East Asian religions

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Worship ceremony at the Great Temple of Yandi Shennong in Suizhou, Hubei; a practice of Chinese folk religion. Worship at the Great Temple of Shennong-Yandi in Suizhou, Hubei.jpg
Worship ceremony at the Great Temple of Yandi Shennong in Suizhou, Hubei; a practice of Chinese folk religion.
Main hall of the City of the Eight Symbols in Qi, Hebi, the headquarters of the Weixinist Church in Henan. Weixinism is a Chinese salvationist religion. Main temple of the City of the Eight Symbols (Ba Gua Cheng ), the holy see of Weixinism (Wei Xin Jiao ) in Hebi (He Bi Shi ), Henan, China.jpg
Main hall of the City of the Eight Symbols in Qi, Hebi, the headquarters of the Weixinist Church in Henan. Weixinism is a Chinese salvationist religion.

In the study of comparative religion, the East Asian religions or Taoic religions, [1] form a subset of the Eastern religions. This group includes Chinese religion overall, which further includes Ancestral Worship, Chinese folk religion, Confucianism, Taoism and popular salvationist organisations (such as Yiguandao and Weixinism), as well as elements drawn from Mahayana Buddhism that form the core of Chinese and East Asian Buddhism at large. [2] [3] [4] The group also includes Japanese Shinto, Tenrikyo, and Korean Muism, all of which combine Shamanistic elements and indigenous ancestral worship with various influences from Chinese religions. [5] [6] [7] Chinese salvationist religions have influenced the rise of Japanese new religions such Tenriism and Korean Jeungsanism; as these new religious movements draw upon indigenous traditions but are heavily influenced by Chinese philosophy and theology. [8]

Contents

Michael Witzel theorises that these religions might also share some elements with the religion of Indo-Iranians, owing to contact presumably in the steppes of Central Asia at around 2000 BC. For instance, in Shinto, traces of these influences can be observed in the myth of the storm god Susanoo slaying a serpent Yamata-no-Orochi and in the myth of the dawn goddess Ame-no-Uzume. [9] [10] [11]

All these religious traditions, more or less, share core Chinese concepts of spirituality, divinity and world order, including Tao, ("Way", Pinyin dào, Japanese or , and Korean do) and Tian, ("Heaven", Japanese ten, and Korean cheon'). [12] [13]

Early Chinese philosophies defined the Tao and advocated cultivating the de , "virtue", which arises from the knowledge of such Tao. [14] Some ancient Chinese philosophical schools merged into traditions with different names or became extinct, such as Mohism (and many others belonging to the ancient Chinese Hundred Schools of Thought), which was largely subsumed into Taoism. East Asian religions include many theological stances, including polytheism, nontheism, henotheism, monotheism, pantheism, panentheism and agnosticism. [15]

The place of Taoic religions among major religious groups is comparable to the Abrahamic religions found in Europe and the Western World as well as across the Middle East and the Muslim World, and Dharmic religions across the Indian subcontinent, Tibetan plateau and Southeast Asia. [16]

Terminology

Despite a wide variety of terms, the traditions described as "Far Eastern religions", "East Asian religions" or "Chinese religions" are recognized by scholars as a distinct religious family. [17] [18]

Syncretism is a common feature of East Asian religions, often making it difficult to recognise individual faiths. [19] [20] Further complications arise from the inconsistent use of many terms. "Tao religion" is often used for Taoism itself, [21] as well as being used for many Tao-based new religious movements. [22]

"Far Eastern religion" or "Taoic religion" may refer only to faiths incorporating the concept of Tao, may include Chan and Japanese Buddhism, or may inclusively refer to all Asian religions. [23] [24] [25]

The Tao and its virtue

The Tao may be roughly defined as the flow of reality, of the universe, or the force behind the natural order. [26] Believed to be the influence that keeps the universe balanced and ordered, the Tao is associated with nature, due to a belief that nature demonstrates the Tao. [27] It is often considered to be the source of both existence and non-existence. [28]

The Tao is often associated with a "virtue" of being, the de or te. This is considered the active expression of Tao. [29] Generally, those religions closer to Taoism explain de as "integrity" or "wholeness", while those faiths closer to Confucianism express this concept as "morality" or "sound character". [30]

Religions

Taoism

Altar to Shangdi (Shang Di  "Highest Deity") and Doumu (Dou Mu  "Mother of the Great Chariot"), together representing the principle of the universe in masculine and feminine form in some Taoist cosmologies, in the Chengxu Temple of Zhouzhuang, Jiangxi. Shangdi and Doumu altar in Chengxu Temple, Zhouzhuang, Jiangxi.jpg
Altar to Shangdi (上帝 "Highest Deity") and Doumu (斗母 "Mother of the Great Chariot"), together representing the principle of the universe in masculine and feminine form in some Taoist cosmologies, in the Chengxu Temple of Zhouzhuang, Jiangxi.

Taoism consists of a wide variety of religious, philosophical and ritual orders. [31] There are hermeneutic (interpretive) difficulties in the categorisation of Taoist schools, sects and movements. [32]

Taoism does not fall strictly under an umbrella or a definition of an organised religion like the Abrahamic traditions, nor can it purely be studied as a variant of Chinese folk religion, as much of the traditional religion is outside of the tenets and core teachings of Taoism. Robinet asserts that Taoism is better understood as a way of life than as a religion, and that its adherents do not approach or view Taoism the way non-Taoist historians have done. [33]

In general, Taoist propriety and ethics place an emphasis on the unity of the universe, the unity of the material world and the spiritual world, the unity of the past, present and future, as well as on the Three Jewels of the Tao (love, moderation, humility). [34] Taoist theology focuses on doctrines of wu wei ("non-action"), spontaneity, relativity and emptiness. [35] [36]

Traditional Chinese Taoist schools accept polytheism, but there are differences in the composition of their pantheon. [37] On the popular level, Taoism typically presents the Jade Emperor as the head deity. Professionalised Taoism (i.e. priestly orders) usually presents Laozi and the Three Pure Ones at the top of the pantheon. [38]

Worship of nature deities and ancestors is common in popular Taoism, while professional Taoists put an emphasis on internal alchemy. The Tao is never an object of worship, being treated more like the Indian concept of atman. [39]

Confucianism

Temple of Confucius in Liuzhou, Guangxi. Liu Zhou Shi Kong Miao Temple of Confucius in Liuzhou, Guangxi.jpg
Temple of Confucius in Liuzhou, Guangxi.

Confucianism is a complex system of moral, social, political, and religious thought, influential in the history of East Asia. [40] It is commonly associated with legalism, but actually rejects legalism for ritualism. [41] It also endorses meritocracy as the ideal of nobility. [42] Confucianism includes a complicated system governing duties and etiquette in relationships. Confucian ethics focus on familial duty, loyalty and humaneness. [43]

Confucianism recognises the existence of ancestral spirits and deities, advocating paying them proper respect. [44] Confucian thought is notable as the framework upon which the syncretic Neo-Confucianism was built. [45]

Neo-Confucianism was developed in reaction to Taoism and Chan Buddhism. It was formulated during the Song dynasty, but its roots may be traced to scholars of the Tang dynasty. It draw Buddhist religious concepts and Taoist yin yang theory, as well as the Yijing , and placed them within the framework of classic Confucianism. [46]

Despite Neo-Confucianism's incorporation of elements of Buddhism and Taoism, its apologists still decried both faiths. [47] Neo-Confucianism was an officially endorsed faith for over five centuries, deeply influencing all of East Asia. [48]

New Confucianism is a modernist Confucianism, which accommodates modern science and democratic ideals, while remaining conservative in preserving traditional Neo-Confucianist positions. The influence of New Confucianism prompted since Deng Xiaoping became the leader of China in 1978 and helped cultural exchanges between China and Taiwan. [49]

Shinto

Two women praying in front of a Japanese Shinto shrine. Plum trees Kitano Tenmangu.jpg
Two women praying in front of a Japanese Shinto shrine.

Shinto is the ethnic religion of Japan. [50] Shinto literally means "Way of the gods". Shinto practitioners commonly affirm tradition, family, nature, cleanliness and ritual observation as core values. [51]

Taoist influence is significant in their beliefs about nature and self-mastery. Ritual cleanliness is a central part of Shinto life. [52] Shrines have a significant place in Shinto, being places for the veneration of the kami (gods or spirits). [53] "Folk", or "popular", Shinto features an emphasis on shamanism, particularly divination, spirit possession and faith healing. "Sect" Shinto is a diverse group including mountain-worshippers and Confucian Shinto schools. [54]

Taoism and Confucianism

The concepts of Tao and de are shared by both Taoism and Confucianism. [55] The authorship of the Tao Te Ching, the central book of Taoism, is assigned to Laozi, who is traditionally held to have been a teacher of Confucius. [56] However, some scholars believe that the Tao Te Ching arose as a reaction to Confucianism. [57] Zhuangzi, reacting to the Confucian-Mohist ethical disputes casts Laozi as a prior step to the Mohists by name and the Confucians by implication. However, secular scholars usually consider Laozi and Zhuangzi to have been mythological figures. [58] [59]

Early Taoist texts reject Confucian emphasis on rituals and order, in favour of an emphasis on "wild" nature and individualism. Historical Taoists challenged conventional morality, while Confucians considered society debased and in need of strong ethical guidance. [60]

Interaction with Dharmic religions

A painting of Confucius presenting a young Buddha to Laozi. Confucius Laozi Buddha.jpg
A painting of Confucius presenting a young Buddha to Laozi.

The entry of Buddhism into China from the Indian subcontinent was marked by interaction and syncretism with Taoism in particular. [61] Originally seen as a kind of "foreign Taoism", Buddhism's scriptures were translated into Chinese using the Taoist vocabulary. [62] Chan Buddhism was particularly modelled after Taoism, integrating distrust of scripture, text and even language, as well as the Taoist views of embracing "this life", dedicated practice and the "every-moment". [63] In the Tang period Taoism incorporated such Buddhist elements as monasteries, vegetarianism, prohibition of alcohol, the doctrine of emptiness, and collecting scripture into tripartite organisation. During the same time, Chan Buddhism grew to become the largest sect in Chinese Buddhism. [64]

The Buddha's "Dharma" seemed alien and amoral to conservative and Confucian sensibilities. [65] Confucianism promoted social stability, order, strong families, and practical living, and Chinese officials questioned how monastic lifestyle and personal attainment of enlightenment benefited the empire. [62] However, Buddhism and Confucianism eventually reconciled after centuries of conflict and assimilation. [66]

Ideological and political rivals for centuries, Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism deeply influenced one another. [67] They did share some similar values. All three embraced a humanist philosophy emphasising moral behavior and human perfection. In time, most Chinese people identified to some extent with all three traditions simultaneously. [68] This became institutionalised when aspects of the three schools were synthesised in the Neo-Confucian school. [66]

See also

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chinese philosophy</span>

Chinese philosophy originates in the Spring and Autumn period and Warring States period, during a period known as the "Hundred Schools of Thought", which was characterized by significant intellectual and cultural developments. Although much of Chinese philosophy begun in the Warring States period, elements of Chinese philosophy have existed for several thousand years. Some can be found in the I Ching, an ancient compendium of divination, which dates back to at least 672 BCE.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Taoism</span> Religious and philosophical tradition

Taoism or Daoism is a diverse tradition indigenous to China, variously characterized as both a philosophy and a religion. Taoism emphasizes living in harmony with the Tao—generally understood as being the impersonal, enigmatic process of transformation ultimately underlying reality. The concept originates in the Chinese word 道, which has numerous related meanings: possible English translations include 'way', 'road', and 'technique'. Taoist thought has informed the development of various practices within the Taoist tradition and beyond, including forms of meditation, astrology, qigong, feng shui, and internal alchemy. A common goal of Taoist practice is self-cultivation resulting in a deeper appreciation of the Tao, and thus a more harmonious existence. There are different formulations of Taoist ethics, but there is generally emphasis on virtues such as effortless action, naturalness or spontaneity, simplicity, and the three treasures of compassion, frugality, and humility. Many Taoist terms lack simple definitions and have been translated in several different ways.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tao</span> Chinese concept

In Taoism, related traditions, and other Chinese religions and sects who incorporate it into their worldviews, the Tao or Dao is the natural way of the universe, whose character one's intuition must discern to realize the potential for individual wisdom, as conceived in the context of East Asian philosophy, religion, and related traditions. This seeing of life cannot be grasped as a concept. Rather, it is seen through actual living experience of one's everyday being. Its name derives from a Chinese character with meanings including 'way', 'path', 'road', and sometimes 'doctrine' or 'principle'.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Laozi</span> Semi-legendary Chinese philosopher, founder of Taoism

Laozi, also romanized as Lao Tzu and various other ways, was a semi-legendary ancient Chinese philosopher, author of the Tao Te Ching, the foundational text of Taoism along with the Zhuangzi. Laozi is a Chinese honorific, typically translated as "the Old Master". Modern scholarship generally regards his biographical details as invented, and his opus a collaboration. Traditional accounts say he was born as Li Er in the state of Chu in the 6th century BC during China's Spring and Autumn period, served as the royal archivist for the Zhou court at Wangcheng, met and impressed Confucius on one occasion, and composed the Tao Te Ching in a single session before retiring into the western wilderness.

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">East Asian Buddhism</span> East Asian Mahayana Buddhism adhering the Chinese Buddhist canon

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Neo-Confucianism</span> Philosophical school of Confucianism mainly influenced by Zhu Xi

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Religion in China</span>

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Taoism in Korea</span> Overview of Taoism in Korea

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Daode Tianzun</span>

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