The Abrahamic religions are a grouping of three major religions that revere Abraham in their scripture: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. The religions share doctrinal, historical, and geographic overlap that naturally contrasts them with the Dharmic religions of India, or traditions such as Chinese folk religion or Norse mythology.[1][2]
Abrahamic religions make up the largest major division in the study of comparative religion.[3] By total number of adherents, Christianity and Islam comprise the largest and second-largest religious movements in the world, respectively.[4][pageneeded] There are several smaller religious movements that are regarded as Abrahamic, the smallest being Samaritanism, with fewer than 1,000 adherents. The Baháʼí Faith (5-8 million) and Druze Faith (1 million) are the largest Abrahamic religions outside of the three major ones.[5]
Usage
The term Abrahamic religions (and its variations) is a collective religious descriptor for elements shared by Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.[6] It features prominently in interfaith dialogue and political discourse but also has entered academic discourse.[7][8] However, the term has also been criticized for being uncritically adopted.[7]
Although historically the term Abrahamic religions was limited to Judaism, Christianity, and Islam,[9] restricting the category to these three religions has come under criticism.[10][11] The late-19th-century Baháʼí Faith has been listed as Abrahamic by scholarly sources in various fields[12][13] since it is a monotheistic religion that recognizes Abraham.[14][15]
Theological discourse
The figure of Abraham is suggested as a common ground for Judaism, Christianity, Islam and a hypothesized eschatological reconciliation of the three.[16][17] Commonalities may include creation, revelation, and redemption, but such shared concepts vary significantly between and within the Abrahamic religions themselves.[17] Proponents of the term argue that all three religions are united through the deity worshipped by Abraham.[16]
The Catholic scholar of Islam Louis Massignon stated that the phrase "Abrahamic religion" means that all these religions come from one spiritual source.[18] The modern term comes from the plural form of a Quranic reference to dīn Ibrāhīm ("religion of Ibrahim"), the Arabic form of Abraham's name.[19]
In Christianity, Paul the Apostle, in Romans 4:11–12, refers to Abraham as "father of all", including those "who have faith, circumcised or uncircumcised." From its founding, Islam likewise conceived of itself as the religion of Abraham.[20] The Bahá’í scriptures state that the religion's founder, Baháʼu’lláh, descended from Abraham through his wife Keturah's sons.[21][22][23]
Criticism
The appropriateness of grouping Judaism, Christianity, and Islam as "Abrahamic religions" and related terms has been challenged.[24] Adam Dodds argues that the term "Abrahamic faiths", while helpful, can be misleading, as it conveys an unspecified historical and theological commonality that is problematic on closer examination. While there is a commonality among the religions, their shared ancestry is mainly peripheral to their respective foundational beliefs and thus conceals crucial differences.[25]Alan L. Berger, professor of Judaic Studies at Florida Atlantic University, wrote that "while Judaism birthed both Christianity and Islam, the three monotheistic faiths went their separate ways" and "each tradition views the patriarchal figure differently as seen in the theological claims they make about him."[26]Aaron W. Hughes, meanwhile, describes the term as "imprecise" and "largely a theological neologism." [27]
The common Christian doctrines of Jesus' Incarnation, the Trinity, and the resurrection of Jesus, for example, are accepted in neither Judaism nor Islam. There are fundamental beliefs in both Islam and Judaism that are likewise denied by most of Christianity (e.g., the restrictions on pork consumption found in Jewish and Islamic dietary law), and key beliefs of Islam, Christianity, and the Baháʼí Faith not shared by Judaism (e.g., the prophetic and Messianic position of Jesus).[28]
The Torah forms the basis and foundation of Judaism and corresponds to the first five books of the Bible.
Jewish tradition claims that the Twelve Tribes of Israel are descended from Abraham through his son Isaac and grandson Jacob, whose sons formed the nation of the Israelites in Canaan; Islamic tradition claims that twelve Arab tribes known as the Ishmaelites are descended from Abraham through his son Ishmael in the Arabian Peninsula.[29]
In its early stages, the Israelite religion shares traits with the Canaanite religions of the Bronze Age; by the Iron Age, it had become distinct from other Canaanite religions as it shed polytheism for monolatry. They understood their relationship with their god, Yahweh, as a covenant and that the deity promised Abraham a permanent homeland.[30]
While the Book of Genesis speaks of multiple gods (ʾĔlōhīm), comparable to the Enūma Eliš speaking of various gods of the Canaanite pantheon to create the earth, at the time of the Babylonian captivity, Jewish theologians attributed the six-day narrative all to Yahweh, reflecting an early conception of Yahweh as a universal deity.[31] The monolatrist nature of Yahwism was further developed in the period following the Babylonian captivity, eventually emerging as a firm religious movement of monotheism.[32][33][34] With the Fall of Babylon, Judaism incorporated concepts such as messianism, belief in free will and judgement after death, conception of heaven and hell, angels and demons, among others, into their belief-system.[35][36][37]
A Bible handwritten in Latin, on display in Malmesbury Abbey, Wiltshire, England. This Bible was transcribed in Belgium in 1407 for reading aloud in a monastery.
In the 1st century AD, under the Apostles of Jesus of Nazareth;[21]Christianity spread widely after it was adopted by the Roman Empire as a state religion in the 4th century AD. Paul the Apostle interpreted the role of Abraham differently than the Jews of his time.[39] While for the Jews, Abraham was considered a loyal monotheist in a polytheistic environment, Paul celebrates Abraham as a man who found faith in God before adhering to religious law. In contrast to Judaism, adherence to religious law becomes associated with idolatry.[40]
While Christians fashioned their religion around Jesus of Nazareth, the siege of Jerusalem (70 CE), forced Jews to reconcile their belief-system with the destruction of the Second Temple and associated rituals.[41] At this time, both Judaism and Christianity had to systematize their scriptures and beliefs, resulting in competing theologies both claiming Abrahamic heritage.[42] Christians could hardly dismiss the Hebrew scriptures as Jesus himself refers to them according to Christian reports, and parallels between Jesus and the Biblical stories of creation and redemption starting with Abraham in the Book of Genesis.[43] The distant God asserted by Jesus according to the Christians, created a form of dualism between Creator and creation and the doctrine of Creatio ex nihilo, which later heavily influenced Jewish and Islamic theology.[44] By that, Christians established their own identity, distinct from both Greeks and Jews, as those who venerate the deity of Jesus.[45]
The relationship between Islamic and Hebrew scriptures and New Testament differs significantly from the relationship between the New Testament and the Hebrew Bible.[48] Whereas the New Testament draws heavily on the Hebrew Bible and interprets its text in light of the foundations of the new religion, the Quran only alludes to various stories of Biblical writings, but remains independent of both, focusing on establishing a monotheistic message by utilizing the stories of the prophets in a religious decentralized environment.[48]
In the 7th century AD, Islam was founded by Muhammad in the Arabian Peninsula; it spread widely through the early Muslim conquests, shortly after his death.[21] Islam understands its form of "Abrahamic monotheism" as preceding both Judaism and Christianity, and in contrast with Arabian Henotheism.[49]
The teachings of the Quran are believed by Muslims to be the direct and final revelation and words of God. Islam, like Christianity, is a universal religion (i.e. membership is open to anyone). Like Judaism, it has a strictly unitary conception of God, called tawhid or "strict monotheism".[50] The story of the creation of the world in the Quran is elaborated less extensively than in the Hebrew scripture, emphasizing the transcendence and universality of God, instead. According to the Quran, God says kun fa-yakūnu.[51] The Quran describes God as the creator of "heavens and earth", to emphasize that it is a universal God and not a local Arabian deity here.[51]
Others
While many sources limit the list of Abrahamic religions to only include Judaism, Christianity and Islam, some sources include other religions as well.
Samaritanism diverged from Judaism in the 6th to 3rd centuries BCE; although sometimes considered a branch of Judaism, most consider it to be an independent Abrahamic religion.
Some sources consider Mandaeism to be an Abrahamic religion – however, that classification is controversial, given Mandaeism does not accept Abraham as a prophet, despite revering as prophets several other figures from the Jewish scriptures – on the contrary, they believe that Abraham was originally a priest of their religion, but became an apostate from it.
Druze is another religion which emerged from Islam in the 11th century, and hence is sometimes also considered an Abrahamic religion. Yarsanism is a Kurdish religion which combines elements of Shi'a Islam with pre-Islamic Kurdish beliefs; it has been classified as Abrahamic due to its monotheism, incorporation of Islamic doctrines, and reverence for Islamic figures, especially Ali ibn Abi Talib, the fourth caliph and first imam of Shia Islam.
Modern era
A number of sources include the Baháʼí Faith established in the 19th century,[12][13] since it historically emerged in an Islamic milieu, and shares several beliefs with the Abrahamic faiths, including monotheism and recognising Jewish, Christian and Islamic figures as prophets.[14][15] Some also include Bábism, another 19th century movement which was a precursor to the Baháʼí Faith.
Rastafari, an Afrocentric religion which emerged from Christianity in 1930s Jamaica, is also sometimes classified as Abrahamic, in particular due to its monotheism and use of the Bible as scripture.
Chrislam, a group of related Nigerian religious movements which seek to syncretise Christianity and Islam, is sometimes also considered a minor Abrahamic religion.
Mistakenly related
Other African diaspora religions, such as Haitian Vodou and Candomblé, are not classified as Abrahamic, despite originating in syncretism between Christianity and African traditional religions, since they are not monotheistic, and Abraham plays no role in them.
Scholarly sources do not classify Sikhism as an Abrahamic religion, but it is sometimes popularly misconceived as being one, in particular due to the theory that it is a syncretism of Hinduism and Islam, which was popular in older accounts but has been rejected as inaccurate by contemporary scholarship.
Zoroastrianism is not considered an Abrahamic religion, since Abraham is not part of Zoroastrian religious traditions.
All Abrahamic religions accept the tradition that God revealed himself to the patriarch Abraham.[52][pageneeded] All of them are monotheistic, and all of them conceive God to be a transcendentcreator and the source of moral law.[53] Their religious texts feature many of the same figures, histories, and places, although they often present them with different roles, perspectives, and meanings.[54] Believers who agree on these similarities and the common Abrahamic origin tend to also be more positive towards other Abrahamic groups.[55]
In the three main Abrahamic religions (Judaism, Christianity and Islam), the individual, God, and the universe are highly separate from each other. The Abrahamic religions believe in a judging, paternal, fully external god to which the individual and nature are both subordinate. One seeks salvation or transcendence not by contemplating the natural world or via philosophical speculation, but by seeking to please God (such as obedience with God's wishes or his law) and see divine revelation as outside of self, nature, and custom.
All Abrahamic religions claim to be monotheistic, worshiping an exclusive God, although one who is known by different names.[52][pageneeded] Each of these religions preaches that God creates, is one, rules, reveals, loves, judges, punishes, and forgives.[25] However, although Christianity does not profess to believe in three gods—but rather in three persons, or hypostases, united in one essence—the Trinitarian doctrine, a fundamental of faith for the vast majority of Christian denominations,[56][57] conflicts with Jewish and Muslim concepts of monotheism. Since the conception of a divine Trinity is not amenable to tawhid, the Islamic doctrine of monotheism, Islam regards Christianity as variously polytheistic.[58]
Christianity and Islam both revere Jesus (Arabic: Isa or Yasu among Muslims and Arab Christians respectively) but with vastly differing conceptions:
Muslims see Isa as a Prophet of Islam[59][pageneeded] and Messiah. Isa (Jesus) is also believed by Muslims to return to Earth before the doomsday to defeat the Dajjal (the Anti-Christ) and restore peace for a period of time.[citation needed]
However, the worship of Jesus, or the ascribing of partners to God (known as shirk in Islam and as shituf in Judaism), is typically viewed as the heresy of idolatry by Islam and Judaism.[citation needed]
Jerusalem is considered Judaism's holiest city. Its origins can be dated to 1004 BCE,[60] when according to Biblical tradition David established it as the capital of the United Kingdom of Israel, and his son Solomon built the First Temple on Mount Moriah.[61] Since the Hebrew Bible relates that Isaac's sacrifice took place there, Mount Moriah's importance for Jews predates even these prominent events. Jews thrice daily pray in its direction, including in their prayers pleas for the restoration and the rebuilding of the Holy Temple (the Third Temple) on mount Moriah, close the Passover service with the wistful statement "Next year in built Jerusalem," and recall the city in the blessing at the end of each meal. Jerusalem has served as the only capital for the five Jewish states that have existed in Israel since 1400 BCE (the United Kingdom of Israel, the Kingdom of Judah, Yehud Medinata, the Hasmonean Kingdom, and modern Israel). It has been majority Jewish since about 1852 and continues through today.[62][63]
Jerusalem was an early center of Christianity. There has been a continuous Christian presence there since.[64] William R. Kenan, Jr., professor of the history of Christianity at the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, writes that from the middle of the 4th century to the Islamic conquest in the middle of the 7th century, the Roman province of Syria Palaestina was a Christian nation with Jerusalem its principal city.[64] According to the New Testament, Jerusalem was the city Jesus was brought to as a child to be presented at the temple[65] and for the feast of the Passover.[66] He preached and healed in Jerusalem, unceremoniously drove the money changers in disarray from the temple there, held the Last Supper in an "upper room" (traditionally the Cenacle) there the night before he was crucified on the cross and was arrested in Gethsemane. The six parts to Jesus' trial—three stages in a religious court and three stages before a Roman court—were all held in Jerusalem. His crucifixion at Golgotha, his burial nearby (traditionally the Church of the Holy Sepulchre), and his resurrection and ascension and prophecy to return all are said to have occurred or will occur there.
Jerusalem became holy to Muslims, third after Mecca and Medina. The Al-Aqsa, which translates to "farthest mosque" in suraAl-Isra in the Quran and its surroundings are addressed in the Quran as "the holy land". Muslim tradition as recorded in the ahadith identifies al-Aqsa with a mosque in Jerusalem. The first Muslims did not pray toward Kaaba, but toward Jerusalem. The qibla was switched to Kaaba later on to fulfill the order of Allah of praying in the direction of Kaaba (Quran, Al-Baqarah 2:144–150). Another reason for its significance is its connection with the Miʿrāj,[67] where, according to traditional Muslim belief, Muhammad ascended through the Seven heavens on a horse like winged beast named Buraq, guided by the Archangel Gabriel, beginning from the Foundation Stone on the Temple Mount, in modern times under the Dome of the Rock.[68][69]
Even though members of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam do not all claim Abraham as an ancestor, some members of these religions have tried to claim him as exclusively theirs.[12]
For Jews, Abraham is the founding patriarch of the children of Israel. God promised Abraham: "I will make of you a great nation, and I will bless you."[70] With Abraham, God entered into "an everlasting covenant throughout the ages to be God to you and to your offspring to come".[71] It is this covenant that makes Abraham and his descendants children of the covenant. Similarly, converts, who join the covenant, are all identified as sons and daughters of Abraham.[72]
Abraham is primarily a revered ancestor or patriarch (referred to as Avraham Avinu (אברהם אבינו in Hebrew) "Abraham our father") to whom God made several promises: chiefly, that he would have numberless descendants, who would receive the land of Canaan (the "Promised Land"). According to Jewish tradition, Abraham was the first post-Flood prophet to reject idolatry through rational analysis, although Shem and Eber carried on the tradition from Noah.[73][74]
Christian commentators have a tendency to interpret God's promises to Abraham as applying to Christianity subsequent to, and sometimes rather than (as in supersessionism), being applied to Judaism, whose adherents rejected Jesus.[neutrality is disputed] They argue this on the basis that just as Abraham as a Gentile (before he was circumcised) "believed God and it was credited to him as righteousness"[80] (cf. Rom. 4:3, James 2:23), "those who have faith are children of Abraham"[81] (see also John 8:39). This is most fully developed in Paul's theology where all who believe in God are spiritual descendants of Abraham.[82][a] However, with regards to Rom. 4:20[83] and Gal. 4:9,[84] in both cases he refers to these spiritual descendants as the "sons of God"[85] rather than "children of Abraham".[86]
For Muslims, Abraham is a prophet, the "messenger of God" who stands in the line from Adam to Muhammad, to whom God gave revelations,[Quran%3Averse%3D163 4 :163], who "raised the foundations of the House" (i.e., the Kaaba)[Quran%3Averse%3D127 2 :127] with his first son, Isma'il, a symbol of which is every mosque.[87] Ibrahim (Abraham) is the first in a genealogy for Muhammad. Islam considers Abraham to be "one of the first Muslims" (Surah 3)—the first monotheist in a world where monotheism was lost, and the community of those faithful to God,[88] thus being referred to as ابونا ابراهيم or "Our Father Abraham", as well as Ibrahim al-Hanif or "Abraham the Monotheist". Also, the same as Judaism, Islam believes that Abraham rejected idolatry through logical reasoning. Abraham is also recalled in certain details of the annual Hajj pilgrimage.[89]
The Star of David (or Magen David) is a generally recognized symbol of modern Jewish identity and Judaism.
Jewish theology is unitarian. God is an absolute one, indivisible and incomparable being who is the ultimate cause of all existence. Jewish tradition teaches that the true aspect of God is incomprehensible and unknowable and that it is only God's revealed aspect that brought the universe into existence, and interacts with mankind and the world. In Judaism, the one God of Israel is the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, who is the guide of the world, delivered Israel from slavery in Egypt, and gave them the 613 Mitzvot at Mount Sinai as described in the Torah.
The national god of the Israelites has a proper name, written Y-H-W-H (Hebrew: יהוה) in the Hebrew Bible. The etymology of the name is unknown.[91] An explanation of the name is given to Moses when YHWH calls himself "I Am that I Am", (Hebrew: אהיה אשר אהיה’ehye ’ăšer ’ehye), seemingly connecting it to the verb hayah (הָיָה), meaning 'to be', but this is likely not a genuine etymology. Jewish tradition accords many names to God, including Elohim, Shaddai, and Sabaoth.
The Christian cross (or crux) is the best-known religious symbol of Christianity; this version is known as a Latin Cross.
Around the year 200, Tertullian formulated a version of the doctrine of the Trinity which clearly affirmed the divinity of Jesus and came close to the later definitive form produced by the Ecumenical Council of 381.[94][95] Trinitarians, who form the large majority of Christians, hold it as a core tenet of their faith.[96][97]Nontrinitarian denominations define the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit in a number of different ways.[98]
The theology of the attributes and nature of God has been discussed since the earliest days of Christianity, with Irenaeus writing in the 2nd century: "His greatness lacks nothing, but contains all things."[99] In the 8th century, John of Damascus listed eighteen attributes which remain widely accepted.[100] As time passed, theologians developed systematic lists of these attributes, some based on statements in the Bible (e.g., the Lord's Prayer, stating that the Father is in Heaven), others based on theological reasoning.[101][102]
In Islamic theology, God (Arabic: اللهAllāh) is the all-powerful and all-knowing creator, sustainer, ordainer and judge of everything in existence.[103] In contrast to the Jewish and Christian traditions, which depict God usually as anthropomorph, the Islamic conception of God is less personal, but rather of a conscious force behind all aspects of the universe only known through signs of nature, metaphorical stories, and revelation by the prophets and angels.[104] Islam emphasizes that God is singular (tawḥīd)[105] unique (wāḥid) and inherently One (aḥad), all-merciful and omnipotent.[106] According to Islamic teachings, God exists without place[107] and according to the Quran, "No vision can grasp him, but His grasp is over all vision: He is above all comprehension, yet is acquainted with all things."[108] God, as referenced in the Quran, is the only God.[109][110] Islamic tradition also describes the 99 names of God. These 99 names describe attributes of God, including Most Merciful, The Just, The Peace and Blessing, and the Guardian.
A distinct feature between the concept of God in Islam compared to Christianity is that God has no progeny. This belief is summed up in chapter 112 of the Quran titled Al-Ikhlas, which states "Say, he is Allah (who is) one, Allah is the Eternal, the Absolute. He does not beget nor was he begotten. Nor is there to Him any equivalent."[Quran%3Averse%3D1 112 :1]
Since humans obeyed the Devil by committing sin, according to Christian teachings of salvation, the Devil has authority over humans.[113] Only the crucifixion of Jesus could save humans from the grasps of the Devil. Accordingly, Christianity rejects that actions and repentance alone could achieve salvation. The notion that only through the sacrifice of Jesus, salvation could be achieved is emphasized in the Bible:
"I am the way, and the truth, and the life. No one comes to the Father except through me." (John 14:6).[114]
Salvation is thus, a grace bestowed by God, not an individual's work, and passages from the Bible are used in Christian theology to underline that message:
"surely God is my salvation; I will trust and not be afraid"[114](Isaiah 12:2)
Christianity understands acceptance of Jesus' sacrifice as a transformation of the individual, by that the person sheds off its former sinful nature and dissolves in the will of Jesus, an idea attributed to Paul in the Bible:
"If anyone is in Christ, he is a new cre-ation: the old has gone; the new has come."[114]
In Christianity, repentance is an external process; attained through faith.
Islam does neither acknowledge nor aspire salvation from evil in the world.[115] Instead, Islam teaches individual salvation from earthly and otherworldly sufferings through repentance (tawbah).[114]
There is no concept of original sin in Islam. The Fall of Adam is interpreted as an allegory for mankind's behavior; they sin, become aware of their sin, then repent.[116] Accordingly, Islam neither acknowledges nor aspires salvation from evil in the world.[115] Salvation is achieved by purifying one's soul, to go to paradise after death.[114] The importance of repentance is highlighted throughout Islamic scripture:
"Indeed, Allah loves those who are constantly repentant and loves those who purify themselves" (Surah 2:22)
Sometimes compared to the concept of original sin, the devils (shayāṭīn) are said to "touch" humans at the moment of birth and a devil is said to move through humans like blood in the veins, causing an urge to sin.[117] Thus, humans are expected to have a sinful nature, but it could be overcome through repentance:[114]
"Every son of Adam commits sin and the best for those who commit sin are those who repent." (Sunan Ibn Ma-jah)[114]
The devils as conceptualized in the New Testament are in odds with the Islamic idea of monotheism, thus closer to the Jewish understanding of Satan; not as an accuser, but a tempter.[118] According to Islamic monotheism, the devils are dependent on God.[118] According to Islamic teachings, evil is not traced back to devils, but to God, precisely to God's will:
"For indeed, Allāh sends astray whom He wills and guides whom He wills." (Surah 35:8).[119][118]
The origin of good and evil do not depend on a person's will, the devils, or universal laws, but solely on God's judgement.[118]
Judaism and Samaritanism commands that males be circumcised when they are eight days old,[120] as does the Sunnah in Islam. Despite its common practice in Muslim-majority nations, circumcision is considered to be sunnah (tradition) and not required for a life directed by Allah.[121] Although there is some debate within Islam over whether it is a religious requirement or mere recommendation, circumcision (called khitan) is practiced nearly universally by Muslim males.
Today, many Christian denominations are neutral about ritual male circumcision, not requiring it for religious observance, but neither forbidding it for cultural or other reasons.[122]Western Christianity replaced the custom of male circumcision with the ritual of baptism,[123] a ceremony which varies according to the doctrine of the denomination, but it generally includes immersion, aspersion, or anointment with water. The Early Church (Acts 15, the Council of Jerusalem) decided that Gentile Christians are not required to undergo circumcision. The Council of Florence in the 15th century[124] prohibited it. Paragraph #2297 of the Catholic Catechism calls non-medical amputation or mutilation immoral.[125][126] By the 21st century, the Catholic Church had adopted a neutral position on the practice, as long as it is not practised as an initiation ritual. Catholic scholars make various arguments in support of the idea that this policy is not in contradiction with the previous edicts.[127][128][129] The New Testament chapter Acts 15 records that Christianity did not require circumcision. The Catholic Church currently maintains a neutral position on the practice of non-religious circumcision,[130] and in 1442 it banned the practice of religious circumcision in the 11th Council of Florence.[131]Coptic Christians practice circumcision as a rite of passage.[132] The Eritrean Orthodox Church and the Ethiopian Orthodox Church calls for circumcision, with near-universal prevalence among Orthodox men in Ethiopia.[133]
Coptic Children wearing traditional circumcision costumes
Male circumcision is among the rites of Islam and is part of the fitrah, or the innate disposition and natural character and instinct of the human creation.[143]
Circumcision is widely practiced by the Druze, the procedure is practiced as a cultural tradition,[144] and has no religious significance in the Druze faith.[145][146] Some Druses do not circumcise their male children, and refuse to observe this "common Muslim practice".[147]
Circumcision is not a religious practice of the Bahá'í Faith, and leaves that decision up to the parents.[148]
Judaism accepts converts, but has had no explicit missionaries since the end of the Second Temple era. Judaism states that non-Jews can achieve righteousness by following Noahide Laws, a set of moral imperatives that, according to the Talmud, were given by God[c] as a binding set of laws for the "children of Noah"—that is, all of humanity.[149][d] It is believed that as much as ten percent of the Roman Empire followed Judaism either as fully ritually obligated Jews or the simpler rituals required of non-Jewish members of that faith.[150]
Moses Maimonides, one of the major Jewish teachers, commented: "Quoting from our sages, the righteous people from other nations have a place in the world to come if they have acquired what they should learn about the Creator." Because the commandments applicable to the Jews are much more detailed and onerous than Noahide laws, Jewish scholars have traditionally maintained that it is better to be a good non-Jew than a bad Jew, thus discouraging conversion. In the U.S., as of 2003 28% of married Jews were married to non-Jews.[151][pageneeded]See also Conversion to Judaism.
Christianity encourages evangelism. Many Christian organizations, especially Protestant churches, send missionaries to non-Christian communities throughout the world. See also Great Commission. Forced conversions to Catholicism have been alleged at various points throughout history. The most prominently cited allegations are the conversions of the pagans after Constantine; of Muslims, Jews and Eastern Orthodox during the Crusades; of Jews and Muslims during the time of the Spanish Inquisition, where they were offered the choice of exile, conversion or death; and of the Aztecs by Hernán Cortés. Forced conversions to Protestantism may have occurred as well, notably during the Reformation, especially in England and Ireland (see recusancy and Popish plot).
Forced conversions are now condemned as sinful by major denominations such as the Roman Catholic Church, which officially states that forced conversions pollute the Christian religion and offend human dignity, so that past or present offences are regarded as a scandal (a cause of unbelief). According to Pope Paul VI, "It is one of the major tenets of Catholic doctrine that man's response to God in faith must be free: no one, therefore, is to be forced to embrace the Christian faith against his own will."[152] The Roman Catholic Church has declared that Catholics should fight anti-Semitism.[153]
Islam encourages proselytism in various forms. Dawah is an important Islamic concept which denotes the preaching of Islam. Da‘wah literally means "issuing a summons" or "making an invitation". A Muslim who practices da‘wah, either as a religious worker or in a volunteer community effort, is called a dā‘ī, plural du‘āt. A dā‘ī is thus a person who invites people to understand Islam through a dialogical process and may be categorized in some cases as the Islamic equivalent of a missionary, as one who invites people to the faith, to the prayer, or to Islamic life.
Da'wah activities can take many forms. Some pursue Islamic studies specifically to perform Da'wah. Mosques and other Islamic centers sometimes spread Da'wah actively, similar to evangelical churches. Others consider being open to the public and answering questions to be Da'wah. Recalling Muslims to the faith and expanding their knowledge can also be considered Da'wah.
In Islamic theology, the purpose of Da'wah is to invite people, both Muslims and non-Muslims, to understand the commandments of God as expressed in the Quran and the Sunnah of the Prophet, as well as to inform them about Muhammad. Da'wah produces converts to Islam, which in turn grows the size of the Muslim Ummah, or community of Muslims.
Forced conversion to Islam has historically been a prominent strategy in the expansion of the religion, imposed extensively by Muslim conquerors on invaded populations.[154][155] The use of violence in such instances has been claimed to be justified by the Quran.[156]
Christianity is the largest Abrahamic religion with about 2.5 billion adherents, called Christians, constituting about 31.1% of the world's population.[158] Islam is the second largest Abrahamic religion, as well as the fastest-growing Abrahamic religion in recent decades.[158][159] It has about 1.9 billion adherents, called Muslims, constituting about 24.1% of the world's population. The third largest Abrahamic religion is Judaism with about 14.1 million adherents, called Jews.[158] The Baháʼí Faith has over 8 million adherents, making it the fourth largest Abrahamic religion,[160][161] and the fastest growing religion across the 20th century, usually at least twice the rate of population growth.[162] The Druze Faith has between one million and nearly two millions adherents.[163][164]
↑ "So those who have faith are blessed along with Abraham, the man of faith."[citation needed] "In other words, it is not the children by physical descent who are God's children, but it is the children of the promise who are regarded as Abraham's offspring."Romans 9:8
↑ According to Encyclopedia Talmudit (Hebrew edition, Israel, 5741/1981, Entry Ben Noah, page 349), most medieval authorities consider that all seven commandments were given to Adam, although Maimonides (Mishneh Torah, Hilkhot M'lakhim 9:1) considers the dietary law to have been given to Noah.
Abraham is the common Hebrew patriarch of the Abrahamic religions, including Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. In Judaism, he is the founding father of the special relationship between the Jews and God; in Christianity, he is the spiritual progenitor of all believers, whether Jewish or non-Jewish; and in Islam, he is a link in the chain of Islamic prophets that begins with Adam and culminates in Muhammad. As the namesake of the Abrahamic religions, Abraham is also revered in other Abrahamic religions, such as the Druze faith and the Baháʼí Faith.
The Druze, who call themselves al-Muwaḥḥidūn, are an Arab esoteric religious group from West Asia who adhere to the Druze faith, an Abrahamic, monotheistic, and syncretic religion whose main tenets assert the unity of God, reincarnation, and the eternity of the soul.
Monotheism is the belief that one god is the only, or at least the dominant deity. A distinction may be made between exclusive monotheism, in which the one God is a singular existence, and both inclusive and pluriform monotheism, in which multiple gods or godly forms are recognized, but each are postulated as extensions of the same God.
In Abrahamic religions, a messiah or messias is a saviour or liberator of a group of people. The concepts of mashiach, messianism, and of a Messianic Age originated in Judaism, and in the Hebrew Bible, in which a mashiach is a king or High Priest traditionally anointed with holy anointing oil.
Supersessionism, also called replacement theology and fulfillment theology by its proponents, is the Christian doctrine that the Christian Church has superseded the Jewish people, assuming their role as God's covenanted people, thus asserting that the New Covenant through Jesus Christ has superseded or replaced the Mosaic covenant. Supersessionists hold that the universal Church has become God's true Israel and so Christians, whether Jew or gentile, are the people of God.
Christianity and Islam are the two largest religions in the world, with approximately 2.3 billion and 1.8 billion adherents, respectively. Both religions are Abrahamic and monotheistic, having originated in the Middle East.
Comparative religion is the branch of the study of religions with the systematic comparison of the doctrines and practices, themes and impacts of the world's religions. In general the comparative study of religion yields a deeper understanding of the fundamental philosophical concerns of religion such as ethics, metaphysics and the nature and forms of salvation. It also considers and compares the origins and similarities shared between the various religions of the world. Studying such material facilitates a broadened and more sophisticated understanding of human beliefs and practices regarding the sacred, numinous, spiritual and divine.
Religious ties between Muslims and the Jewish people have existed since the founding of Islam in the Arabian Peninsula in the 7th century; Muhammad's views on Jews were shaped by his extensive contact with the Jewish tribes of Arabia during his lifetime. Islam shares similar values, guidelines, and principles with the Jewish religion, and also incorporates Jewish history as a part of its own. Muslims regard the Israelites, to whom Jews and Samaritans trace their ethnic ancestry, as an important religious concept; they are referenced around 43 times in the Quran, excluding individual prophets, and in many accounts of hadith. Similarly, Moses, the most important Jewish prophet, is also regarded by Muslims as an Islamic prophet and messenger ; his name is mentioned in the Quran 136 times—more than any other individual—and his life is narrated and recounted more than that of any other prophet. The Torah, which is the compilation of the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, is also held by Muslims as an Islamic holy book that was revealed by God through various Israelite prophets and messengers. Later rabbinic authorities and Jewish scholars, such as Maimonides, engaged in discussions concerning the relationship between Islam and Jewish religious law. Maimonides himself, it has been argued, was influenced by Islamic legal thought while living in the caliphates of his time.
Christianity and other religions documents Christianity's relationship with other world religions, and the differences and similarities.
The world's principal religions and spiritual traditions may be classified into a small number of major groups, though this is not a uniform practice. This theory began in the 18th century with the goal of recognizing the relative degrees of civility in different societies, but this concept of a ranking order has since fallen into disrepute in many contemporary cultures.
The religious perspectives on Jesus vary among world religions. Jesus' teachings and the retelling of his life story have significantly influenced the course of human history, and have directly or indirectly affected the lives of billions of people, including non-Christians. He is considered by many to be one of the most influential persons to have ever lived, finding a significant place in numerous cultural contexts.
Messianism is the belief in the advent of a messiah who acts as the savior of a group of people. Messianism originated as a Zoroastrian religious belief and followed to Abrahamic religions, but other religions also have messianism-related concepts. Religions with a messiah concept include Hinduism (Kalki) Judaism (Mashiach), Christianity (Christ), Islam Masih [title] Isah son of mary, Druze faith, Zoroastrianism (Saoshyant), Buddhism (Maitreya), Taoism, and Bábism.
Over the centuries of Islamic history, Muslim rulers, Islamic scholars, and ordinary Muslims have held many different attitudes towards other religions. Attitudes have varied according to time, place and circumstance.
In Islam, the terms ḥanīf and ḥunafā' are primarily used to refer to pre-Islamic Arabians who were Abrahamic monotheists. These people are regarded in a favourable light for shunning Arabian polytheism and solely worshipping the God of Abraham, thus setting themselves apart from what is known as jahiliyyah. However, it is emphasized that they were not associated with Judaism or Christianity—and instead adhered to a unique monotheistic faith that exemplified the unaltered beliefs and morals of Abraham. The word is found twelve times in the Quran: ten times in the singular form and twice in the plural form. According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad himself was a ḥanīf and a direct descendant of Abraham's eldest son Ishmael. Likewise, all Islamic prophets and messengers before Muhammad—that is, those affiliated with Judaism and/or Christianity, such as Moses and Jesus—are classified as ḥunafā' to underscore their God-given infallibility.
Religion in Israel is manifested primarily in Judaism, the ethnic religion of the Jewish people. The State of Israel declares itself as a "Jewish and democratic state" and is the only country in the world with a Jewish-majority population. Other faiths in the country include Islam, Christianity and the religion of the Druze people. Religion plays a central role in national and civil life, and almost all Israeli citizens are automatically registered as members of the state's 14 official religious communities, which exercise control over several matters of personal status, especially marriage. These recognized communities are Orthodox Judaism, Islam, the Druze faith, the Catholic Church, Greek Orthodox Church, Syriac Orthodox Church, Armenian Apostolic Church, Anglicanism, and the Baháʼí Faith.
Monotheism—the belief that there is only one deity—is the focus of the Abrahamic religions, which like-mindedly conceive God as the all-powerful and all-knowing deity from whom Abraham received a divine revelation, according to their respective narratives. The most prominent Abrahamic religions are Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. They, alongside Samaritanism, Druzism, the Baháʼí Faith, and Rastafari, all share a common core foundation in the form of worshipping Abraham's God, who is identified as Yahweh in Hebrew and called Allah in Arabic. Likewise, the Abrahamic religions share similar features distinguishing them from other categories of religions:
The Islamic prophet Muhammad's views on Jews were formed through the contact he had with Jewish tribes living in and around Medina. His views on Jews include his theological teaching of them as People of the Book, his description of them as earlier receivers of Abrahamic revelation; and the failed political alliances between the Muslim and Jewish communities.
God-fearers or God-worshippers were a numerous class of Gentile sympathizers to Hellenistic Judaism that existed in the Greco-Roman world, which observed certain Jewish religious rites and traditions without becoming full converts to Judaism. The concept has precedents in the proselytes of the Hebrew Bible.
Ethical monotheism is a form of exclusive monotheism in which God is believed to be the only god as well as the source for one's standards of morality, guiding humanity through ethical principles.
The phrase false god is a derogatory term used in Abrahamic religions to indicate cult images or deities of non-Abrahamic Pagan religions, as well as other competing entities or objects to which particular importance is attributed. Conversely, followers of animistic and polytheistic religions may regard the gods of various monotheistic religions as "false gods", because they do not believe that any real deity possesses the properties ascribed by monotheists to their sole deity. Atheists, who do not believe in any deities, do not usually use the term false god even though that would encompass all deities from the atheist viewpoint. Usage of this term is generally limited to theists, who choose to worship some deity or deities, but not others.
References
Citations
↑ Brague, Rémi, 'The Concept of the Abrahamic Religions, Problems and Pitfalls', in Adam J. Silverstein, and Guy G. Stroumsa (eds), The Oxford Handbook of the Abrahamic Religions (2015; online edn, Oxford Academic, 12 Nov. 2015), https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199697762.013.5, accessed 12 Feb. 2024
↑ Goshen-Gottstein, Alon. "Abraham and ‘Abrahamic Religions’ in Contemporary Interreligious Discourse." Studies in Interreligious Dialogue 12.2 (2002): 165-183.
↑ "Druze in Syria". Harvard University. The Druze are an ethnoreligious group concentrated in Syria, Lebanon, and Israel with around one million adherents worldwide. The Druze follow a millenarian offshoot of Isma'ili Shi'ism. Followers emphasize Abrahamic monotheism but consider the religion as separate from Islam.
↑ Gaston, K. Healan. "The Judeo-Christian and Abrahamic Traditions in America." Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion. 2018.
1 2 Bakhos, Carol. The Family of Abraham: Jewish, Christian, and Muslim Interpretations. Harvard University Press, 2014.
↑ Dodds, Adam. "The Abrahamic faiths? Continuity and discontinuity in Christian and Islamic doctrine." Evangelical Quarterly: An International Review of Bible and Theology 81.3 (2009): 230-253.
1 2 Krista N. Dalton (2014) Abrahamic Religions: On Uses and Abuses of History by Aaron W. Hughes, Oxford University Press: New York, 2012, 191 pp. ISBN 978 0 19 993463 5, US$55.00 (hardback), Religion, 44:4, 684-686, DOI: 10.1080/0048721X.2013.862421
1 2 Hughes, Aaron W. Abrahamic religions: On the uses and abuses of history. Oxford University Press, 2012. p. 17
↑ Cohen, Charles L. The Abrahamic religions: a very short introduction. Oxford University Press, USA, 2020. p. 9
↑ Burrell, David B., et al., eds. Creation and the God of Abraham. Cambridge University Press, 2010. p. 14-15
↑ Edelman (1995), p.19; Gnuse (2016), p.5; Carraway (2013), p.66: "Second, it was probably not until the exile that monotheism proper was clearly formulated."; Finkelstein & Silberman (2002), p.234: "The idolatry of the people of Judah was not a departure from their earlier monotheism. It was, instead, the way the people of Judah had worshiped for hundreds of years."
1 2 "BBC Two – Bible's Buried Secrets, Did God Have a Wife?". BBC. 21 December 2011. Archived from the original on 15 January 2012. Retrieved 4 July 2012. Quote from the BBC documentary (prof. Herbert Niehr): "Between the 10th century and the beginning of their exile in 586 there was polytheism as normal religion all throughout Israel; only afterwards things begin to change and very slowly they begin to change. I would say it [the sentence "Jews were monotheists" – n.n.] is only correct for the last centuries, maybe only from the period of the Maccabees, that means the second century BC, so in the time of Jesus of Nazareth it is true, but for the time before it, it is not true."
↑ Hayes, Christine (3 July 2008). "Moses and the Beginning of Yahwism: (Genesis 37- Exodus 4), Christine Hayes, Open Yale Courses (Transcription), 2006". Center for Online Judaic Studies. Archived from the original on 17 August 2022. Retrieved 17 August 2022. Only later would a Yahweh-only party polemicize against and seek to suppress certain… what came to be seen as undesirable elements of Israelite-Judean religion, and these elements would be labeled Canaanite, as a part of a process of Israelite differentiation. But what appears in the Bible as a battle between Israelites, pure Yahwists, and Canaanites, pure polytheists, is indeed better understood as a civil war between Yahweh-only Israelites, and Israelites who are participating in the cult of their ancestors.
↑ Pavlac, Brian A (2010). A Concise Survey of Western Civilization: Supremacies and Diversities. Chapter 6.
↑ Howard, James M. "Paul, Monotheism and the People of God: The Significance of Abraham Traditions for Early Judaism and Christianity." Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 49.1 (2006): 516.
↑ Howard, James M. "Paul, Monotheism and the People of God: The Significance of Abraham Traditions for Early Judaism and Christianity." Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 49.1 (2006): 517.
↑ Cohen, Charles L. The Abrahamic religions: a very short introduction. Oxford University Press, USA, 2020. p. 41
↑ Cohen, Charles L. The Abrahamic religions: a very short introduction. Oxford University Press, USA, 2020. p. 41-57
↑ Burrell, David B., et al., eds. Creation and the God of Abraham. Cambridge University Press, 2010. p. 41
↑ Burrell, David B., et al., eds. Creation and the God of Abraham. Cambridge University Press, 2010. p. 25-39
↑ Cohen, Charles L. The Abrahamic religions: a very short introduction. Oxford University Press, USA, 2020. p. 40
↑ Perowne, Stewart Henry; Gordon, Buzzy; Prawer, Joshua; Dumper, Michael; Wasserstein, Bernard (13 August 2022). "Jerusalem". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 9 May 2020. Retrieved 14 September 2022.
↑ Vawter, Bruce (1983). "Original Sin". In Richardson, Alan; Bowden, John (eds.). The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Theology. Westminster John Knox. ISBN 9780664227487.
↑ Murray, Michael J.; Rea, Michael (2012), "Philosophy and Christian Theology", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
↑ Russell, Jeffrey Burton (1986). Lucifer: The Devil in the Middle Ages. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-9429-1.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Абдрасилов, Турганбай, Жахангир Нурматов, and Кайнар Калдыбай. "AN ANALYSIS OF SALVATION FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM." Аль-Фараби 76.4 (2021).
1 2 Eichler, Paul Arno. "Die Dschinn, Teufel und Engel im Koran." (1928). p. 8-9
↑ Stieglecker, H. (1962). Die Glaubenslehren des Islam. Deutschland: F. Schöningh. p. 194 (German)
↑ Jabbour, Nabeel (2014), The Crescent through the Eyes of the Cross: Insights from an Arab Christian, London: Omnibus Press, ISBN 978-1-61521-512-6
1 2 3 4 Eichler, Paul Arno. "Die Dschinn, Teufel und Engel im Koran." (1928). p. 41
↑ Kohler, Kaufmann; Krauss, Samuel. "Baptism". Jewish Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 31 August 2022. Retrieved 31 August 2022. According to rabbinical teachings, which dominated even during the existence of the Temple (Pes. viii. 8), Baptism, next to circumcision and sacrifice, was an absolutely necessary condition to be fulfilled by a proselyte to Judaism (Yeb. 46b, 47b; Ker. 9a; 'Ab. Zarah 57a; Shab. 135a; Yer. Kid. iii. 14, 64d). Circumcision, however, was much more important, and, like baptism, was called a "seal" (Schlatter, "Die Kirche Jerusalems", 1898, p.70). But as circumcision was discarded by Christianity, and the sacrifices had ceased, Baptism remained the sole condition for initiation into religious life. The next ceremony, adopted shortly after the others, was the imposition of hands, which, it is known, was the usage of the Jews at the ordination of a rabbi. Anointing with oil, which at first also accompanied the act of Baptism, and was analogous to the anointment of priests among the Jews, was not a necessary condition.
↑ Gruenbaum (2015), p.61: "Christian theology generally interprets male circumcision to be an Old Testament rule that is no longer an obligation ... though in many countries (especially the United States and Sub-Saharan Africa, but not so much in Europe) it is widely practiced among Christians."; Peteet (2017), pp.97–101: "male circumcision is still observed among Ethiopian and Coptic Christians, and circumcision rates are also high today in the Philippines and the US."; Ellwood (2008), p.95: "It is obligatory among Jews, Muslims, and Coptic Christians. Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant Christians do not require circumcision. Starting in the last half of the 19th century, however, circumcision also became common among Christians in Europe and especially in North America."
1 2 "Circumcision protest brought to Florence". Associated Press. 30 March 2008. Archived from the original on 28 September 2022. Retrieved 1 September 2022. However, the practice is still common among Christians in the United States, Oceania, South Korea, the Philippines, the Middle East and Africa. Some Middle Eastern Christians actually view the procedure as a rite of passage.
↑ Richters, J.; Smith, A. M.; de Visser, R. O.; Grulich, A. E.; Rissel, C. E. (August 2006). "Circumcision in Australia: prevalence and effects on sexual health". Int J STD AIDS. 17 (8): 547–54. doi:10.1258/095646206778145730. PMID16925903. S2CID24396989.
↑ "Circumcision amongst the Dogon". The Non-European Components of European Patrimony (NECEP) Database. 2006. Archived from the original on 16 January 2006. Retrieved 3 September 2006.
↑ Pitts-Taylor 2008, p.394, "For most part, Christianity does not require circumcision of its followers. Yet, some Orthodox and African Christian groups do require circumcision. These circumcisions take place at any point between birth and puberty.".
↑ Encyclopedia Talmudit (Hebrew edition, Israel, 5741/1981, entry Ben Noah, introduction) states that after the giving of the Torah, the Jewish people were no longer in the category of the sons of Noah; however, Maimonides (Mishneh Torah, Hilkhot M'lakhim 9:1) indicates that the seven laws are also part of the Torah, and the Talmud (Bavli, Sanhedrin 59a, see also Tosafot ad. loc.) states that Jews are obligated in all things that Gentiles are obligated in, albeit with some differences in the details.
↑ Kuru, Ahmet T. “History.” Islam, Authoritarianism, and Underdevelopment: A Global and Historical Comparison. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019. 67–236. Print.
1 2 "Baha'is by Country". World Religion Database. Institute on Culture, Religion, and World Affairs. 2020. Archived from the original on 9 December 2020. Retrieved 21 December 2020.(subscription required)
1 2 Held 2008, p.109, "Worldwide, they number 1 million or so, with about 45 to 50 percent in Syria, 35 to 40 percent in Lebanon, and less than 10 percent in Israel. Recently there has been a growing Druze diaspora.".
1 2 Swayd 2015, p.3, "The Druze world population at present is perhaps nearing two million; ...".
↑ Saheeh al-Bukharee, Book 55, hadith no. 584; Book 56, hadith no. 710
↑ The Samaritan UpdateArchived 14 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 28 October 2021 "Total [sic] in 2021 – 840 souls Total in 2018 – 810 souls Total number on 1.1.2017 – 796 persons, 381 souls on Mount Gerizim and 415 in the State of Israel, of the 414 males and 382 females."
Dana, Nissim (2003). The Druze in the Middle East: their faith, leadership, identity and status. Brighton [England]: Sussex Academic Press. ISBN9781903900369.
Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002) [2001]. "9. The Transformation of Judah (c. 930-705 BCE)". The Bible Unearthed. Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and The Origin of Its Sacred Texts (First Touchstone Edition 2002ed.). New York: Touchstone. ISBN978-0-684-86913-1. Archived from the original on 5 April 2023. Retrieved 1 September 2022.
Hendrix, Scott; Okeja, Uchenna, eds. (2018). The World's Greatest Religious Leaders: How Religious Figures Helped Shape World History [2 volumes]. ABC-CLIO. ISBN978-1440841385.
Hitti, Philip K. (1928). The Origins of the Druze People and Religion: With Extracts from Their Sacred Writings. Library of Alexandria. ISBN9781465546623.
Huntington, Samuel (2007). Kampf der Kulturen (in German). Translated by Müller, Francis. GRIN Verlag. ISBN978-3-638-66418-9. Archived from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 18 March 2023.
Johnson, Todd M.; Grim, Brian J. (26 March 2013). "Global Religious Populations, 1910–2010". The World's Religions in Figures: An Introduction to International Religious Demography. John Wiley & Sons. doi:10.1002/9781118555767.ch1. ISBN9781118555767. Archived from the original on 5 April 2023. Retrieved 11 September 2022. The Baha'i Faith is the only religion to have grown faster in every United Nations region over the past 100 years than the general population; Bahaʼi (sic) was thus the fastest-growing religion between 1910 and 2010, growing at least twice as fast as the population of almost every UN region.
Kaplan, Aryeh (1973). "The Jew". The Aryeh Kaplan Reader the Gift He Left Behind: Collected Essays on Jewish Themes from the Noted Writer and Thinker (1sted.). Brooklyn, N.Y.: Mesorah Publications. ISBN9780899061733.
Kapur, Kamlesh (2010). History of Ancient India. Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd. ISBN978-81-207-4910-8.
Massignon, Louis (1949). "Les trois prières d'Abraham, père de tous les croyants" [The three prayers of Abraham, father of all believers]. Dieu Vivant (in French). 13.
Morrison, Terri (2006). Kiss, bow, or shake hands: the bestselling guide to doing business in more than 60 countries (2nded.). Avon, Mass.: Adams Media. ISBN978-1-59337-368-9.
Stroumsa, Guy G. (2017). The making of the Abrahamic religions in late antiquity. Oxford. ISBN978-0-191-05913-1.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
The New Encyclopaedia Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica. 1992. ISBN9780852295533. Druze religious beliefs developed out of Isma'ill teachings. Various Jewish, Christian, Gnostic, Neoplatonic, and Iranian elements, however, are combined under a doctrine of strict monotheism.
Freedman H. (trans.), and Simon, Maurice (ed.), Genesis Rabbah, Land of Israel, 5th century. Reprinted in, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Genesis, Volume II, London: The Soncino Press, 1983. ISBN0-900689-38-2.
Guggenheimer, Heinrich W., Seder Olam: The rabbinic view of Biblical chronology, (trans., & ed.), Jason Aronson, Northvale NJ, 1998
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