East Asian religions

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The bagua, a symbol commonly used to represent the Tao and its pursuit Pakua with frame.svg
The bagua, a symbol commonly used to represent the Tao and its pursuit

In the study of comparative religion, the East Asian religions or Taoic religions, form a subset of the Eastern religions, who originated in East Asia.

Contents

Main hall of the City of the Eight Symbols in Qi County, Hebi, the headquarters of the Weixinist Church in Henan. Weixinism is a Chinese salvationist religion. Main temple of the City of the Eight Symbols (Ba Gua Cheng ), the holy see of Weixinism (Wei Xin Jiao ) in Hebi (He Bi Shi ), Henan, China.jpg
Main hall of the City of the Eight Symbols in Qi County, Hebi, the headquarters of the Weixinist Church in Henan. Weixinism is a Chinese salvationist religion.

This group includes Chinese religion overall, which further includes ancestor veneration, Chinese folk religion, Confucianism, Taoism and popular salvationist organisations (such as Yiguandao and Weixinism), as well as elements drawn from Mahayana Buddhism that form the core of Chinese and East Asian Buddhism at large. [1] The group also includes Shinto and Tenrikyo of Japan, and Korean Shamanism, all of which combine shamanistic elements and indigenous ancestral worship with various influences from Chinese religions. [2] Chinese salvationist religions have influenced the rise of Japanese new religions such Tenriism and Korean Jeungsanism; as these new religious movements draw upon indigenous traditions but are heavily influenced by Chinese philosophy and theology. [3] All these religious traditions generally share core concepts of spirituality, divinity and world order, including Tao ('way') and Tian ('heaven'). [4]

Early Chinese philosophies defined the Tao and advocated cultivating the de 'virtue', which arises from the knowledge of such Tao. [5] Some ancient Chinese philosophical schools merged into traditions with different names or became extinct, such as Mohism and others belonging to the ancient Hundred Schools of Thought, which were largely subsumed into Taoism. East Asian religions include many theological stances, including polytheism, nontheism, henotheism, monotheism, pantheism, panentheism and agnosticism. [6]

The place of East Asian religions among major religious groups is comparable to the Abrahamic religions found across the classical world, and Indian religions across the Indian subcontinent, Tibetan plateau and Southeast Asia. [7]

Terminology

Worship ceremony at the Great Temple of Yandi Shennong in Suizhou, Hubei - an example of Chinese folk religion Worship at the Great Temple of Shennong-Yandi in Suizhou, Hubei.jpg
Worship ceremony at the Great Temple of Yandi Shennong in Suizhou, Hubei – an example of Chinese folk religion

Despite a wide variety of terms, the traditions described as "Far Eastern religions", "East Asian religions" or "Chinese religions" are recognized by scholars as a distinct religious family. [8] [9]

Syncretism is a common feature of East Asian religions, often making it difficult to recognise individual faiths. [10] [11] Further complications arise from the inconsistent use of many terms. "Tao religion" is often used for Taoism itself, [12] as well as being used for many Tao-based new religious movements. [13]

"Far Eastern religion" or "Taoic religion" may refer only to faiths incorporating the concept of Tao, may include Chan and Japanese Buddhism, or may inclusively refer to all Asian religions. [14] [15] [16]

The Tao and its virtue

The Tao may be roughly defined as the flow of reality, of the universe, or the force behind the natural order. [17] Believed to be the influence that keeps the universe balanced and ordered, the Tao is associated with nature, due to a belief that nature demonstrates the Tao. [18] It is often considered to be the source of both existence and non-existence. [19]

The Tao is often associated with a "virtue" of being, the de or te. This is considered the active expression of Tao. [20] Generally, those religions closer to Taoism explain de as "integrity" or "wholeness", while those faiths closer to Confucianism express this concept as "morality" or "sound character". [21]

Religions

Taoism

Altar to Shangdi (Shang Di "Highest Deity") and Doumu (Dou Mu "Mother of the Great Chariot"), together representing the principle of the universe in masculine and feminine form in some Taoist cosmologies, in the Chengxu Temple of Zhouzhuang, Jiangxi. Shangdi and Doumu altar in Chengxu Temple, Zhouzhuang, Jiangxi.jpg
Altar to Shangdi (上帝 "Highest Deity") and Doumu (斗母 "Mother of the Great Chariot"), together representing the principle of the universe in masculine and feminine form in some Taoist cosmologies, in the Chengxu Temple of Zhouzhuang, Jiangxi.

Taoism consists of a wide variety of religious, philosophical and ritual orders. [22] There are hermeneutic (interpretive) difficulties in the categorisation of Taoist schools, sects and movements. [23]

Taoism does not fall strictly under an umbrella or a definition of an organised religion like the Abrahamic traditions, nor can it purely be studied as a variant of Chinese folk religion, as much of the traditional religion is outside of the tenets and core teachings of Taoism. Robinet asserts that Taoism is better understood as a way of life than as a religion, and that its adherents do not approach or view Taoism the way non-Taoist historians have done. [24]

In general, Taoist propriety and ethics place an emphasis on the unity of the universe, the unity of the material world and the spiritual world, the unity of the past, present and future, as well as on the Three Jewels of the Tao (love, moderation, humility). [25] Taoist theology focuses on doctrines of wu wei ("non-action"), spontaneity, relativity and emptiness. [26] [27]

Traditional Chinese Taoist schools accept polytheism, but there are differences in the composition of their pantheon. [28] On the popular level, Taoism typically presents the Jade Emperor as the head deity. Professionalised Taoism (i.e. priestly orders) usually presents Laozi and the Three Pure Ones at the top of the pantheon. [29]

Worship of nature deities and ancestors is common in popular Taoism, while professional Taoists put an emphasis on internal alchemy. The Tao is never an object of worship, being treated more like the Indian concept of atman. [30]

Confucianism

Temple of Confucius in Liuzhou, Guangxi. Liu Zhou Shi Kong Miao Temple of Confucius in Liuzhou, Guangxi.jpg
Temple of Confucius in Liuzhou, Guangxi.

Confucianism is a complex system of moral, social, political, and religious thought, influential in the history of East Asia. [31] It is commonly associated with legalism, but actually rejects legalism for ritualism. [32] It also endorses meritocracy as the ideal of nobility. [33] Confucianism includes a complicated system governing duties and etiquette in relationships. Confucian ethics focus on familial duty, loyalty and humaneness. [34]

Confucianism recognises the existence of ancestral spirits and deities, advocating paying them proper respect. [35] Confucian thought is notable as the framework upon which the syncretic Neo-Confucianism was built. [36]

Neo-Confucianism was developed in reaction to Taoism and Chan Buddhism. It was formulated during the Song dynasty, but its roots may be traced to scholars of the Tang dynasty. It draw Buddhist religious concepts and Taoist yin yang theory, as well as the Yijing , and placed them within the framework of classic Confucianism. [37]

Despite Neo-Confucianism's incorporation of elements of Buddhism and Taoism, its apologists still decried both faiths. [38] Neo-Confucianism was an officially endorsed faith for over five centuries, deeply influencing all of East Asia. [39]

New Confucianism is a modernist Confucianism, which accommodates modern science and democratic ideals, while remaining conservative in preserving traditional Neo-Confucianist positions. The influence of New Confucianism prompted since Deng Xiaoping became the leader of China in 1978 and helped cultural exchanges between China and Taiwan. [40]

Shinto

Two women praying in front of a Japanese Shinto shrine. Plum trees Kitano Tenmangu.jpg
Two women praying in front of a Japanese Shinto shrine.

Shinto is the ethnic religion of Japan. [41] Shinto literally means "Way of the gods". Shinto practitioners commonly affirm tradition, family, nature, cleanliness and ritual observation as core values. [42]

Taoist influence is significant in their beliefs about nature and self-mastery. Ritual cleanliness is a central part of Shinto life. [43] Shrines have a significant place in Shinto, being places for the veneration of the kami (gods or spirits). [44] "Folk", or "popular", Shinto features an emphasis on shamanism, particularly divination, spirit possession and faith healing. "Sect" Shinto is a diverse group including mountain-worshippers and Confucian Shinto schools. [45]

Taoism and Confucianism

The concepts of Tao and de are shared by both Taoism and Confucianism. [46] The authorship of the Tao Te Ching, the central book of Taoism, is assigned to Laozi, who is traditionally held to have been a teacher of Confucius. [47] However, some scholars believe that the Tao Te Ching arose as a reaction to Confucianism. [48] Zhuangzi, reacting to the Confucian-Mohist ethical disputes casts Laozi as a prior step to the Mohists by name and the Confucians by implication. However, secular scholars usually consider Laozi and Zhuangzi to have been mythological figures. [49] [50]

Early Taoist texts reject Confucian emphasis on rituals and order, in favour of an emphasis on "wild" nature and individualism. Historical Taoists challenged conventional morality, while Confucians considered society debased and in need of strong ethical guidance. [51]

Interaction with Indian religions

A painting of Confucius presenting a young Buddha to Laozi. Confucius Laozi Buddha.jpg
A painting of Confucius presenting a young Buddha to Laozi.

The entry of Buddhism into China from the Indian subcontinent was marked by interaction and syncretism with Taoism in particular. [52] Originally seen as a kind of "foreign Taoism", Buddhism's scriptures were translated into Chinese using the Taoist vocabulary. [53] Chan Buddhism was particularly modelled after Taoism, integrating distrust of scripture, text and even language, as well as the Taoist views of embracing "this life", dedicated practice and the "every-moment". [54] In the Tang period Taoism incorporated such Buddhist elements as monasteries, vegetarianism, prohibition of alcohol, the doctrine of emptiness, and collecting scripture into tripartite organisation. During the same time, Chan Buddhism grew to become the largest sect in Chinese Buddhism. [55]

The Buddha's "Dharma" seemed alien and amoral to conservative and Confucian sensibilities. [56] Confucianism promoted social stability, order, strong families, and practical living, and Chinese officials questioned how monastic lifestyle and personal attainment of enlightenment benefited the empire. [53] However, Buddhism and Confucianism eventually reconciled after centuries of conflict and assimilation. [57]

Ideological and political rivals for centuries, Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism deeply influenced one another. [58] They did share some similar values. All three embraced a humanist philosophy emphasising moral behavior and human perfection. In time, most Chinese people identified to some extent with all three traditions simultaneously. [59] This became institutionalised when aspects of the three schools were synthesised in the Neo-Confucian school. [57]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chinese philosophy</span> Type of philosophy

Chinese philosophy originates in the Spring and Autumn period and Warring States period, during a period known as the "Hundred Schools of Thought", which was characterized by significant intellectual and cultural developments. Although much of Chinese philosophy begun in the Warring States period, elements of Chinese philosophy have existed for several thousand years. Some can be found in the I Ching, an ancient compendium of divination, which dates back to at least 672 BCE.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Taoism</span> Religious and philosophical tradition

Taoism or Daoism is a diverse philosophical and religious tradition indigenous to China, emphasizing harmony with the Tao—generally understood as an impersonal, enigmatic process of transformation ultimately underlying reality. The concept originates in the Chinese word 道. Although Taoism has no simple definitions, possible translations of Tao include 'way', 'road', and 'technique'. Taoist thought has informed the development of various practices within the Taoist tradition and beyond, including forms of meditation, astrology, qigong, feng shui, and internal alchemy. A common goal of Taoist practice is self-cultivation, a deeper appreciation of the Tao, and more harmonious existence. Taoist ethics vary, but generally emphasize such virtues as effortless action, naturalness, simplicity, and the three treasures of compassion, frugality, and humility.

The Tao or Dao is the natural way of the universe, primarily as conceived in East Asian philosophy and religion. This seeing of life cannot be grasped as a concept. Rather, it is seen through actual living experience of one's everyday being. The concept is represented by the Chinese character 道, which has meanings including 'way', 'path', 'road', and sometimes 'doctrine' or 'principle'.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Laozi</span> Semi-legendary Chinese philosopher, founder of Taoism

Laozi, also romanized as Lao Tzu and various other ways, was a semi-legendary ancient Chinese philosopher, author of the Tao Te Ching, the foundational text of Taoism along with the Zhuangzi. Laozi is a Chinese honorific, typically translated as "the Old Master". Modern scholarship generally regards his biographical details as invented, and his opus a collaboration. Traditional accounts say he was born as Li Er in the state of Chu in the 6th century BC during China's Spring and Autumn period, served as the royal archivist for the Zhou court at Wangcheng, met and impressed Confucius on one occasion, and composed the Tao Te Ching in a single session before retiring into the western wilderness.

Eastern philosophy includes the various philosophies that originated in East and South Asia, including Chinese philosophy, Japanese philosophy, Korean philosophy, and Vietnamese philosophy; which are dominant in East Asia, and Indian philosophy, which are dominant in South Asia, Southeast Asia, Tibet, and Mongolia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Religion in Japan</span>

Religion in Japan is manifested primarily in Shinto and in Buddhism, the two main faiths, which Japanese people often practice simultaneously. According to estimates, as many as 70% of the populace follow Shinto rituals to some degree, worshiping ancestors and spirits at domestic altars and public shrines. An almost equally high number is reported as Buddhist. Syncretic combinations of both, known generally as shinbutsu-shūgō, are common; they represented Japan's dominant religion before the rise of State Shinto in the 19th century.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Neo-Confucianism</span> Philosophical school of Confucianism mainly influenced by Zhu Xi

Neo-Confucianism is a moral, ethical, and metaphysical Chinese philosophy influenced by Confucianism, which originated with Han Yu (768–824) and Li Ao (772–841) in the Tang dynasty, and became prominent during the Song and Ming dynasties under the formulations of Zhu Xi (1130–1200). After the Mongol conquest of China in the thirteenth century, Chinese scholars and officials restored and preserved neo-Confucianism as a way to safeguard the cultural heritage of China.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Religion in China</span>

Religion in China is diverse and most Chinese people are either non-religious or practice a combination of Buddhism and Taoism with a Confucian worldview, which is collectively termed as Chinese folk religion.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Three teachings</span> Confusianism, Taoism, and Buddhism collectively, considered as a harmonious aggregate

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The Eastern religions are the religions which originated in East, South and Southeast Asia and thus have dissimilarities with Western, African and Iranian religions. Eastern religions include:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vinegar tasters</span> Traditional subject in Chinese painting

The Vinegar Tasters is a traditional subject in Chinese painting, which later spread to other East Asian countries.

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Asia is the largest and most populous continent and the birthplace of many religions including Buddhism, Christianity, Confucianism, Hinduism, Islam, Jainism, Judaism, Shinto, Sikhism, Taoism, and Zoroastrianism. All major religious traditions are practiced in the region and new forms are constantly emerging. Asia is noted for its diversity of culture. Islam and Hinduisms are the largest religion in Asia with approximately 1.2-1.3 billion adherents each.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Taoism in Korea</span> Overview of Taoism in Korea

Taoism or "Do" is thought to be the earliest state philosophy for the Korean people. However, its influence waned with the introduction of Buddhism during the Goryeo kingdom as the national religion and the dominance of neo-Confucianism during the Joseon dynasty. Despite its diminished influence during those periods, it permeated all strata of the Korean populace, integrating with its native animism as well as Buddhist and Confucian institutions, temples, and ceremonies. The Taoist practice in Korea developed, somewhat in contrast to China, as an esoteric meditative practice in the mountains taught by the "mountain masters" or "mountain sages".

The history ofTaoism stretches throughout Chinese history. Originating in prehistoric China, it has exerted a powerful influence over Chinese culture throughout the ages. Taoism evolved in response to changing times, with its doctrine and associated practices being revised and refined. The acceptance of Taoism by the ruling class has waxed and waned, alternately enjoying periods of favor and rejection. Most recently, Taoism has emerged from a period of suppression and is undergoing a revival in China.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Daode Tianzun</span> Deification of Laozi in the Taoist pantheon

Daode Tianzun, also known as Taishang Laojun is a high Taoist god. He is the Taiqing which is one of the Three Pure Ones, the highest immortals of Taoism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Edo neo-Confucianism</span> Neo-Confucian philosophy that developed in Japan during the Edo period

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The Mouzi Lihuolun is a classic Chinese Buddhist text. It comprises a purportedly autobiographical preface by Master Mou, a late 2nd-century Confucian scholar-official who converted to Buddhism, and an imaginary dialogue of questions and answers about Buddhist practices.

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Taoist philosophy also known as Taology refers to the various philosophical currents of Taoism, a tradition of Chinese origin which emphasizes living in harmony with the Dào. The Dào is a mysterious and deep principle that is the source, pattern and substance of the entire universe.

References

Citations

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Works cited

Kitagawa, Joseph (2002), The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture, Taylor & Francis, ISBN   978-0-700-71762-0

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