-8455-2.
• Iversen, Hans Raun (2013). "Secularization, Secularity, Secularism". In Runehov, Anne L. C.; Oviedo, Lluis (eds.). Encyclopedia of Sciences and Religions. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer. pp. 2116–2121. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-8265-8_1024. ISBN   978-1-4020-8265-8.
• Josephson, Jason Ānanda (2012). The Invention of Religion in Japan. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN   9780226412337.
• Lois Lee, Secular or nonreligious? Investigating and interpreting generic 'not religious' categories and populations Archived 28 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine . Religion, Vol. 44, no. 3. October 2013.
• Mullins, Mark R. (2011). "Religion in Contemporary Japanese Lives". In Lyon Bestor, Victoria; Bestor, Theodore C.; Yamagata, Akiko (eds.). Routledge Handbook of Japanese Culture and Society . Abingdon, England: Routledge. pp.  63–74. ISBN   978-0-415-43649-6.
• Schaffner, Caleb; Cragun, Ryan T. (2020). "Chapter 20: Non-Religion and Atheism". In Enstedt, Daniel; Larsson, Göran; Mantsinen, Teemu T. (eds.). Handbook of Leaving Religion. Brill Handbooks on Contemporary Religion. Vol. 18. Leiden: Brill Publishers. pp. 242–252. doi: 10.1163/9789004331471_021 . ISBN   978-90-04-33092-4. ISSN   1874-6691. Archived from the original on 2 June 2021. Retrieved 29 May 2021.
• Smith, James K. A. (2014). How (Not) to Be Secular: Reading Charles Tayor. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. ISBN   978-0-8028-6761-2.
• Taylor, Charles (2007). A Secular Age. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press. ISBN   978-0-674-02676-6.
•  ———  (2011). "Why We Need a Radical Redefinition of Secularism". In Mendieta, Eduardo; VanAntwerpen, Jonathan (eds.). The Power of Religion in the Public Sphere. New York: Columbia University Press. pp.  34–59. ISBN   978-0-231-52725-5. JSTOR   10.7312/butl15645.6.
• Warner, Michael; VanAntwerpen, Jonathan; Calhoun, Craig, eds. (2010). Varieties of Secularism in a Secular Age. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN   978-0-674-04857-7.
• Zuckerman, Phil; Galen, Luke W.; Pasquale, Frank L. (2016). "Secularity Around the World". The Nonreligious: Understanding Secular People and Societies. New York: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199924950.001.0001. ISBN   978-0-19-992494-3.
• Zuckerman, Phil; Shook, John R. (2017). "Introduction: The Study of Secularism". In Zuckerman, Phil; Shook, John R. (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Secularism. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 1–17. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199988457.013.1. ISBN   978-0-19-998845-7.

External links

• The Understanding Unbelief program in the University of Kent.
• "Will religion ever disappear?", from BBC Future, by Rachel Nuwer, in December 2014