Abrahamic religions

From top to bottom: the Star of David (Judaism), the cross (Christianity), and the star and crescent (Islam) are the symbols commonly used to represent the three largest Abrahamic religions.

The Abrahamic religions are a set of monotheistic religions that revere the religious figure Abraham, namely Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. The religions of this set share doctrinal, historical, and geographic overlap that contrasts them with Indian religions, Iranian religions, and East Asian religions. ^{[1] [2]} The term has been introduced in the 20th century and superseded the term Judeo-Christian tradition for the inclusion of Islam. However, the categorization has been criticized for oversimplification of different cultural and doctrinal nuances.

Usage

The term Abrahamic religions (and its variations) is a collective religious descriptor for elements shared by Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. ^[3] It features prominently in interfaith dialogue and political discourse but also has entered academic discourse. ^{[4] [5]} However, the term is being uncritically adopted. ^[4] The term appears first time in the second half of the 20th century. ^[6]

Although historically the term Abrahamic religions was limited to Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, ^[7] restricting the category to these three religions has come under criticism. ^{[8] [9]} The late-19th-century Baháʼí Faith has been characterized as Abrahamic, as it is a monotheistic religion that recognizes its own descent from Abraham. ^[10]

Theological discourse

The figure of Abraham is suggested as a common ground for Judaism, Christianity, Islam and a hypothesized eschatological reconciliation of the three. ^{[11] [12]} Commonalities may include creation, revelation, and redemption, but such shared concepts vary significantly between and within the Abrahamic religions themselves. ^[12] Proponents of the term argue that all three religions are united through the deity worshipped by Abraham. ^[11]

The Catholic scholar of Islam, Louis Massignon, stated that the phrase "Abrahamic religion" means that all these religions come from one spiritual source. ^[13] The modern term comes from the plural form of a Quranic reference to dīn Ibrāhīm ("religion of Ibrahim"), the Arabic form of Abraham's name. ^[14]

In Christianity, Paul the Apostle, in Romans 4:11–12, refers to Abraham as "father of all", including those "who have faith, circumcised or uncircumcised." From its founding, Islam likewise conceived of itself as the religion of Abraham. ^[15] The Bahá’í scriptures state that the religion's founder, Baháʼu'lláh, descended from Abraham through his wife Keturah's sons. ^{[16] [17] [18]}

Criticism

The appropriateness of grouping Judaism, Christianity, and Islam as "Abrahamic religions" and related terms has been challenged. ^[19] Adam Dodds argues that the term "Abrahamic faiths", while helpful, can be misleading, as it conveys an unspecified historical and theological commonality that is problematic on closer examination. While there is a commonality among the religions, their shared ancestry is mainly peripheral to their respective foundational beliefs and thus conceals crucial differences. ^[20] Alan L. Berger, professor of Judaic Studies at Florida Atlantic University, wrote that "while Judaism birthed both Christianity and Islam, the three monotheistic faiths went their separate ways" and "each tradition views the patriarchal figure differently as seen in the theological claims they make about him." ^[21] Aaron W. Hughes, meanwhile, describes the term as "imprecise" and "largely a theological neologism." ^[22]

The common Christian doctrines of Jesus' Incarnation, the Trinity, and the resurrection of Jesus, for example, are accepted in neither Judaism nor Islam. There are fundamental beliefs in both Islam and Judaism that are likewise denied by most of Christianity (e.g., the restrictions on pork consumption found in Jewish and Islamic dietary law), and key beliefs of Islam, Christianity, and the Baháʼí Faith not shared by Judaism (e.g., the prophetic and Messianic position of Jesus). ^[23]

Religions

Judaism

Main article: Jewish history

The Torah forms the basis and foundation of Judaism and corresponds to the first five books of the Bible.

Jewish tradition claims that the Twelve Tribes of Israel are descended from Abraham through his son Isaac and grandson Jacob, whose sons formed the nation of the Israelites in Canaan. ^[24]

In its early stages, the Israelite religion shares traits with the Canaanite religions of the Bronze Age; by the Iron Age, it had become distinct from other Canaanite religions as it shed polytheism for monolatry. They understood their relationship with their god, Yahweh, as a covenant and that the deity promised Abraham a permanent homeland. ^[25]

While the Book of Genesis speaks of ʾĔlōhīm, comparable to the Enūma Eliš speaking of various gods of the Canaanite pantheon to create the earth, at the time of the Babylonian captivity, Jewish theologians attributed the six-day narrative all to Yahweh, reflecting an early conception of Yahweh as a universal deity. ^[26] The monolatrist nature of Yahwism was further developed in the period following the Babylonian captivity, eventually emerging as a firm religious movement of monotheism. ^{[27] [28] [29]} With the Fall of Babylon, Judaism incorporated concepts such as messianism, belief in free will and judgement after death, conception of heaven and hell, angels and demons, among others, into their belief-system. ^{[30] [31] [32]}

Christianity

Main article: History of Christianity

A Bible handwritten in Latin, on display in Malmesbury Abbey, Wiltshire, England. This Bible was transcribed in Belgium in 1407 for reading aloud in a monastery.

Christianity traces back their origin to the 1st century as a sect within Judaism initially led by Jesus. His followers viewed him as the Messiah, as in the Confession of Peter; after his crucifixion and death they came to view him as God incarnate, ^[33] who was resurrected and will return at the end of time to judge the living and the dead and create an eternal Kingdom of God.

In the 1st century AD, under the Apostles of Jesus of Nazareth; ^[16] Christianity spread widely. Paul the Apostle interpreted the role of Abraham differently from the Jews of his time. ^[34] While for the Jews, Abraham was considered a loyal monotheist in a polytheistic environment, Paul celebrates Abraham as a man who found faith in God before adhering to religious law. In contrast to Judaism, adherence to religious law becomes associated with idolatry. ^[35]

While Christians fashioned their religion around Jesus of Nazareth, the siege of Jerusalem (70 CE), forced Jews to reconcile their belief-system with the destruction of the Second Temple and associated rituals. ^[36] At this time, both Judaism and Christianity had to systematize their scriptures and beliefs, resulting in competing theologies both claiming Abrahamic heritage. ^[37] Christians could hardly dismiss the Hebrew scriptures as Jesus himself refers to them according to Christian reports, and parallels between Jesus and the Biblical stories of creation and redemption starting with Abraham in the Book of Genesis. ^[38] The distant God asserted by Jesus according to the Christians, created a form of dualism between Creator and creation and the doctrine of Creatio ex nihilo , which later heavily influenced Jewish and Islamic theology. ^[39] By that, Christians established their own identity, distinct from both Greeks and Jews, as those who venerate the deity of Jesus. ^[40]

After several periods of alternating persecution and relative peace vis-à-vis the Roman authorities under different administrations, Christianity became the state church of the Roman Empire in 380, but has been split into various churches from its beginning. An attempt was made by the Byzantine Empire to unify Christendom, but this formally failed with the East–West Schism of 1054. In the 16th century, the birth and growth of Protestantism during the Reformation further split Christianity into many denominations. Christianity remains culturally diverse in its Western and Eastern branches, Christianity played a prominent role in the development of Western civilization. ^[41]

Islam

Main article: History of Islam

The Quran is the holy book of Islam forming the basis for the religion

Islam is based on the teachings of the Quran. Although it considers Muhammad to be the Seal of the prophets, Islam teaches that every prophet preached Islam, as the word Islam means submission, the main concept preached by all prophets. Although the Quran is the central religious text of Islam, which Muslims believe to be a revelation from God, ^[42] other Islamic books considered to be revealed by God before the Quran, mentioned by name in the Quran are the Tawrat (Torah) revealed to the prophets and messengers amongst the Children of Israel (Bani Israil), the Zabur (Psalms) revealed to Dawud (David) and the Injil (the Gospel) revealed to Isa (Jesus). The Quran also mentions God having revealed the Scrolls of Abraham and the Scrolls of Moses.

The relationship between Islamic and Hebrew scriptures and New Testament differs significantly from the relationship between the New Testament and the Hebrew Bible. ^[43] Whereas the New Testament draws heavily on the Hebrew Bible and interprets its text in light of the foundations of the new religion, the Quran only alludes to various stories of Biblical writings, but remains independent of both, focusing on establishing a monotheistic message by utilizing the stories of the prophets in a religious decentralized environment. ^[43]

In the 7th century AD, Islam was founded by Muhammad in the Arabian Peninsula; it spread widely through the early Muslim conquests, shortly after his death. ^[16] Islam understands its form of "Abrahamic monotheism" as preceding both Judaism and Christianity, and in contrast with Arabian Henotheism. ^[44]

The teachings of the Quran are believed by Muslims to be the direct and final revelation and words of God. Islam, like Christianity, is a universal religion (i.e. membership is open to anyone). Like Judaism, it has a strictly unitary conception of God, called tawhid or "strict monotheism". ^[45] The story of the creation of the world in the Quran is elaborated less extensively than in the Hebrew scripture, emphasizing the transcendence and universality of God, instead. According to the Quran, God says kun fa-yakūnu . ^[46] The Quran describes God as the creator of "heavens and earth", to emphasize that it is a universal God and not a local Arabian deity. ^[46]

Common aspects

Main article: God in Abrahamic religions

Abrahamic religions agree upon the createdness of the universe by God, who is conceived of as eternal, omnipotent, omniscient. ^{[47] [48]} All three identify the creator of the universe with the God revealed to Abraham. ^[47] However, they differ on how to conceptualize God. Christianity proposes God's utter transcendence and that an intermediary — such as an incarnation of God — is required to bridge the gap between God and humans. ^[47] According to Islam, God is knowable through his creation, metaphorical stories of the prophets stored in the Quran, and signs in nature. ^[47] Christianity proposes God's personhood in the form of a Son of God as an aspect of the Divinity as formulated in the doctrine of the Trinity. ^[47] In contrast, God in Islam is less personal than described in the Judeo-Christian tradition, and more of a mysterious power behind all aspects of the universe. ^[47]

Their religious texts feature many of the same figures, histories, and places, although they often present them with different roles, perspectives, and meanings. ^[49] Believers who agree on these similarities and the common Abrahamic origin tend to also be more positive towards other Abrahamic groups. ^[50]

Differences

Circumcision

See also: Religious male circumcision, Brit milah, Khitan (circumcision), Circumcision controversy in early Christianity, and History of circumcision

Preparing for a Jewish ritual circumcision.

Judaism and Samaritanism commands that males be circumcised when they are eight days old, ^[51] as does the Sunnah in Islam. Despite its common practice in Muslim-majority nations, circumcision is considered to be sunnah (tradition) and not required for a life directed by Allah. ^[52] Although there is some debate within Islam over whether it is a religious requirement or mere recommendation, circumcision (called khitan) is practiced nearly universally by Muslim males.

Today, many Christian denominations are neutral about ritual male circumcision, not requiring it for religious observance, but neither forbidding it for cultural or other reasons. ^[53] Western Christianity replaced the custom of male circumcision with the ritual of baptism, ^[54] a ceremony which varies according to the doctrine of the denomination, but it generally includes immersion, aspersion, or anointment with water. The Early Church (Acts 15, the Council of Jerusalem) decided that Gentile Christians are not required to undergo circumcision. The Council of Florence in the 15th century ^[55] prohibited it. Paragraph #2297 of the Catholic Catechism calls non-medical amputation or mutilation immoral. ^{[56] [57]} By the 21st century, the Catholic Church had adopted a neutral position on the practice, as long as it is not practised as an initiation ritual. Catholic scholars make various arguments in support of the idea that this policy is not in contradiction with the previous edicts. ^{[58] [59] [60]} The New Testament chapter Acts 15 records that Christianity did not require circumcision. Coptic Christians practice circumcision as a rite of passage. ^[61] The Eritrean Orthodox Church and the Ethiopian Orthodox Church calls for circumcision, with near-universal prevalence among Orthodox men in Ethiopia. ^[62]

Coptic Children wearing traditional circumcision garments.

Many countries with majorities of Christian adherents in Europe and Latin America have low circumcision rates, while both religious and non-religious circumcision is widely practiced in many predominantly Christian countries and among Christian communities in the Anglosphere countries, Oceania, South Korea, the Philippines, the Middle East and Africa. ^{[63] [64]} Countries such as the United States, ^[65] the Philippines, Australia (albeit primarily in the older generations), ^[66] Canada, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, Equatorial Guinea, Ghana, Nigeria, Kenya, and many other African Christian countries have high circumcision rates. ^{[67] [68] [69]} Circumcision is near universal in the Christian countries of Oceania. ^[64] In some African and Eastern Christian denominations male circumcision is an integral or established practice, and require that their male members undergo circumcision. ^[70] Coptic Christianity and Ethiopian Orthodoxy and Eritrean Orthodoxy still observe male circumcision and practice circumcision as a rite of passage. ^{[61] [71]} Male circumcision is also widely practiced among Christians from Egypt, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Palestine, Israel, and North Africa. (See also aposthia.)

Male circumcision is among the rites of Islam and is part of the fitrah, or the innate disposition and natural character and instinct of the human creation. ^[72]

Although circumcision is widely practiced by the Druze, the procedure is practiced as a cultural tradition, ^[73] and has no religious significance in the Druze faith. ^{[74] [75]} Some Druze do not circumcise their male children, and refuse to observe this "common Muslim practice". ^[76]

Circumcision is not a religious practice of the Bahá'í Faith, and leaves that decision up to the parents. ^[77]

Proselytism

See also: Christianization and Islamization

Judaism accepts converts, but has had no explicit missionaries since the end of the Second Temple era. Judaism states that non-Jews can achieve righteousness by following Noahide Laws, a set of moral imperatives that, according to the Talmud, were given by God ^[a] as a binding set of laws for the "children of Noah"—that is, all of humanity. ^{[78] [b]} It is believed that as much as ten percent of the Roman Empire followed Judaism either as fully ritually obligated Jews or the simpler rituals required of non-Jewish members of that faith. ^[79]

Moses Maimonides, one of the major Jewish teachers, commented: "Quoting from our sages, the righteous people from other nations have a place in the world to come if they have acquired what they should learn about the Creator." Because the commandments applicable to the Jews are much more detailed and onerous than Noahide laws, Jewish scholars have traditionally maintained that it is better to be a good non-Jew than a bad Jew, thus discouraging conversion. In the U.S., as of 2003 28% of married Jews were married to non-Jews. ^{[80] [ page needed ]}See also Conversion to Judaism.

The Sermon on the Mount by Carl Heinrich Bloch (1877)

Christianity encourages evangelism. Many Christian organizations, especially Protestant churches, send missionaries to non-Christian communities throughout the world. See also Great Commission . Forced conversions to Catholicism have been alleged at various points throughout history. The most prominently cited allegations are the conversions of the pagans after Constantine; of Muslims, Jews and Eastern Orthodox during the Crusades; of Jews and Muslims during the time of the Spanish Inquisition, where they were offered the choice of exile, conversion or death; and of the Aztecs by Hernán Cortés. Forced conversions to Protestantism may have occurred as well, notably during the Reformation, especially in England and Ireland (see recusancy and Popish plot).

Forced conversions are now condemned as sinful by major denominations such as the Roman Catholic Church, which officially states that forced conversions pollute the Christian religion and offend human dignity, so that past or present offences are regarded as a scandal (a cause of unbelief). According to Pope Paul VI, "It is one of the major tenets of Catholic doctrine that man's response to God in faith must be free: no one, therefore, is to be forced to embrace the Christian faith against his own will." ^[81] The Roman Catholic Church has declared that Catholics should fight anti-Semitism. ^[82]

Islam encourages proselytism in various forms. Dawah is an important Islamic concept which denotes the preaching of Islam. Da‘wah literally means "issuing a summons" or "making an invitation". A Muslim who practices da‘wah, either as a religious worker or in a volunteer community effort, is called a dā‘ī, plural du‘āt. A dā‘ī is thus a person who invites people to understand Islam through a dialogical process and may be categorized in some cases as the Islamic equivalent of a missionary, as one who invites people to the faith, to the prayer, or to Islamic life.

Da'wah activities can take many forms. Some pursue Islamic studies specifically to perform Da'wah. Mosques and other Islamic centers sometimes spread Da'wah actively, similar to evangelical churches. Others consider being open to the public and answering questions to be Da'wah. Recalling Muslims to the faith and expanding their knowledge can also be considered Da'wah.

In Islamic theology, the purpose of Da'wah is to invite people, both Muslims and non-Muslims, to understand the commandments of God as expressed in the Quran and the Sunnah of the Prophet, as well as to inform them about Muhammad. Da'wah produces converts to Islam, which in turn grows the size of the Muslim Ummah, or community of Muslims.

While there were instances of forced conversions to Islam, these were neither the norm nor part of a systematic strategy of expansion. Many Muslim rulers practiced religious pluralism, ^[83] and the Quran explicitly prohibits compulsion in matters of faith. ^[84] Most conversions to Islam occurred gradually, driven by social, cultural, and economic influences rather than coercion. ^[85]

Demographics

See also: Abrahamic world

Worldwide percentage of adherents by Abrahamic religion, as of 2015 ^{[update] [86]}

1. Christianity (31.2%)
2. Islam (24.1%)
3. Judaism (0.18%)
4. Baháʼí Faith (0.07%)
5. Non-Abrahamic religions (45.5%)

Christianity is the largest Abrahamic religion with about 2.5 billion adherents, called Christians, constituting about 31.1% of the world's population. ^[87] Islam is the second largest Abrahamic religion, as well as the fastest-growing Abrahamic religion in recent decades. ^{[87] [88]} It has about 1.9 billion adherents, called Muslims, constituting about 24.1% of the world's population. The third largest Abrahamic religion is Judaism with about 14.1 million adherents, called Jews. ^[87] The Baháʼí Faith has over 8 million adherents, making it the fourth largest Abrahamic religion, ^{[89] [90]} and the fastest growing religion across the 20th century, usually at least twice the rate of population growth. ^[91] The Druze Faith has between one million and nearly two million adherents. ^{[92] [93]}

Adherents of minor Abrahamic faiths

Religion	Adherents
Baháʼí	5–8 million [89] [90]
Druze	1–2 million [92] [93]
Rastafari	700,000–1 million [28]
Mandaeism	60,000–100,000 [94] [95]
Azalism	~1,000–2,000 [21] [96]
Samaritanism	~840 [97]

See also

• Judaism portal
• Christianity portal
• Islam portal
• Religion portal

• Abraham's family tree
• Abrahamic Family House, a complex in Abu Dhabi built in the spirit of Abrahamic unity
• Abrahamites
• Ancient Semitic religion
• Din-i Ilahi
• Center for Muslim-Jewish Engagement
• Christianity and Islam
• Christianity and Judaism
• Christianity and other religions
• Gnosticism
• Interfaith dialogue
• Islamic–Jewish relations
• Islam and other religions
• Jesus in Christianity
• Jesus in Islam
• Jewish views on religious pluralism
• Judaism's view of Jesus
• Judeo-Christian
• Judeo-Christian ethics
• List of burial places of Abrahamic figures
• List of people in both the Bible and the Quran
• Religious perspectives on Jesus
• Yazidism
• Milah Abraham
• Nigerian Chrislam
• People of the Book
• Sabians
• Table of prophets of Abrahamic religions
• Yarsanism
• Manichaeism

Notes

1. According to Encyclopedia Talmudit (Hebrew edition, Israel, 5741/1981, Entry Ben Noah, page 349), most medieval authorities consider that all seven commandments were given to Adam, although Maimonides (Mishneh Torah, Hilkhot M'lakhim 9:1) considers the dietary law to have been given to Noah.
2. Compare Genesis 9:4–6.

References

Citations

1. Brague, Rémi, 'The Concept of the Abrahamic Religions, Problems and Pitfalls', in Adam J. Silverstein, and Guy G. Stroumsa (eds), The Oxford Handbook of the Abrahamic Religions (2015; online edn, Oxford Academic, 12 Nov. 2015), https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199697762.013.5, accessed 12 Feb. 2024
2. Goshen-Gottstein, Alon. "Abraham and ‘Abrahamic Religions’ in Contemporary Interreligious Discourse." Studies in Interreligious Dialogue 12.2 (2002): 165–183.
3. Gaston, K. Healan. "The Judeo-Christian and Abrahamic Traditions in America." Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion. 2018.
4. Bakhos, Carol. The Family of Abraham: Jewish, Christian, and Muslim Interpretations. Harvard University Press, 2014.
5. Dodds, Adam. "The Abrahamic faiths? Continuity and discontinuity in Christian and Islamic doctrine." Evangelical Quarterly: An International Review of Bible and Theology 81.3 (2009): 230–253.
6. Stroumsa, Guy G. "From Abraham's Religion to the Abrahamic Religions." Historia religionum: an international Journal: 3, 2011 (2011): 11–22. p. 21
7. Abulafia, Anna Sapir (23 September 2019). "The Abrahamic religions". London: British Library. Archived from the original on 12 July 2020. Retrieved 9 March 2021.
8. • Micksch, Jürgen (2009). "Trialog International – Die jährliche Konferenz". Herbert Quandt Stiftung. Archived from the original on 23 May 2016. Retrieved 19 September 2009.
9. Collins 2004, pp. 157, 160.
10. Cappucci, John (2017). "Baha'i Faith". In Çakmak, Cenap (ed.). Islam: A Worldwide Encyclopedia [4 volumes]. Islam: A Worldwide Encyclopedia. Bloomsbury. ISBN   979-8-216-10532-9.
11. Krista N. Dalton (2014) Abrahamic Religions: On Uses and Abuses of History by Aaron W. Hughes, Oxford University Press: New York, 2012, 191 pp. ISBN   978-0-19-993465-2, US$55.00 (hardback), Religion, 44:4, 684–686, DOI: 10.1080/0048721X.2013.862421
12. Hughes, Aaron W. Abrahamic religions: On the uses and abuses of history. Oxford University Press, 2012. p. 17
13. Massignon 1949, pp. 20–23.
14. Stroumsa 2017, p. 7.
15. Levenson 2012, pp. 178–179.
16. Bremer 2015, p. 19–20.
17. Able 2011, p. 219.
18. Hatcher & Martin 1998, pp. 130–31.
19. Boyd, Samuel L. (October 2019). "Judaism, Christianity, and Islam: The problem of 'Abrahamic religions' and the possibilities of comparison" . Religion Compass. 13 (10) e12339. doi:10.1111/rec3.12339. ISSN   1749-8171. S2CID   203090839.
20. Dodds 2009, pp. 230–253.
21. Berger, Alan L., ed. Trialogue and Terror: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam after 9/11. Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2012.
22. Hughes 2012, pp. 3–4, 7–8, 17, 32.
23. Greenstreet 2006, p. 95.
24. Hatcher & Martin (1998) , pp. 130–31; Bremer (2015) , p. 19–20; Able (2011) , p. 219; Dever (2001) , pp. 97–102
25. Cohen, Charles L. The Abrahamic religions: a very short introduction. Oxford University Press, USA, 2020. p. 9
26. Burrell, David B., et al., eds. Creation and the God of Abraham. Cambridge University Press, 2010. p. 14–15
27. Edelman (1995) , p. 19; Gnuse (2016) , p. 5; Carraway (2013) , p. 66: "Second, it was probably not until the exile that monotheism proper was clearly formulated."; Finkelstein & Silberman (2002) , p. 234: "The idolatry of the people of Judah was not a departure from their earlier monotheism. It was, instead, the way the people of Judah had worshiped for hundreds of years."
28. "BBC Two – Bible's Buried Secrets, Did God Have a Wife?". BBC. 21 December 2011. Archived from the original on 15 January 2012. Retrieved 4 July 2012. Quote from the BBC documentary (prof. Herbert Niehr): "Between the 10th century and the beginning of their exile in 586 there was polytheism as normal religion all throughout Israel; only afterwards things begin to change and very slowly they begin to change. I would say it [the sentence "Jews were monotheists" – n.n.] is only correct for the last centuries, maybe only from the period of the Maccabees, that means the second century BC, so in the time of Jesus of Nazareth it is true, but for the time before it, it is not true."
29. Hayes, Christine (3 July 2008). "Moses and the Beginning of Yahwism: (Genesis 37- Exodus 4), Christine Hayes, Open Yale Courses (Transcription), 2006". Center for Online Judaic Studies. Archived from the original on 17 August 2022. Retrieved 17 August 2022. Only later would a Yahweh-only party polemicize against and seek to suppress certain… what came to be seen as undesirable elements of Israelite-Judean religion, and these elements would be labeled Canaanite, as a part of a process of Israelite differentiation. But what appears in the Bible as a battle between Israelites, pure Yahwists, and Canaanites, pure polytheists, is indeed better understood as a civil war between Yahweh-only Israelites, and Israelites who are participating in the cult of their ancestors.
30. Kaufmann Kohler; A. V. Williams Jackson (1906). "Zoroastrianism ("Resemblances Between Zoroastrianism and Judaism" and "Causes of Analogies Uncertain")". The Jewish Encyclopaedia. Retrieved 3 February 2022.
31. Grabbe, Lester L. (2006). A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period (vol. 1): The Persian Period (539-331BCE). Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 361–364. ISBN   9780567216175.
32. Black & Rowley 1982 , p. 607b.
33. Pavlac, Brian A (2010). A Concise Survey of Western Civilization: Supremacies and Diversities. Chapter 6.
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36. Cohen, Charles L. The Abrahamic religions: a very short introduction. Oxford University Press, USA, 2020. p. 41
37. Cohen, Charles L. The Abrahamic religions: a very short introduction. Oxford University Press, USA, 2020. p. 41–57
38. Burrell, David B., et al., eds. Creation and the God of Abraham. Cambridge University Press, 2010. p. 41
39. Burrell, David B., et al., eds. Creation and the God of Abraham. Cambridge University Press, 2010. p. 25–39
40. Cohen, Charles L. The Abrahamic religions: a very short introduction. Oxford University Press, USA, 2020. p. 40
41. Marvin Perry (1 January 2012). Western Civilization: A Brief History, Volume I: To 1789. Cengage Learning. pp. 33–. ISBN   978-1-111-83720-4.
42. Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2007). "Qurʼān". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Archived from the original on 16 October 2007. Retrieved 4 November 2007.
43. Cohen, Charles L. The Abrahamic religions: a very short introduction. Oxford University Press, USA, 2020. p. 62
44. Athamina, Khalil. "Abraham in Islamic perspective reflections on the development of monotheism in pre-Islamic Arabia." (2004): 184–205.
45. Religions » Islam » Islam at a glance Archived 21 May 2009 at the Wayback Machine , BBC, 5 August 2009.
46. Burrell, David B., et al., eds. Creation and the God of Abraham. Cambridge University Press, 2010. p. 41.
47. Leeming, David. The Oxford Companion to World Mythology. Vereinigtes Königreich, Oxford University Press, 2005. p. 209
48. Christiano, Kivisto & Swatos 2015, pp. 254–255.
49. Kunst & Thomsen 2014, pp. 1–14.
50. Kunst, Thomsen & Sam 2014, pp. 337–348.
51. Mark 2003, pp. 94–95.
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• Scherman, Nosson, ed. (2001). Tanakh=Tanach: Torah, Neviʼim, Ketuvim: the Torah, Prophets, Writings: the twenty-four books of the Bible, newly translated and annotated (1st student size, Stone ed.). Brooklyn, N.Y.: Mesorah Publications. ISBN   9781578191123.
• Schultz, Joseph P. (1975). Fishbane, Michael A.; Mendes-Flohr, Paul R. (eds.). Texts and Responses: Studies Presented to Nahum N. Glatzer on the Occasion of His Seventieth Birthday by His Students. Leiden: Brill Archive. ISBN   978-90-04-03980-3. Archived from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 18 March 2023.
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• Tucker, Spencer C.; Roberts, Priscilla (12 May 2008). The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social, and Military History A Political, Social, and Military History. ABC-CLIO. ISBN   9781851098422. Archived from the original on 30 May 2016. Retrieved 14 October 2015.
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• The New Encyclopaedia Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica. 1992. ISBN   9780852295533. Druze religious beliefs developed out of Isma'ill teachings. Various Jewish, Christian, Gnostic, Neoplatonic, and Iranian elements, however, are combined under a doctrine of strict monotheism.

Further reading

• "Religion: Year In Review 2010". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 2010.
• Assmann, Jan (1998). Moses the Egyptian: the memory of Egypt in western monotheism. Harvard University Press. ISBN   978-0-674-58739-7.
• Bakhos, Carol (2014). The Family of Abraham: Jewish, Christian, and Muslim Interpretations. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN   978-0-674-05083-9.
• Barnett, Paul (2002). Jesus & the Rise of Early Christianity: A History of New Testament Times. InterVarsity Press. ISBN   978-0-8308-2699-5.
• Freedman H. (trans.), and Simon, Maurice (ed.), Genesis Rabbah, Land of Israel, 5th century. Reprinted in, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Genesis, Volume II, London: The Soncino Press, 1983. ISBN   0-900689-38-2.
• Guggenheimer, Heinrich W., Seder Olam: The rabbinic view of Biblical chronology, (trans., & ed.), Jason Aronson, Northvale NJ, 1998
• Johansson, Warren (1990). "Abrahamic Religions". In Dynes, Wayne R. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Homosexuality (PDF). New York: Garland. ISBN   978-0-8240-6544-7. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 May 2008. Retrieved 26 July 2006.
• Kritzeck, James (1965). Sons of Abraham: Jews, Christians, and Moslems. Helicon.
• Longton, Joseph (1987–2009). "Fils d'Abraham: Panorama des communautés juives, chrétiennes et musulmanes" [Sons of Abraham: Overview of Jewish, Christian and Muslim Communities]. In Longton, Joseph (ed.). Fils d'Abraham (in French). S.A. Brepols I. G. P. and CIB Maredsous. ISBN   978-2-503-82344-7.
• Masumian, Farnaz (1995). Life After Death: A study of the afterlife in world religions. Oxford: Oneworld Publications. ISBN   978-1-85168-074-0.
• de Perceval, Armand-Pierre Caussin (1847). Calcutta review – Essai sur l'histoire des Arabes avant l'islamisme, pendant l'époque de Mahomet, et jusqu'à la réduction de toutes les tribus sous la loi musulmane [Calcutta review – Essay on the history of the Arabs before Islamism, during the time of Muhammad, and up to the reduction of all the tribes under Muslim rule] (in French). Paris: Didot. OCLC   431247004.
• Reid, Barbara E. (1996). Choosing the Better Part?: Women in the Gospel of Luke. Liturgical Press.
• Silverstein, Adam J.; Stroumsa, Guy G., eds. (2015). The Oxford Handbook of the Abrahamic Religions. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-969776-2.
• Peters, F. E. (2003). Islam, a guide for Jews and Christians. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN   9780691122335.
• Smith, Jonathan Z. (1998). "Religion, Religions, Religious". In Taylor, Mark C. (ed.). Critical Terms for Religious Studies. University of Chicago Press. pp. 269–284. ISBN   978-0-226-79156-2.
• Lupieri, Edmundo (2001). The Mandaeans: The Last Gnostics. Grand Rapids, Michigan & Cambridge, UK: Eerdmans. pp. 65–66, 116, 164. ISBN   978-0802833501.

External links

• Quotations related to Abrahamic religions at Wikiquote