Han Chinese

Last updated

Han Chinese
漢族; 汉族
Hanfu Man and lady.jpg
A Han Chinese couple wearing hanfu (2023)
Total population
1.4 billion [1]
Regions with significant populations
People's Republic of China
1,285,001,720 [2]
Republic of China (Taiwan)
>22,000,000 [3] [4]
Thailand 7,053,240 [5]
Malaysia 6,910,000 [6]
United States 3,795,000–5,789,817 [7] [8]
Indonesia 2,832,510 [9]
Singapore 2,670,000 [10]
Myanmar 1,638,000 [11]
Canada 1,469,000 [12]
Philippines 1,350,000 [13]
Australia 1,214,000 [14]
Vietnam 992,600 [15]
Japan 922,000 [16]
United Kingdom 433,000 [17]
Peru 376,000 [18]
Italy 334,000 [19]
New Zealand 231,000 [20]
Germany 212,000 [21]
South Korea 210,000 [22] [lower-alpha 1]
Cambodia 210,000 [23]
Argentina 200,000 [24] [25]
Laos 185,765 [5]
Spain 172,000 [26]
Mexico 70,000 [27]
Brunei 42,132 [28]
Russia 28,943 [29]
Colombia 25,000 [30]
Costa Rica 19,000 [31]
Ireland 11,000 [32]
Languages
Chinese
Religion
Predominantly Irreligious, Chinese folk religion (including Taoism, ancestral worship, Confucianism and others), Mahayana Buddhism
Related ethnic groups
Bai   Hui
Other Sino-Tibetan peoples
Han Chinese
Traditional Chinese 漢族
Simplified Chinese 汉族
Literal meaning Han ethnic group
A traditional representation of The Vinegar Tasters, an allegorical image representing Buddhists, Confucianists, and Taoists Vinegar tasters.jpg
A traditional representation of The Vinegar Tasters , an allegorical image representing Buddhists, Confucianists, and Taoists

Confucianism, Daoism, and Chinese Buddhism, as well as other various traditional homegrown Chinese philosophies, have influenced not only Han Chinese culture, but also the neighboring cultures in East Asia. Chinese spiritual culture has been long characterized by religious pluralism and Chinese folk religion has always maintained a profound influence within the confines of Chinese civilization both historically and in the modern era. Indigenous Confucianism and Taoism share aspects of being a philosophy or a religion and neither demand exclusive adherence, resulting in a culture of tolerance and syncretism, where multiple religions or belief systems are often practiced in conjunction with local customs and traditions. Han culture has for long been influenced by Mahayana Buddhism, while in recent centuries Christianity has also gained a foothold among the population. [182]

Chinese folk religion is a set of worship traditions of the ethnic deities of the Han people. It involves the worship of various extraordinary figures in Chinese mythology and history, heroic personnel such as Guan Yu and Qu Yuan, mythological creatures such as the Chinese dragon or family, clan and national ancestors. These practices vary from region to region and do not characterize an organized religion, though many traditional Chinese holidays such as the Duanwu (or Dragon Boat) Festival, Qingming Festival, Zhongyuan Festival and the Mid-Autumn Festival come from the most popular of these traditions.

Taoism, another indigenous Han philosophy and religion, is also widely practiced by the Han in both its folk forms and as an organized religion with its traditions having been a source of vestigial perennial influence on Chinese art, poetry, philosophy, music, medicine, astronomy, Neidan and alchemy, dietary habits, Neijia and other martial arts and architecture. Taoism was the state religion during the Han and Tang eras where it also often enjoyed state patronage under subsequent emperors and successive ruling dynasties.

Confucianism, although sometimes described as a religion, is another indigenous governing philosophy and moral code with some religious elements like ancestor worship. It continues to be deeply ingrained in modern Chinese culture and was the official state philosophy in ancient China during the Han dynasty and until the fall of imperial China in the 20th century (though it is worth noting that there is a movement in China today advocating that the culture be "re-Confucianized"). [183]

During the Han dynasty, Confucian ideals were the dominant ideology. Near the end of the dynasty, Buddhism entered China, later gaining popularity. Historically, Buddhism alternated between periods of state tolerance (and even patronage) and persecution. In its original form, certain ideas in Buddhism was not quite compatible with traditional Chinese cultural values, especially with the Confucian sociopolitical elite, as certain Buddhist values conflicted with Chinese sensibilities. However, through centuries of mutual tolerance, assimilation, adaptation, and syncretism, Chinese Buddhism gained an respectable place in the culture. Chinese Buddhism was also influenced by Confucianism and Taoism and exerted influence in turn – such as in the form of Neo-Confucianism and Buddhist influences in Chinese folk religion, such as the cult of Guanyin, who is treated as a Bodhisattva, immortal, goddess or exemplar of Confucian virtue, depending on the tradition. The four largest schools of Han Buddhism (Chan, Jingtu, Tiantai and Huayan) were all developed in China and later spread throughout the Chinese sphere of influence.

Though Christian influence in China existed as early as the 7th century, Christianity did not gain a significant foothold in China until the establishment of contact with Europeans during the Ming and Qing dynasties. Christian beliefs often had conflicts with traditional Chinese values and customs which eventually resulted in the Chinese Rites controversy and a subsequent reduction in Christian influence in the country. Christianity grew considerably following the First Opium War, after which foreign missionaries in China enjoyed the protection of the Western powers and engaged in widespread proselytizing. [184]

Historical southward migration

Map showing the expansion of Han dynasty in the 2nd century BC. Han Expansion.png
Map showing the expansion of Han dynasty in the 2nd century BC.

Modern Southern Han Chinese – such as the Hoklo, Cantonese, and Hakka – all claim Northern Han Chinese ancestry derived from their forebearers who migrated from Northern China's Yellow River Valley between the 4th to 12th centuries. Hoklo clans living in southeastern coastal China, such as in Chaozhou and Quanzhou–Zhangzhou, originated from northern China's Henan province during the Tang dynasty. [185]

There were several periods of mass migration of Han people to Southeastern and Southern China throughout history. [75] The ancestors of the Cantonese are said to be Northern Han Chinese who moved to Guangdong, while the Yue descendants were the indigenous minorities who practised tattooing, as described in "The Real Yue People" (真越人; zhēn yuèrén) essay by Qu Dajun, a Cantonese scholar who extolled his people's Chineseness. [186]

Northern Vietnam, Guangdong and Yunnan all experienced a major surge in Han Chinese migrants during Wang Mang's reign. [75] :126 Hangzhou's coastal regions and the Yangtze valley were settled in the 4th century AD by Northern Han Chinese families descended from the Han nobility. [75] :181 Special "commanderies of immigrants" and "white registers" were created for the massive number of Han Chinese of northern origin who moved south during the Eastern Jin dynasty. [75] :182 The southern Chinese aristocracy was formed from the offspring of these migrants; [187] Celestial Masters and the nobility of Northern China subdued the aristocracy of Southern China during the Eastern Jin and Western Jin, particularly in Jiangnan. [188] With the depopulation of the north, due to this migration of Northern Han Chinese, the south became the most populous region of China. [189] [190]

The Han Chinese "Eight Great Surnames" were eight noble families who migrated from Northern China to Fujian in Southern China due to the uprising of the five barbarians when the Eastern Jin was founded, the Hu, He, Qiu, Dan, Zheng, Huang, Chen and Lin surnames. [191] [192] [193] [194]

The Ming dynasty pirate Zheng Zhilong and his son Koxinga's ancestors in the Zheng family originated in Northern China but due to the Uprising of the Five Barbarians and Disaster of Yongjia by the Five Barbarians, the Zheng family were among the Northern Han Chinese refugees who fled to Southern China and settled in Putian, Fujian. They later moved to Zhangzhou and moved on to Nan'an.

Different waves of migration of Han Chinese belonging to the aristocracy from Northern China to the south at different times – with some arriving in the 300s–400s and others in the 800s–900s – resulted in the formation of distinct lineages. [195] During the 700s (Tang dynasty), Han migrants from northern China flooded into the south. [196] Hong Kong history books record migrations of the Song and Tang dynasties to the south, which resulted in Hong Kongers that are descended from the incoming Han settlers that originated from northern China. [77] Since it was during the Tang dynasty that Guangdong was subjected to settlement by many incoming Northern Han Chinese, many Cantonese, Hokkien and Teochew call themselves "Tang people." [197] Several wars in northern China such as the Uprising of the Five Barbarians, An Lushan Rebellion, Huang Chao Rebellion, the wars of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms and Jin–Song Wars caused a mass migration of Han Chinese from Northern China to Southern China called 衣冠南渡 (yì guān nán dù). These mass migrations led to Southern China's population growth, economic, agricultural and cultural development as it stayed peaceful unlike the north. [198] [199] [200] [201] [202] [203] [204]

The Mongol invasion during the thirteenth century caused a surging influx of Northern Han Chinese refugees to move south to settle and develop the Pearl River delta. [205] [206] [207] [208] [209] [210]

The first Ming dynasty emperor Zhu Yuanzhang resettled his home city Fengyang and capital Nanjing with people from Jiangnan. [211] [212]

Genetics

The Han Chinese show a close genetic relationship with other modern East Asian populations such as the Koreans and Yamato. [213] [214] [215] [216] [217] [218] [219] A 2018 research paper found that while the Han Chinese are closely related to the Koreans and Yamato in terms of a correlative genetic relationship, they are also easily genetically distinguishable from them. And that the same Han Chinese subgroups are genetically closer to each other relative to their Korean and Yamato counterparts, but are still easily distinguishable from each other. [219] Research published in 2020 found the Yamato Japanese population to be overlapped with that of the northern Han Chinese. [220]

Estimated ancestry components among modern Eurasian populations. The red components represent the distinctive genetic markers characteristic of people with East Asian ancestry. Estimated ancestry components of Eurasian populations Feng 2017.png
Estimated ancestry components among modern Eurasian populations. The red components represent the distinctive genetic markers characteristic of people with East Asian ancestry.

The genetic makeup of the modern Han Chinese is not purely uniform in terms of physical appearance and biological structure due to the vast geographical expanse of China and the migratory percolations that have occurred throughout it over the last three millennia. This has also engendered the emergence and evolution of the diverse multiplicity of assorted Han subgroups found throughout the various regions of modern China today. Comparisons between the Y chromosome single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) of modern Northern Han Chinese and 3000 year old Hengbei ancient samples from China's Central Plains show that they are extremely similar to each other, which confirms the genetic continuity bequeathed by the ancient Chinese of Hengbei and the present-day Northern Han Chinese inheritors that currently inhabit it in the contemporary era. These findings demonstrate that the core fundamental structural basis that shaped the genetic makeup of the present-day Northern Han Chinese was already formed three thousand years ago. [222] The reference population for the Chinese used in Geno 2.0 Next Generation is 81% Eastern Asia, 2% Finland and Northern Siberia, 8% Central Asia, and 7% Southeast Asia & Oceania. [223]

Y-chromosome haplogroup O2-M122 is a common DNA marker found among modern Han Chinese, as it appeared in China in prehistoric times. It is found in more than half of all present-day Han males (204/361 = 56.5%, [224] 84/139 = 60.4% [225] ), with proportions in published samples ranging from as low as 29.7% (30/101) in a pool of samples of Pinghua speakers from Guangxi [226] and 32.5% (13/40) in a sample of Guangdong Han [227] [228] (but 18/35 = 51.4% in a sample of Han from Meixian in northeastern Guangdong [229] and 48/80 = 60.0% in another sample of Han from Guangdong [230] ) to as high as 60.0% (33/55) in a sample of Fujian Han, [231] 61.1% (215/352) in a pool of samples of Taiwan Han, [231] 62.0% (189/305) in a sample of Han from Zibo, Shandong, [232] 65.7% (23/35) in a sample of Han from Harbin, [229] 65.8% (123/187) in another sample of Shandong Han, [233] and 65.9% (29/44) in a sample of Han from Shanxi or Shaanxi. [227] [228] [229] [234] Other Y-DNA haplogroups that have been found with notable frequency in samples of Han Chinese include O-P203 (15/165 = 9.1%, 217/2091 = 10.38%, [235] 47/361 = 13.0%), C-M217 (10/168 = 6.0%, 27/361 = 7.5%, 176/2091 = 8.42%, [235] 187/1730 = 10.8%, 20/166 = 12.0%), N-M231 (6/166 = 3.6%, 94/2091 = 4.50%, [235] 18/361 = 5.0%, 117/1729 = 6.8%, 17/165 = 10.3%), O-M268(xM95, M176) (78/2091 = 3.73%, [235] 54/1147 = 4.7%, [236] 8/168 = 4.8%, 23/361 = 6.4%, 12/166 = 7.2%), and Q-M242 (2/168 = 1.2%, 49/1729 = 2.8%, 61/2091 = 2.92%, [235] 12/361 = 3.3%, 48/1147 = 4.2% [236] ).

However, the mtDNA of Han Chinese increases in diversity as one looks from northern to southern China, which suggests that the influx of male Han Chinese migrants intermarried with the local female non-Han aborigines after arriving in what is now modern-day Guangdong, Fujian, and other regions of southern China. [237] [238] Despite this, tests comparing the genetic profiles of northern Han, southern Han, and non-Han southern natives determined that haplogroups O1b-M110, O2a1-M88 and O3d-M7, which are prevalent in non-Han southern natives, were only observed in some southern Han Chinese (4% on average), but not in the northern Han genetic profile. Therefore, this proves that the male contribution of the southern non-Han natives in the southern Han genetic profile is limited, assuming that the frequency distribution of Y lineages in southern non-Han natives represents that prior to the expansion of Han culture which originated two thousand years ago from the north. [237] [76]

In contrast, there is evidence that consistently shows the strong genetic similarities in the Y chromosome haplogroup distribution between the modern southern and northern Han Chinese population, and the result of principal core component analysis indicates that almost all modern Han Chinese populations form a tight cluster in their Y chromosome. However, other biological research findings have also demonstrated that the paternal lineages Y-DNA O-M119, [239] O-P201, [240] O-P203 [240] and O-M95 [241] are found in both Southern Han Chinese and Southern non-Han minorities, but more commonly in the latter. In fact, these paternal markers are in turn less frequent in northern Han Chinese. [242] Another study puts the Han Chinese into two groups: Northern and southern Han Chinese, and it demonstrates that the core genetic characteristics of the present-day northern Han Chinese was already formed more than three-thousand years ago in the Central Plain area. [243]

The estimated contribution of northern Han to the southern Han is substantial in the paternal ancestral lineages in addition to a geographic cline that exists for its corresponding maternal ancestry. As a result, the northern Han Chinese are the primary benefactors that contributed to the paternal gene pool of the modern southern Han Chinese as a result of the successive migratory waves that have occurred from the north to what is now modern Southern China. However, it is noteworthy that the southward expansion process that occurred two thousand years ago was largely dominated by males, as is shown by a greater contribution to the Y-chromosome than the mtDNA from northern to southern Han. These genetic findings and observations are in concurrence with historical records confirming the continuous and large migratory waves of northern Han Chinese inhabitants escaping dynastic changes, geopolitical upheavals, instability, warfare and famine into what is now today modern Southern China. [244] [245] [246] [198] [199] [247] [248] [202] [203] [204] [205] [206] [207] [208] [209] [210]

Successive waves of Han migration and subsequent intermarriage and cross-cultural dialogue between the northern Han migrants and the non-Han aborigines gave rise to modern Chinese demographics with a dominant Han Chinese super-majority and minority non-Han Chinese indigenous peoples in the south over the past two thousand years. [245] Aside from these large migratory waves, other smaller southward migrations occurred during almost all periods over the past two millennia. [237] A study by the Chinese Academy of Sciences into the gene frequency data of Han sub-populations and ethnic minorities in China, showed that Han sub-populations in different regions are also genetically quite close to the local ethnic non-Han minorities, meaning that in many cases, the blood of ethnic minorities had mixed into Han genetic substrate through varying degrees of intermarriage, while at the same time, the blood of the Han had also mixed into the genetic substrates of the local ethnic non-Han minorities. [249]

A recent, and to date the most extensive, genome-wide association study of the Han population, shows that geographic-genetic stratification from north to south has occurred and centrally placed populations act as the conduit for outlying ones. [250] Ultimately, with the exception in some ethnolinguistic branches of the Han Chinese, such as Pinghua and Tanka people, [251] there is a "coherent genetic structure" found in the entirety of the modern Han Chinese populace. [252]

Typical Y-DNA haplogroups of present-day Han Chinese include Haplogroup O-M122, C, Haplogroup N and Haplogroup Q-M120, and these haplogroups also have been found (alongside some members of Haplogroup N-M231, Haplogroup O-M95, and unresolved Haplogroup O-M175) among a selection of ancient human remains recovered from the Hengbei archeological site in Jiang County, Shanxi Province, China, an area that was part of the suburbs of the capital (near modern Luoyang) during the Zhou dynasty. [253]

Notes

  1. Of the 710,000 Chinese nationals living in Korea in 2016, 500,000 are ethnic Koreans.
  2. simplified Chinese :汉族; traditional Chinese :漢族; pinyin :Hànzú; lit.' Han ethnic group'or
    simplified Chinese :汉人; traditional Chinese :漢人; pinyin :Hànrén; lit.' Han people'

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Uyghurs</span> Turkic ethnic group of Central and East Asia

The Uyghurs, alternatively spelled Uighurs, Uygurs or Uigurs, are a Turkic ethnic group originating from and culturally affiliated with the general region of Central and East Asia. The Uyghurs are recognized as the titular nationality of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in Northwest China. They are one of China's 55 officially recognized ethnic minorities. The Uyghurs are recognized by the Chinese government as a regional minority and the titular people of Xinjiang.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Turkic peoples</span> Family of ethnic groups of Eurasia

The Turkic peoples are a collection of diverse ethnic groups of West, Central, East, and North Asia as well as parts of Europe, who speak Turkic languages.

The Xiongnu were a tribal confederation of nomadic peoples who, according to ancient Chinese sources, inhabited the eastern Eurasian Steppe from the 3rd century BC to the late 1st century AD. Modu Chanyu, the supreme leader after 209 BC, founded the Xiongnu Empire.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kyrgyz people</span> Turkic ethnic group in Central Asia

The Kyrgyz people are a Turkic ethnic group native to Central Asia. They are primarily found in Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, China, Pakistan and Afghanistan. A Kyrgyz diaspora is also found in Russia, Tajikistan, and Kazakhstan. They speak the Kyrgyz language, which is the official language of Kyrgyzstan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hui people</span> Ethnoreligious group of China

The Hui people are an East Asian ethnoreligious group predominantly composed of Chinese-speaking adherents of Islam. They are distributed throughout China, mainly in the northwestern provinces and in the Zhongyuan region. According to the 2010 census, China is home to approximately 10.5 million Hui people. Outside China, the 170,000 Dungan people of Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, Panthays in Myanmar, Hui Chin Haws in Thailand are also considered part of the Hui ethnicity.

The Tibetan people are an East Asian ethnic group native to Tibet. Their current population is estimated to be around 6.7 million. In addition to the majority living in Tibet Autonomous Region of China, significant numbers of Tibetans live in the Chinese provinces of Gansu, Qinghai, Sichuan, and Yunnan, as well as in India, Nepal, and Bhutan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Qiang people</span> Ethnic group of China

The Qiang people are an ethnic group in China. They form one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognised by the People's Republic of China, with a population of approximately 310,000 in 2000. They live mainly in a mountainous region in the northwestern part of Sichuan (Szechwan) on the eastern edge of the Tibetan Plateau.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Koreans</span> East Asian ethnic group

Koreans are an East Asian ethnic group native to Korea. The majority of Koreans live in the two Korean nation states of North and South Korea, which are collectively referred to as Korea. As of 2021, an estimated 7.3 million ethnic Koreans resided outside of Korea. Koreans are also an officially recognised ethnic minority in other Asian countries, including China, Japan, Kazakhstan, Russia, and Uzbekistan. Outside of Asia, sizeable Korean communities have formed in Germany, the United Kingdom, France, the United States, Canada, and Oceania.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chinese people</span> Ethnic groups

The Chinese people, or simply Chinese, are people or ethnic groups identified with China, usually through ethnicity, nationality, citizenship, or other affiliation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yamato people</span> Ethnic group native to Japan

The Yamato people or the Wajin is a term to describe the ethnic group that comprises over 98% of the population of Japan. Genetic and anthropometric studies has showed that the Yamato are an admixture of the migratory Kofun and Yayoi, who arrived from mainland East and Southeast Asia via the Korean Peninsula, as well as the indigenous Jōmon that were already living on the Japanese archipelago for thousands of years prior.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tarim mummies</span> Series of mummies discovered in the Tarim Basin

The Tarim mummies are a series of mummies discovered in the Tarim Basin in present-day Xinjiang, China, which date from 1800 BCE to the first centuries BCE, with a new group of individuals recently dated to between c. 2100 and 1700 BCE. The Tarim population to which the earliest mummies belonged was agropastoral, and they lived circa 2000 BCE in what was formerly a freshwater environment, which has now become desertified.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cantonese people</span> Han Chinese ethnic subgroup native to parts of Southern China

The Cantonese people or Yue people, are a Han Chinese subgroup originating from or residing in the provinces of Guangdong and Guangxi, in southern mainland China. In a strict sense, "Cantonese" refers only to people with roots from Guangzhou and its satellite cities and towns, rather than generally referring to the people of the Liangguang region.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tungusic peoples</span> Ethno-linguistic family

Tungusic peoples are an ethnolinguistic group formed by the speakers of Tungusic languages. They are native to Siberia, China, and Mongolia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of Xinjiang</span> Aspect of Chinese history

Xinjiang is historically consisted of two main geographically, historically, and ethnically distinct regions with different historical names: Dzungaria north of the Tianshan Mountains; and the Tarim Basin south of the Tianshan Mountains, currently mainly inhabited by the Uyghurs. They were conquered by the Qing dynasty in the 18th century, and after the Dungan Revolt (1862–1877) the Qing reconquered both regions and integrated them into one province named Xinjiang in 1884.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Peopling of China</span> History of ancient China

In the course of the peopling of the World by Homo sapiens, East Asia was reached about 50,000 years ago. The "recent African origin" lineage of 70 kya diverged into identifiable East Eurasian and West Eurasian lineages by about 50 kya. This early East Asian lineage diverged further during the Last Glacial Maximum, contributing outgoing from Mainland Southeast Asia significantly to the peopling of the Americas via Beringia about 25 kya. After the last ice age China became cut off from neighboring island groups. The previous phenotypes of early East Asians became either replaced or prevailed among more geographically distant groups.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Xirong</span> Ancient grouping of people or peoples in China

Xirong or Rong were various people who lived primarily in and around the western extremities of ancient China. They were known as early as the Shang dynasty, as one of the Four Barbarians that frequently interacted with the sinitic Huaxia civilization. They typically resided to the west of Guanzhong Plains from the Zhou Dynasty onwards. They were mentioned in some ancient Chinese texts as perhaps genetically and linguistically related to the people of the Chinese civilization.

East Asian people are the people from East Asia, which consists of China, Japan, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, and Taiwan. The total population of all countries within this region is estimated to be 1.677 billion and 21% of the world's population in 2020. However, large East Asian diasporas, such as the Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Mongolian diasporas, as well as diasporas of other East Asian ethnic groups, mean that the 1.677 billion does not necessarily represent an accurate figure for the number of East Asian people worldwide.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vietnam under Chinese rule</span> Four historical periods when Vietnam was ruled by Chinese dynasties

Vietnam under Chinese rule or Bắc thuộc refers to four historical periods when several portions of modern-day Northern Vietnam was under the rule of various Chinese dynasties. Bắc thuộc in Vietnamese historiography is traditionally considered to have started in 111 BC, when the Han dynasty conquered Nanyue and lasted until 939, when the Ngô dynasty was founded. A fourth, relatively brief, 20-year rule by the Ming dynasty during the 15th century is usually excluded by historians in their discussion of the main, almost continuous, period of Chinese rule from 111 BC to 939 AD. Historians such as Keith W. Taylor, Catherine Churchman, and Jaymin Kim assert these periods and stereotypes enveloped the narrative as modern constructs, however, and critique they being served for various nationalist and irredentist causes in China, Vietnam, and other countries. Museums in Vietnam often completely omit periods of Chinese rule, skipping over large periods of its own history.

Han Taiwanese, Taiwanese Han, Taiwanese Han Chinese, or Han Chinese are Taiwanese people of full or partial ethnic Han ancestry. According to the Executive Yuan of Taiwan, they comprise 95 to 97 percent of the Taiwanese population, which also includes Austronesians and other non-Han people. Major waves of Han immigration occurred since the 17th century to the end of Chinese Civil War in 1949, with the exception of the Japanese colonial period (1895-1945). Han Taiwanese mainly speak three languages of Chinese: Mandarin, Hokkien and Hakka.

This article summarizes the genetic makeup and population history of East Asian peoples and their connection to genetically related populations, as well as Oceanians and partly, Central Asians and South Asians, which are collectively referred to as "East Eurasians" in population genomics.

References

  1. Minahan, James B. (2014). Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Central Asia: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 89–95. ISBN   978-1-61069-018-8. Archived from the original on 7 June 2020. Retrieved 21 May 2020.
  2. 1 2 CIA Factbook Archived 13 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine : "Han Chinese 91.1%" out of a reported population of 1,410,539,758 (2022 est.)
  3. "Taiwan snapshot". Archived from the original on 15 March 2020. Retrieved 15 March 2020.
  4. "Population structure of Han Chinese in the modern Taiwanese population based on 10,000 participants in the Taiwan Biobank project | Human Molecular Genetics | Oxford Academic". Academic.oup.com. Archived from the original on 8 September 2020. Retrieved 14 February 2022.
  5. 1 2 "Overseas Compatriot Affairs Commission, R.O.C." Archived from the original on 4 January 2011. Retrieved 23 September 2016.
  6. "confirmed latest statistics". 2022. Archived from the original on 14 February 2022. Retrieved 14 February 2022.
  7. "Race Reporting for the Asian Population by Selected Categories: 2010 more information". United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on 12 October 2016. Retrieved 19 January 2014.
  8. "Selected Population Profile in the United States". census.gov. United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on 5 February 2024. Retrieved 5 February 2024.
  9. "Jumlah dan Persentase Penduduk menurut Kelompok Suku Bangsa" (PDF). media.neliti.com (in Indonesian). Kewarganegaraan, suku bangsa, agama dan bahasa sehari-hari penduduk Indonesia. 2011. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 July 2018. Retrieved 30 May 2022.
  10. "Topic: Demographics of Singapore". Archived from the original on 27 August 2021. Retrieved 27 August 2021.
  11. "The World Factbook". Archived from the original on 10 February 2021. Retrieved 17 February 2016.
  12. Asia Pacific Foundation of Canada. "Population by Ethnic Origin by Province". Asia Pacific Foundation of Canada. Archived from the original on 22 March 2016. Retrieved 17 February 2016.
  13. Macrohon, Pilar (21 January 2013). "Senate declares Chinese New Year as special working holiday" (Press release). PRIB, Office of the Senate Secretary, Senate of the Philippines. Archived from the original on 16 May 2021.
  14. 1 2 "Australia". 2016 Census QuickStats. Australian Bureau of Statistics. Archived from the original on 30 October 2018. Retrieved 31 October 2018.
  15. Poston, Dudley; Wong, Juyin (2016). "The Chinese diaspora: The current distribution of the overseas Chinese population". Chinese Journal of Sociology. 2 (3): 348–373. doi:10.1177/2057150X16655077. S2CID   157718431 . Retrieved 23 January 2022.
  16. "在日华人统计人口达92万创历史新高". www.rbzwdb.com. Archived from the original on 22 December 2020. Retrieved 15 April 2020.
  17. "2011 Census: Ethnic group, local authorities in the United Kingdom". Office for National Statistics. 11 October 2013. Archived from the original on 23 January 2016. Retrieved 13 April 2015.
  18. "South America: Peru". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on 19 November 2021. Retrieved 20 February 2020.
  19. "Cittadini Non Comunitari: Presenza, Nuovi Ingressi e Acquisizioni di Cittadinanza: Anni 2015–2016" (PDF). Istat.it. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 October 2016. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
  20. 1 2 "2018 Census totals by topic – national highlights | Stats NZ". Stats.govt.nz. Archived from the original on 23 September 2019. Retrieved 20 February 2020.
  21. "BiB – Bundesinstitut für Bevölkerungsforschung – Pressemitteilungen – Zuwanderung aus außereuropäischen Ländern fast verdoppelt". Bib-demografiie.de (in German). Archived from the original on 9 December 2017. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
  22. "Foreign national population in Korea up more than 40% in 5 yrs". Maeil Business News Korea. 8 September 2016. Archived from the original on 25 January 2021. Retrieved 10 May 2018.
  23. "Chinese living in Kingdom more than doubles since '17". 14 September 2018. Archived from the original on 15 September 2018. Retrieved 15 September 2018.
  24. "Argentina-China Relations Archives". Archived from the original on 14 December 2021. Retrieved 3 September 2021.
  25. "Chinese Argentines and the Pace of Cultural Integration". 26 July 2011. Archived from the original on 14 December 2021. Retrieved 3 September 2021.
  26. "Cifras de Población a 1 de enero de 2016 : Estadística de Migraciones 2015 : Adquisiciones de Nacionalidad Española de Residentes 2015" (PDF). Ine.es (in Spanish). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 March 2019. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
  27. "Chinese-Mexicans celebrate repatriation to Mexico". The San Diego Union-Tribune. 23 November 2012. Archived from the original on 26 February 2021. Retrieved 20 August 2017.
  28. "Population by Religion, Sex and Census Year". Archived from the original on 1 April 2021. Retrieved 15 October 2022.
  29. "Национальный состав населения по субъектам Российской Федерации". Archived from the original on 6 August 2012. Retrieved 5 April 2020.
  30. Gómez, Diana A.; Díaz, Luz M.; Gómez, Diana A.; Díaz, Luz M. (2016). "Las organizaciones chinas en Colombia". Migración y desarrollo (in Spanish). 14 (26): 75–110. doi: 10.35533/myd.1426.dag.lmd .
  31. "X Censo Nacional de Población y VI de Vivienda 2011, Características Sociales y Demográficas" (PDF). National Institute of Statistics and Census of Costa Rica . July 2012. p. 61. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 June 2018. Retrieved 22 September 2016. Cuadro 23. Costa Rica: Población total por autoidentificación étnica-racial, según provincia, zona y sexo. Chino(a) 9,170
  32. Archived October 16, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
  33. 2010 Chinese Spiritual Life Survey conducted by Dr. Yang Fenggang, Purdue University's Center on Religion and Chinese Society. Statistics published in: Katharina Wenzel-Teuber, David Strait. People's Republic of China: Religions and Churches Statistical Overview 2011 Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine . Religions & Christianity in Today's China, Vol. II, 2012, No. 3, pp. 29–54, ISSN   2192-9289
  34. Measuring Religion in China. 30 August 2023. Archived from the original on 13 December 2023. Retrieved 13 December 2023.
  35. 中華民國國情簡介 [ROC Vital Information]. Executive Yuan (in Chinese (Taiwan)). 2016. Archived from the original on 18 February 2017. Retrieved 23 August 2016. 臺灣住民以漢人為最大族群,約占總人口97%
  36. Executive Yuan (2014). The Republic of China Yearbook 2014 (PDF). Government Information Office. p. 36. ISBN   978-986-04-2302-0. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 August 2017. Retrieved 11 June 2016.
  37. "Home" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 February 2016. Retrieved 14 February 2016.
  38. Ebrey, Patricia Buckley (2023), "Rethinking Han Chinese Identity", China Review , 23 (2): 58–59, doi:10.1093/jdh/epw042
  39. 1 2 3 Karl Hack; Kevin Blackburn (2012). War Memory and the Making of Modern Malaysia and Singapore. NUS Press. p. 96. ISBN   978-9971-69-599-6. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 12 October 2018.
  40. 1 2 3 Liu, Xingwu (2004). "Han". In Ember, Carol R.; Ember, Melvin (eds.). Encyclopedia of Medical Anthropology. Springer US. pp.  703–17. doi:10.1007/0-387-29905-X_73. ISBN   978-0-306-47754-6. The name "Han" was derived from the Han River, an upper tributary of the Yangtze River. It was further strengthened by the famous Han Empire (206 BC–220 AD) which lasted for several hundred years when the people began active interactions with the outside world.
  41. Cioffi-Revilla, Claudio; Lai, David (September 1995). "War And Politics in Ancient China, 2700 B.C. to 722 B.C.: Measurement and Comparative Analysis". Journal of Conflict Resolution. 39 (3): 467–494. doi:10.1177/0022002795039003004. JSTOR   174577. S2CID   156043981.
  42. 1 2 Minahan, James B. (2015). Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Central Asia: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 89–90. ISBN   978-1-61069-017-1.
  43. 1 2 Schliesinger, Joachim (2016). Origin of Man in Southeast Asia 2: Early Dominant Peoples of the Mainland Region. Booksmango. pp. 13–14.
  44. Liu, Hong (2017). Chinese Business: Landscapes and Strategies. Routledge. p. 34. ISBN   978-1-138-91825-2.
  45. 1 2 3 Wilkinson, Endymion Porter (2015). Chinese History: A New Manual. Harvard University Asia Center. p. 709. ISBN   978-0-674-08846-7.
  46. Yuan, Haiwang (2006). The Magic Lotus Lantern and Other Tales from the Han Chinesen. Libraries Unlimited. p. 6. ISBN   978-1-59158-294-6.
  47. Duara, Prasenjit (2003). Sovereignty and authenticity : Manchukuo and the East Asian modern. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 7. ISBN   0-7425-2577-5. OCLC   50755038.
  48. Erica Fox Brindley (2015). Ancient China and the Yue: Perceptions and Identities on the Southern Frontier, c. 400 BCE–50 CE. Cambridge University Press. pp. 9–10. ISBN   978-1-316-35228-1. Archived from the original on 14 April 2016. Retrieved 8 January 2016.
  49. Gyanendra Pandey; Peter Geschiere (2003). The Forging of Nationhood. Manohar. p. 102. ISBN   978-81-7304-425-0. Archived from the original on 14 December 2021. Retrieved 5 October 2020.
  50. 1 2 Perkins, Dorothy (1998). Encyclopedia of China: History and Culture. Checkmark Books. p.  202. ISBN   978-0-8160-2693-7.
  51. Schliesinger, Joachim (2016). Origin of Man in Southeast Asia 2: Early Dominant Peoples of the Mainland Region. Booksmango. p. 14.
  52. Holcombe, Charles (2017). A History of East Asia: From the Origins of Civilization to the Twenty-First Century (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 49. ISBN   978-1-10754489-5.
  53. 1 2 Chang, Hui-Ching; Holt, Richard (20 November 2014). Language, Politics and Identity in Taiwan: Naming China. Routledge. pp. 162–64. ISBN   978-1-135-04635-4. Archived from the original on 9 March 2021. Retrieved 12 October 2018.
  54. 1 2 Sheng Lijun (2002). China and Taiwan: Cross-strait Relations Under Chen Shui-bian. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 53. ISBN   978-981-230-110-9. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 12 October 2018.
  55. 1 2 Schliesinger, Joachim (2016). Origin of Man in Southeast Asia 2: Early Dominant Peoples of the Mainland Region. Booksmango. pp. 10–17.
  56. 1 2 Dingming, Wu (2014). A Panoramic View of Chinese Culture. Simon & Schuster.
  57. Minahan, James B. (2015). Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Central Asia: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 91. ISBN   978-1-61069-017-1.
  58. Cohen, Warren I. (2000). East Asia At The Center: Four Thousand Years of Engagement With The World. Columbia University Press. p. 59.
  59. 1 2 Minahan, James B. (2015). Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Central Asia: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 92. ISBN   978-1-61069-017-1.
  60. Walker, Hugh Dyson (2012). East Asia: A New History. AuthorHouse. p. 119.
  61. Kang, David C. (2012). East Asia Before the West: Five Centuries of Trade and Tribute. Columbia University Press. pp. 33–34. ISBN   978-0-231-15319-5.
  62. 1 2 Tanner, Harold Miles (2010). China: A History: From the Great Qing Empire through the People's Republic of China, 1644–2009. Hackett Pub Co. p. 83. ISBN   978-1-60384-204-4.
  63. 1 2 Ueda, Reed (2017). America's Changing Neighborhoods: An Exploration of Diversity through Places. Greenwood. p. 403. ISBN   978-1-4408-2864-5.
  64. 1 2 Eno, R. The Han Dynasty (206 B.C. – A.D. 220) (PDF). Indiana University Press. p. 1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 July 2019. Retrieved 22 January 2018.
  65. Li, Xiaobing (2012). China at War: An Encyclopedia: An Encyclopedia. Pentagon Press (published 30 June 2012). p. 155. ISBN   978-81-8274-611-4.
  66. 1 2 Schaefer (2008), p. 279.
  67. Schaefer, Richard T. (2008). Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Society. Sage Publications. p. 279. ISBN   978-1-4522-6586-5. Archived from the original on 29 June 2016. Retrieved 23 August 2016. Although the term han has its roots in the Han dynasty (206 BC–220 AD), which began around the Yellow River and then spread out, the concept really became nationalized early in this century.
  68. Hsu, Cho-yun; Lagerwey, John (2012). Y.S. Cheng, Joseph (ed.). China: A Religious State. Columbia University Press. p. 126.
  69. "Definition of Han by Oxford". Oxforddictionaries.com. Archived from the original on 30 June 2016. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
  70. West, Barbara A. (2010). Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing. ISBN   978-1-4381-1913-7.
  71. "Definition of Han by Merriam-Webster". Merriam-webster.com. Archived from the original on 13 December 2017. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
  72. Leung, Genevieve Y.; Wu, Min-Hsuan (2012). "Linguistic landscape and heritage language literacy education". Written Language & Literacy. 15 (1): 114–140. doi:10.1075/wll.15.1.06leu.
  73. 1 2 Zhang, Feng; Su, Bing; Zhang, Ya-ping; Jin, Li (22 February 2007). "Genetic Studies of Human Diversity in East Asia". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 362 (1482): 987–996. doi:10.1098/rstb.2007.2028. PMC   2435565 . PMID   17317646.
  74. 1 2 Zhao, Yong-Bin; Zhang, Ye; Zhang, Quan-Chao; Li, Hong-Jie; Cui, Ying-Qiu; Xu, Zhi; Jin, Li; Zhou, Hui; Zhu, Hong (2015). "Ancient DNA Reveals That the Genetic Structure of the Northern Han Chinese Was Shaped Prior to three-thousand Years Ago". PLoS ONE . 10 (5): e0125676. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1025676Z. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0125676 . PMC   4418768 . PMID   25938511.
  75. 1 2 3 4 5 Jacques Gernet (1996). A History of Chinese Civilization . Cambridge University Press. p.  8. ISBN   978-0-521-49781-7.
  76. 1 2 Wen, Bo; Li, Hui; Lu, Daru; Song, Xiufeng; Zhang, Feng; He, Yungang; Li, Feng; Gao, Yang; Mao, Xianyun; et al. (2004). "Genetic evidence supports demic diffusion of Han culture". Nature. 431 (7006): 302–05. Bibcode:2004Natur.431..302W. doi:10.1038/nature02878. PMID   15372031. S2CID   4301581.
  77. 1 2 Edward Vickers (2013). History Education and National Identity in East Asia. Routledge. pp. 191–. ISBN   978-1-135-40500-7. Archived from the original on 14 April 2016. Retrieved 8 January 2016.
  78. CIA Factbook Archived 13 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine : "Han Chinese 91.6%" out of a reported population of 1,384,688,986 billion (July 2018 est.)
  79. Chua, Amy (2003). World On Fire. Knopf Doubleday Publishing. p.  177. ISBN   978-0-385-72186-8.
  80. Chua, Amy L. (2000). "The Paradox of Free Market Democracy: Rethinking Development Policy". Harvard International Law Journal. 41: 325. Archived from the original on 26 February 2021. Retrieved 13 January 2018.
  81. 2016 Population By-census – Summary Results (Report). Census and Statistics Department. February 2016. p. 37. Archived from the original on 20 November 2017. Retrieved 14 March 2017.
  82. 2016 Population By-Census Detailed Results (Report). Statistics and Census Service. May 2017. Archived from the original on 16 August 2021. Retrieved 25 July 2019.
  83. 1 2 3 Chua, Amy L. (2000). "The Paradox of Free Market Democracy: Rethinking Development Policy". Harvard International Law Journal. 41: 328. Archived from the original on 26 February 2021. Retrieved 13 January 2018.
  84. 1 2 3 Chua, Amy (2003). World On Fire. Knopf Doubleday Publishing. p.  178. ISBN   978-0-385-72186-8.
  85. Han, Enze (28 December 2017). "Bifurcated Homeland and Diaspora Politics in China and Taiwan towards the Overseas Chinese in Southeast Asia". Politics and Public Administration. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies . Hong Kong: Routledge. 45 (1): 582. doi: 10.1080/1369183X.2017.1409172 .
  86. 1 2 Yim, Onn Siong (2005). Y chromosome diversity in Singaporean Han Chinese population subgroups (Master). National University of Singapore. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 26 May 2016.
  87. Vatikiotis, Michael (12 February 1998). Entrerepeeneurs (PDF). Bangkok: Far Eastern Economic Review. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 August 2017. Retrieved 26 July 2019.
  88. "Taiwan Population (2017) – World Population Review". worldpopulationreview.com. Archived from the original on 27 October 2021. Retrieved 23 January 2017.
  89. "Chinese education companies scramble to teach Overseas Children to learn Chinese language". GETChina Insights. 2021 [December 2, 2021]. Archived from the original on 15 February 2024. Retrieved 15 February 2024.
  90. Zhuang, Guotu (2021). "The Overseas Chinese: A Long History". UNESDOC. p. 24. Archived from the original on 15 February 2024. Retrieved 15 February 2024.
  91. Suryadinata, Leo (2017). "Blurring the Distinction between huaqiao and huaren: China's Changing Policy towards the Chinese Overseas". Southeast Asian Affairs. 2017 (1): 101–113. doi:10.1355/aa17-1f. JSTOR   26492596. Project MUSE   658015.
  92. "American FactFinder - Results". U.S. Census Bureau. Archived from the original on 11 April 2019. Retrieved 16 September 2018.
  93. "Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity Highlight Tables". statcan.gc.ca. 25 October 2017. Archived from the original on 27 October 2017. Retrieved 20 February 2020.
  94. "Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity in Canada". statcan.gc.ca. 8 May 2013. Archived from the original on 3 November 2021. Retrieved 20 February 2020.
  95. China and Africa: Stronger Economic Ties Mean More Migration Archived 29 January 2014 at the Wayback Machine , By Malia Politzer, Migration Information Source, August 2008.
  96. Roberts, John A.G (2001). A History of China. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 5.
  97. 1 2 Jacques, Martin (26 October 2012). "A Point Of View: How China sees a multicultural world". BBC News. Archived from the original on 23 July 2018. Retrieved 21 July 2018.
  98. Minahan, James (2014). Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Central Asia: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO (published 10 February 2014). p. 90. ISBN   978-1-61069-017-1.
  99. Lung, Rachel (2011). Interpreters in Early Imperial China. John Benjamins Publishing. p. 5. ISBN   978-90-272-2444-6.
  100. Zhang, Qizhi (2016). An Introduction to Chinese History and Culture. Springer. p. 26. ISBN   978-3-662-51507-5.
  101. 1 2 Guo, Rongxing (2016). An Introduction to the Chinese Economy: The Driving Forces Behind Modern Day China. Wiley. pp. 66–67. ISBN   978-3-319-32305-3.
  102. Cioffi-Revilla, C.; Lai, D. (1995). "War and Politics in Ancient China, 2700 B.C. To 722 B.C.: Measurement and Comparative Analysis". Journal of Conflict Resolution. 39 (3): 467–94. doi:10.1177/0022002795039003004. S2CID   156043981.
  103. West, Barbara A (2009). Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase. ISBN   978-1-4381-1913-7. Archived from the original on 14 April 2016. Retrieved 29 October 2015.
  104. "Common traits bind Jews and Chinese". Asia Times . 10 January 2014. Archived from the original on 10 January 2014. Retrieved 23 September 2015.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  105. Him, Mark Lai; Hsu, Madeline (2004). Becoming Chinese American: A History of Communities and Institutions. AltaMira Press. p. 8. ISBN   978-0-7591-0458-7.
  106. Stuart-Fox, Martin (2003). A Short History of China and Southeast Asia: Tribute, Trade and Influence. Allen & Unwin (published 1 November 2003). p. 21.
  107. Miller, David (2007). Modern East Asia: An Introductory History. Routledge. p. 7. ISBN   978-0-7656-1823-8.
  108. Gan, Rui-Jing; Pan, Shang-Ling; Mustavich, Laura F.; Qin, Zhen-Dong; Cai, Xiao-Yun; Qian, Ji; Liu, Cheng-Wu; Peng, Jun-Hua; Li, Shi-Lin; Xu, Jie-Shun; Jin, Li; Li, Hui (2008). "Pinghua population as an exception of Han Chinese's coherent genetic structure". Journal of Human Genetics. 53 (4): 303–313. doi: 10.1007/s10038-008-0250-x . PMID   18270655.
  109. Allan, Sarah (1991), The Shape of the Turtle, Albany, NY: SUNY Press, ISBN   978-0-7914-0460-7, archived from the original on 14 December 2021, retrieved 5 October 2020
  110. Guo, Rongxing (2010). An Introduction to the Chinese Economy: The Driving Forces Behind Modern Day China. Wiley. p. 10. ISBN   978-0-470-82604-1.
  111. 1 2 Theobald, Ulrich. "The Feudal State of Wu 吳 (www.chinaknowledge.de)". Chinaknowledge.de. Archived from the original on 8 January 2018. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
  112. "China The Zhou Period". Lcweb2.loc.gov. Archived from the original on 21 December 2016. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
  113. "Clayton D. Brown Research on Chinese History: Ethnology, Archaeology, and Han Identity". Claytonbrown.org. Archived from the original on 18 January 2019. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
  114. Nyíri, Pál; Rostislavovich Savelʹev, Igorʹ (2002). Globalizing Chinese migration: trends in Europe and Asia. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 208. ISBN   978-0-7546-1793-8. Archived from the original on 14 December 2021. Retrieved 29 October 2015.
  115. Elliott, Mark C. (August 2000). "The Limits of Tartary: Manchuria in Imperial and National Geographies". The Journal of Asian Studies. 59 (3): 603–46. doi:10.2307/2658945. JSTOR   2658945. S2CID   162684575.
  116. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Cohen, Myron L. "Late Imperial China and Its Legacies". Kinship, Contract, Community, And State: Anthropological Perspectives on China. pp. 41–45, 50.
  117. Goscha, Christopher (2016). The Penguin History of Modern Vietnam: A History. Allen Lane. ISBN   978-1846143106.
  118. Amy Chua; Jed Rubenfeld (2014). The Triple Package: How Three Unlikely Traits Explain the Rise and Fall of Cultural Groups in America. Penguin Press HC. p. 122. ISBN   978-1594205460.
  119. Walker, Hugh Dyson (2012). East Asia: A New History. AuthorHouse. p. 2.
  120. Lewis, Mark Edward (2012). China's Cosmopolitan Empire: The Tang Dynasty. Belknap Press (published 9 April 2012). p. 156. ISBN   978-0674064010.
  121. Reischauer, Edwin O. (1974). "The Sinic World in Perspective". Foreign Affairs. 52 (2): 341–348. doi:10.2307/20038053. JSTOR   20038053.
  122. Lim, SK (1 November 2011). Asia Civilizations: Ancient to 1800 AD. ASIAPAC. p. 89. ISBN   978-9812295941.
  123. Richter, Frank-Jurgen (2002). Redesigning Asian Business: In the Aftermath of Crisis. Quorum Books. p. 15. ISBN   978-1567205251.
  124. Amy Chua; Jed Rubenfeld (2014). The Triple Package: How Three Unlikely Traits Explain the Rise and Fall of Cultural Groups in America. Penguin Press HC. p. 121. ISBN   978-1594205460.
  125. Kang, David C. (2012). East Asia Before the West: Five Centuries of Trade and Tribute. Columbia University Press. pp. 33–34. ISBN   978-0231153195.
  126. Goucher, Candice; Walton, Linda (2012). World History: Journeys from Past to Present. Routledge (published 11 September 2012). p. 232. ISBN   978-0415670029.
  127. Smolnikov, Sergey (2018). Great Power Conduct and Credibility in World Politics. Springer. ISBN   9783319718859. Archived from the original on 2 October 2023. Retrieved 21 September 2023.
  128. Guo, Xiaolin (17 March 2022). "The Relationship Between Filial Piety and the Academic Achievement and Subjective Wellbeing of Chinese Early Adolescents: The Moderated Mediation Effect of Educational Expectations". Frontiers in Psychology. 13: 2–3. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.747296 . PMC   8970312 . PMID   35369161.
  129. Minahan, James B. (2014). Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Central Asia: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. p. 93. ISBN   9781610690188. Archived from the original on 6 May 2023. Retrieved 10 November 2021.
  130. Ebrey, Patricia Surnames and Han Chinese Identity Archived 22 November 2009 at the Wayback Machine , University of Washington
  131. Yang, Shaorong (2004). Chinese Clothing: Costumes, Adornments and Culture (Arts of China). Long River Press. p. 3. ISBN   978-1-59265-019-4.
  132. 1 2 Brown, John (2006). China, Japan, Korea: Culture and Customs. Createspace Independent Publishing. p. 79. ISBN   978-1-4196-4893-9.
  133. Zhou, Xibao (周锡保) (2002). 《中国古代服饰史》. 中国戏剧出版社. p. 449. ISBN   978-7-104-00359-5.
  134. Shaorong Yang (2004). Traditional Chinese Clothing Costumes, Adornments & Culture. Long River Press. p. 7. ISBN   978-1-59265-019-4. Archived from the original on 26 July 2020. Retrieved 13 October 2018. Men's clothing in the Qing Dyansty consisted for the most part of long silk gowns and the so-called "Mandarin" jacket, which perhaps achieved their greatest popularity during the latter Kangxi Period to the Yongzheng Period. For women's clothing, Manchu and Han systems of clothing coexisted.
  135. Edward J.M. Rhoads (2000). Manchus and Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928. University of Washington Press. pp. 60–. ISBN   978-0-295-98040-9. Archived from the original on 5 August 2016. Retrieved 13 October 2018.
  136. Gerolamo Emilio Gerini (1895). "Chŭlăkantamangala: Or, The Tonsure Ceremony as Performed in Siam". The Bangkok Times . pp. 11–. Archived from the original on 10 January 2017. Retrieved 13 October 2018.
  137. Mei Hua, Chinese Clothing, Cambridge University Press, 2010, pp. 133–34
  138. Lacouture, Elizabeth (2017), "Elizabeth LaCouture", Journal of Design History, 30 (3): 300–314, doi:10.1093/jdh/epw042
  139. Liddell, Jill (1989), J. Liddell, The story of the kimono, EP Dutton New York, 1989, E.P. Dutton, ISBN   978-0-525-24574-2, archived from the original on 3 August 2020, retrieved 21 May 2020
  140. Stevens, Rebecca (1996). The kimono inspiration: art and art-to-wear in America. Pomegranate. pp. 131–42. ISBN   978-0-87654-598-0.
  141. Dalby, Liza (2001). Kimono: Fashioning Culture. Washington: University of Washington Press. pp. 25–32. ISBN   978-0-295-98155-0.
  142. Sandra Lee Evenson (2014). "Hanfu Chinese robes". In Annette Lynch; Mitchell D. Strauss (eds.). Ethnic Dress in the United States A Cultural Encyclopedia. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. pp. 135–36. ISBN   978-0-7591-2150-8. Archived from the original on 3 August 2020. Retrieved 14 September 2018.
  143. Montgomery County Public Schools Foreign Language Department (August 2006). Si-he-yuan. Montgomery County Public Schools. pp. 1–8. Archived from the original on 22 March 2007. Retrieved 15 April 2007.
  144. "十大经典川菜 你吃过哪些?". 阿波罗新闻网 (in Chinese (China)). 18 November 2014. Archived from the original on 4 December 2014. Retrieved 5 November 2020.
  145. Eberhard, Wolfram (December 1965). "Chinese Regional Stereotypes". Asian Survey. University of California Press. 5 (12): 596–608. doi:10.2307/2642652. JSTOR   2642652.
  146. Sagart, Laurent (January 2008). "The expansion of Setaria farmers in East Asia: A linguistic and archaeological model". Past Human Migrations in East Asia: Matching: 137. Archived from the original on 15 August 2021. Retrieved 6 March 2014.
  147. Kevin (23 August 2015). "2015 Hugo Award Winners Announced". The Hugo Awards. Archived from the original on 24 August 2015. Retrieved 6 August 2017.
  148. "HCAA 2016 Winners". Archived from the original on 22 October 2016. Retrieved 22 November 2016.
  149. Yigitcanlar, Tan (2016). Technology and the City: Systems, Applications and Implications. Routledge (published 10 May 2016). p. 19. ISBN   978-1138826700.
  150. 1 2 O'Doherty, Mark (24 November 2012). Let There be Peace - Ascension to Ivisimara. Lulu.com. p. 57. ISBN   978-1291208917.
  151. Ferguson, Ben (7 October 2009). "'Master of Light' awarded Nobel Prize". The Independent. Archived from the original on 7 March 2021. Retrieved 22 August 2017.
  152. "Qian Xuesen" . The Daily Telegraph . 22 November 2009. Archived from the original on 11 January 2022.
  153. "Chien-Shiung Wu". National Women's Hall of Fame. Archived from the original on 22 May 2014. Retrieved 4 November 2012.
  154. O'Connor, J J; Robertson, E F. "Chern biography: Shiing-shen Chern". MacTutor History of Mathematics archive. Archived from the original on 5 May 2017. Retrieved 16 January 2017.
  155. Sanders, Robert (6 December 2004). "Renowned mathematician Shiing-Shen Chern, who revitalized the study of geometry, has died at 93 in Tianjin, China". Berkeley News. Archived from the original on 8 June 2021. Retrieved 16 January 2017.
  156. Chang, Kenneth (7 December 2004). "Shiing-Shen Chern, 93, Innovator in New Geometry, Dies" . The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331. Archived from the original on 25 July 2018. Retrieved 16 January 2017.
  157. "Interview with Shiing Shen Chern" (PDF). Notices of the MS. 45 (7). Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 January 2024.
  158. Simon, Udo; Tjaden, Ekkehard-H.; Wefelscheid, Heinrich (2011). "Shiing-Shen Chern's Centenary". Results in Mathematics. 60 (1–4): 13–51. doi:10.1007/s00025-011-0196-8. S2CID   122548419.
  159. "Taking the Long View: The Life of Shiing-shen Chern". zalafilms.com. Archived from the original on 16 December 2022. Retrieved 8 May 2019.
  160. "The Wolf Prize in Agriculture". Archived from the original on 5 March 2012. Retrieved 23 August 2023.
  161. "Obituary Yuan Longping". The Economist. Vol. 439 Number 9247. 29 May 2021. p. 86. Archived from the original on 24 June 2021. Retrieved 23 August 2023.
  162. Bradsher, Keith; Buckley, Chris (23 May 2021). "Yuan Longping, Plant Scientist Who Helped Curb Famine, Dies at 90". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 26 May 2021. Retrieved 26 May 2021.
  163. "Dr. Monty Jones and Yuan Longping". World Food Prize. 2004. Archived from the original on 25 June 2020. Retrieved 24 October 2017.
  164. "CCTV-"杂交水稻之父"袁隆平" ["Father of hybrid rice" Yuan Longping]. China Central Television. Archived from the original on 9 September 2020. Retrieved 24 October 2017.
  165. Forrest, Stephen (2012). "Energy efficiency with organic electronics: Ching W. Tang revisits his days at Kodak". MRS Bulletin. 37 (6): 552–53. Bibcode:2012MRSBu..37..552F. doi: 10.1557/mrs.2012.125 .
  166. He C (November 2010). "Grand Challenge Commentary: RNA epigenetics?". Nat. Chem. Biol. 6 (12): 863–865. doi:10.1038/nchembio.482. PMID   21079590.
  167. Yu M, Hon GC, Szulwach KE, Song CX, Zhang L, Kim A, Li XK, Dai Q, Shen Y, Park B, Min JH, Jin P, Ren B, He C (June 2012). "Base-resolution analysis of 5-hydroxymethylcytosine in the mammalian genome". Cell. 149 (6): 1368–1380. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2012.04.027. PMC   3589129 . PMID   22608086.
  168. Song CX, Szulwach KE, Fu Y, Dai Q, Yi C, Li X, Li Y, Chen CH, Zhang W, Jian X, Wang J, Zhang L, Looney TJ, Zhang B, Godley LA, Hicks LM, Lahn BT, Jin P, He C (2011). "Selective chemical labeling reveals the genome-wide distribution of 5-hydroxymethylcytosine". Nat. Biotechnol. 29 (1): 68–72. doi:10.1038/nbt.1732. PMC   3107705 . PMID   21151123.
  169. "Dr David Ho, Man of the Year". Time . 30 December 1996. Archived from the original on 30 December 2011. Retrieved 17 October 2012.
  170. Thomas Chang, Professor of Physiology | About McGill – McGill University Archived 27 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine . Mcgill.ca. Retrieved on 2012-05-25.
  171. The Governor General of Canada > Honours > Recipients > Thomas Ming Swi Chang Archived 6 September 2023 at the Wayback Machine . Gg.ca. Retrieved on 2020-03-03.
  172. "Min Chueh Chang". National Academy of Sciences. Archived from the original on 12 May 2013. Retrieved 15 September 2012.
  173. "Chang Min-Chueh". Britannica Online for Kids. Archived from the original on 14 May 2013. Retrieved 6 January 2013.
  174. Maugh II, Thomas (2 December 1987). "Discovered Human Growth Hormone: Choh Hao Li, 74; Endocrinologist at UC". Los Angeles Times . Archived from the original on 5 October 2013. Retrieved 26 November 2012.
  175. "Choh Hao Li". National Academy of Sciences. Archived from the original on 2 October 2012. Retrieved 15 September 2012.
  176. Wright, Pearce (11 December 2001). "Joe Hin Tjio The man who cracked the chromosome count". The Guardian . Archived from the original on 25 August 2017. Retrieved 14 December 2016.
  177. Saxon, Wolfgang (7 December 2001). "Joe Hin Tjio, 82; Research Biologist Counted Chromosomes". The New York Times . Archived from the original on 12 May 2013. Retrieved 19 February 2017.
  178. "News from the National Academies". National Academy of Sciences. 4 January 2007. Archived from the original on 12 May 2013. Retrieved 8 November 2012.
  179. "Dr. Yuan-Cheng 'Bert' Fung". National Academy of Engineering. 2007. Archived from the original on 15 June 2013. Retrieved 8 November 2012.
  180. "Consensus during the Cold War: back to Alma-Ata". Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 86 (10): 737–816. October 2008. Archived from the original on 9 July 2012.
  181. "China's village doctors take great strides". Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 86 (12): 909–88. December 2008. Archived from the original on 12 December 2008.
  182. Anderlini, Jamil (7 November 2014). "The rise of Christianity in China". www.ft.com. Archived from the original on 15 December 2020. Retrieved 4 January 2021.
  183. Jiang, Yi-Huah (2018). "Confucian Political Theory in Contemporary China". Annual Review of Political Science. 21: 155–173. doi: 10.1146/annurev-polisci-041916-020230 . S2CID   148800029.
  184. Austin, Alvyn (2007). China's Millions: The China Inland Mission and Late Qing Society. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans. ISBN   978-0-8028-2975-7.
  185. Sow-Theng Leong; Tim Wright; George William Skinner (1997). Migration and Ethnicity in Chinese History: Hakkas, Pengmin, and Their Neighbors. Stanford University Press. pp. 78–. ISBN   978-0-8047-2857-7. Archived from the original on 14 April 2016. Retrieved 5 January 2016.
  186. Shmuel Noah Eisenstadt; Wolfgang Schluchter; Björn Wittrock. Public Spheres and Collective Identities. Transaction Publishers. pp. 213–14. ISBN   978-1-4128-3248-9. Archived from the original on 14 April 2016. Retrieved 5 January 2016.
  187. Nicolas Olivier Tackett. "The Transformation of Medieval Chinese Elites (850–1000 C.E.)" (PDF). History.berkeley.edu. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
  188. John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (2009). Early Chinese Religion: The Period of Division (220–589 AD). Brill. pp. 831–. ISBN   978-90-04-17585-3. Archived from the original on 3 August 2020. Retrieved 13 August 2016.
  189. Historical Atlas of the Classical World, 500 BC–AD 600. Barnes & Noble Books. 2000. p. 2.25. ISBN   978-0-7607-1973-2. Archived from the original on 19 December 2016. Retrieved 31 December 2015.
  190. Haywood, John; Jotischky, Andrew; McGlynn, Sean (1998). Historical Atlas of the Medieval World, AD 600–1492. Barnes & Noble. p. 3.21. ISBN   978-0-7607-1976-3. Archived from the original on 14 April 2016. Retrieved 31 December 2015.
  191. Dean, Kenneth; Zheng, Zhenman (2009). Ritual Alliances of the Putian Plain. Volume One: Historical Introduction to the Return of the Gods. BRILL. p. 341. ISBN   978-9047429463. Archived from the original on 3 August 2020. Retrieved 29 March 2019.
  192. Xu, Bin; Xie, Bizhen (2013). "The Rise and Fall of Nestorianism in Quanzhou during the Yuan dynasty". In Li, Tang; Winkler, Dietmar W. (eds.). From the Oxus River to the Chinese Shores: Studies on East Syriac Christianity in China and Central Asia (illustrated ed.). LIT Verlag Münster. p. 270. ISBN   978-3643903297. Archived from the original on 2 August 2020. Retrieved 29 March 2019.
  193. Szonyi, Michael (2002). Practicing Kinship: Lineage and Descent in Late Imperial China (illustrated ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 27. ISBN   0804742618. Archived from the original on 2 August 2020. Retrieved 29 March 2019.
  194. Zheng, Zhenman (2001). Family Lineage Organization and Social Change in Ming and Qing Fujian. University of Hawaii Press. p. 190. ISBN   0824823338. Archived from the original on 3 August 2020. Retrieved 29 March 2019.
  195. Hugh R. Clark (2007). Portrait of a Community: Society, Culture, and the Structures of Kinship in the Mulan River Valley (Fujian) from the Late Tang Through the Song. Chinese University Press. pp. 37–38. ISBN   978-962-996-227-2. Archived from the original on 2 August 2020. Retrieved 10 May 2016.
  196. Hugh R. Clark (2007). Portrait of a Community: Society, Culture, and the Structures of Kinship in the Mulan River Valley (Fujian) from the Late Tang Through the Song. Chinese University Press. pp. 78–79. ISBN   978-962-996-227-2. Archived from the original on 29 December 2016. Retrieved 10 May 2016.
  197. Endymion Porter Wilkinson (2000). Chinese History: A Manual. Harvard University Asia Center. pp. 752–. ISBN   978-0-674-00249-4. Archived from the original on 14 April 2016. Retrieved 8 January 2016.
  198. 1 2 Yao, Yifeng (2016). Nanjing: Historical Landscape and Its Planning from Geographical Perspective (illustrated ed.). Springer. p. 95. ISBN   978-9811016370. Archived from the original on 3 August 2020. Retrieved 30 March 2019.
  199. 1 2 "Six Dynasties". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, inc. 4 December 2008. Archived from the original on 30 March 2019. Retrieved 30 March 2019.
  200. Entenmann, Robert Eric (1982). Migration and settlement in Sichuan, 1644-1796. Harvard University. p. 14. Archived from the original on 14 December 2021. Retrieved 30 March 2019.
  201. Shi, Zhihong (2017). Agricultural Development in Qing China: A Quantitative Study, 1661-1911. The Quantitative Economic History of China. BRILL. p. 154. ISBN   978-9004355248. Archived from the original on 14 December 2021. Retrieved 5 October 2020.
  202. 1 2 Hsu, Cho-yun (2012). China: A New Cultural History. Masters of Chinese Studies (illustrated ed.). Columbia University Press. p. 194. ISBN   978-0231528184. Archived from the original on 3 August 2020. Retrieved 30 March 2019.
  203. 1 2 Pletcher, Kenneth, ed. (2010). The History of China. Understanding China. Rosen Publishing. p. 127. ISBN   978-1615301096. Archived from the original on 3 August 2020. Retrieved 30 March 2019.
  204. 1 2 Chinese journal of international law, Volume 3. 2004. p. 631. Archived from the original on 14 December 2021. Retrieved 30 March 2019.
  205. 1 2 Foster, Simon (2010). China's Pearl River Delta, Guangzhou & Shenzhen. Hunter travel guides. Hunter Publishing, Inc. ISBN   978-1588438119. Archived from the original on 3 August 2020. Retrieved 30 March 2019.
  206. 1 2 Marks, Robert B. (2017). China: An Environmental History (2 ed.). Rowman & Littlefield. p. 177. ISBN   978-1442277892. Archived from the original on 3 August 2020. Retrieved 30 March 2019.
  207. 1 2 Zhao, Zhenzhou; Lee, Wing On (2010). China's Mongols at University: Contesting Cultural Recognitio. Emerging Perspectives on Education in China. Lexington Books. p. 243. ISBN   978-1461633112. Archived from the original on 3 August 2020. Retrieved 30 March 2019.
  208. 1 2 Marks, Robert (1998). Tigers, Rice, Silk, and Silt: Environment and Economy in Late Imperial South China. Studies in Environment and History. Cambridge University Press. p. 53. ISBN   113942551X. Archived from the original on 3 August 2020. Retrieved 30 March 2019.
  209. 1 2 Herklots, Geoffrey Alton Craig (1932). The Hong Kong Naturalist, Volumes 3-4. Newspaper Enterprise Limited. p. 120. Archived from the original on 14 December 2021. Retrieved 30 March 2019.
  210. 1 2 Lai, H. Mark; Hsu, Madeline (2004). Becoming Chinese American: A History of Communities and Institutions. Vol. 13 of Critical perspectives on Asian Pacific Americans series. Rowman Altamira. p. 11. ISBN   0759104581. Archived from the original on 3 August 2020. Retrieved 30 March 2019.
  211. Lu, Hanchao (2005). Street Criers: A Cultural History of Chinese Beggars. Stanford University Press. p. 59. ISBN   080475148X. Archived from the original on 3 August 2020. Retrieved 31 March 2019.
  212. Li, Dun Jen (1975). Street Criers: A Cultural History of Chinese Beggars [The civilization of China, Volume 1]. Simon & Schuster. p. 278. ISBN   068413943X. Archived from the original on 14 December 2021. Retrieved 31 March 2019.
  213. Horai, Satoshi; Murayama, Kumiko (1996). "mtDNA Polymorphism in East Asian Populations, with Special Reference to the Peopling of Japan". American Journal of Human Genetics . Cambridge, Massachusetts: Cell Press. 59 (3): 579–590. PMC   1914908 . PMID   8751859.
  214. Yi, SoJeong; An, Hyungmi; Lee, Howard; Lee, Sangin (2014). "Ancestry informative SNP panels for discriminating the major East Asian populations: Han Chinese, Japanese and Korean". Annals of Human Genetics . Cambridge: John Wiley & Sons (published 2013). 35 (10): 477–485. doi: 10.1097/FPC.0000000000000075 . PMID   25029633.
  215. Pan, Ziqing; Xu, Shuhua (2019). "Population genomics of East Asian ethnic groups". Hereditas . Berlin: BioMed Central (published 2020). 157 (49): 49. doi: 10.1186/s41065-020-00162-w . PMC   7724877 . PMID   33292737.
  216. Shi, Cheng-Min; Liu, Qi; Zhao, Shilei; Chen, Hua (21 March 2019). "Ancestry informative SNP panels for discriminating the major East Asian populations: Han Chinese, Japanese and Korean". Annals of Human Genetics . Cambridge: John Wiley & Sons. 29 (2): 348–354. doi: 10.1111/ahg.12320 . PMID   31025319. Archived from the original on 5 November 2021. Retrieved 14 September 2021.
  217. Siska, Veronika; Jones, Eppie Ruth; Jeon, Sungwon; Bhak, Youngjune; Kim, Hak-Min; Cho, Yun Sung; Kim, Hyunho; Lee, Kyusang; Veselovskaya, Elizaveta; Balueva, Tatiana; Gallego-Llorente, Marcos; Hofreiter, Michael; Bradley, Daniel G.; Eriksson, Anders; Pinhasi, Ron; Bhak, Jong; Manica, Andrea (1 February 2017). "Genome-wide data from two early Neolithic East Asian individuals dating to 7700 years ago". Science Advances. 3 (2): e1601877. Bibcode:2017SciA....3E1877S. doi:10.1126/sciadv.1601877. PMC   5287702 . PMID   28164156.
  218. Wang, Yuchen; Lu Dongsheng; Chung Yeun-Jun; Xu Shuhua (2018). "Genetic structure, divergence and admixture of Han Chinese, Japanese and Korean populations". Hereditas. 155: 19. doi: 10.1186/s41065-018-0057-5 . PMC   5889524 . PMID   29636655.
  219. 1 2 Wang, Yuchen; Lu, Dongsheng; Chung, Yeun-Jun; Xu, Shuhua (2018). "Genetic structure, divergence and admixture of Han Chinese, Japanese and Korean populations". Hereditas (published 6 April 2018). 155: 19. doi: 10.1186/s41065-018-0057-5 . PMC   5889524 . PMID   29636655.
  220. Cao, Yanan; Li, Lin; Xu, Min; et al. (2020). "The ChinaMAP analytics of deep whole genome sequences in 10,588 individuals". Cell Research. 30 (9): 717–731. doi: 10.1038/s41422-020-0322-9 . PMC   7609296 . PMID   32355288.
  221. Feng, Qidi; Lu, Yan; Ni, X.; Yuan, K.; Yang, Ya-jun; Yang, Xiong; Liu, Chang; Lou, H.; Ning, Zhilin; Wang, Yuchen; Lu, Dongsheng; Zhang, Chao; Zhou, Ying; Shi, Meng; Tian, L. (2017). "Genetic History of Xinjiang's Uyghurs Suggests Bronze Age Multiple-Way Contacts in Eurasia". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 34 (10): 2572–2582. doi: 10.1093/molbev/msx177 . PMID   28595347. S2CID   28730957.
  222. Zhao, Yong-Bin; Zhang, Ye; Zhang, Quan-Chao; Li, Hong-Jie; Cui, Ying-Qiu; Xu, Zhi; Jin, Li; Zhou, Hui; Zhu, Hong (4 May 2015). Hofreiter, Michael (ed.). "Ancient DNA Reveals That the Genetic Structure of the Northern Han Chinese Was Shaped Prior to 3,000 Years Ago". PLOS ONE. 10 (5): e0125676. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1025676Z. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0125676 . PMC   4418768 . PMID   25938511.
  223. Reference Populations - Geno 2.0 Next Generation . (2017). The Genographic Project. Retrieved 15 May 2017, from link. Archived 7 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine
  224. Yan, Shi; Wang, Chuan-Chao; Li, Hui; Li, Shi-Lin; Jin, Li (September 2011). "An updated tree of Y-chromosome Haplogroup O and revised phylogenetic positions of mutations P164 and PK4". European Journal of Human Genetics. 19 (9): 1013–1015. doi:10.1038/ejhg.2011.64. PMC   3179364 . PMID   21505448.
  225. Li, Min; Zhang, Yilun; Luo, Li; Bian, Yingnan; Li, Chengtao (December 2020). "Development and validation of a custom panel including 183 Y-SNPs for Chinese Y-chromosomal haplogroups dissection using a MALDI-TOF MS system". Electrophoresis. 41 (23): 2047–2054. doi:10.1002/elps.202000145. PMID   32854146. S2CID   221359145.
  226. Rui-Jing Gan, Shang-Ling Pan, Laura F. Mustavich, Zhen-Dong Qin, Xiao-Yun Cai, Ji Qian, Cheng-Wu Liu, Jun-Hua Peng, Shi-Lin Li, Jie-Shun Xu, Li Jin, Hui Li, and The Genographic Consortium, "Pinghua population as an exception of Han Chinese’s coherent genetic structure." J Hum Genet (2008) 53:303–313. DOI 10.1007/s10038-008-0250-x
  227. 1 2 Karafet, Tatiana; Xu, Liping; Du, Ruofu; Wang, William; Feng, Shi; Wells, R.S.; Redd, Alan J.; Zegura, Stephen L.; Hammer, Michael F. (September 2001). "Paternal Population History of East Asia: Sources, Patterns, and Microevolutionary Processes". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 69 (3): 615–628. doi:10.1086/323299. PMC   1235490 . PMID   11481588.
  228. 1 2 Hammer, Michael F.; Karafet, Tatiana M.; Park, Hwayong; Omoto, Keiichi; Harihara, Shinji; Stoneking, Mark; Horai, Satoshi (January 2006). "Dual origins of the Japanese: common ground for hunter-gatherer and farmer Y chromosomes". Journal of Human Genetics. 51 (1): 47–58. doi: 10.1007/s10038-005-0322-0 . PMID   16328082. S2CID   6559289.
  229. 1 2 3 Xue, Yali; Zerjal, Tatiana; Bao, Weidong; Zhu, Suling; Shu, Qunfang; Xu, Jiujin; Du, Ruofu; Fu, Songbin; Li, Pu; Hurles, Matthew E; Yang, Huanming; Tyler-Smith, Chris (1 April 2006). "Male Demography in East Asia: A North–South Contrast in Human Population Expansion Times". Genetics. 172 (4): 2431–2439. doi:10.1534/genetics.105.054270. PMC   1456369 . PMID   16489223.
  230. Fan, Haoliang; Xie, Qiqian; Wang, Lingxiang; Ru, Kai; Tan, Xiaohui; Ding, Jiuyang; Wang, Xiao; Huang, Jian; Wang, Zhuo; Li, Yanning; Wang, Xiaohan; He, Yitong; Gu, Cihang; Liu, Min; Ma, Shiwen; Wen, Shaoqing; Qiu, Pingming (July 2022). "Microhaplotype and Y-SNP/STR (MY): A novel MPS-based system for genotype pattern recognition in two-person DNA mixtures". Forensic Science International: Genetics. 59: 102705. doi:10.1016/j.fsigen.2022.102705. PMID   35462161.
  231. 1 2 Trejaut, Jean A; Poloni, Estella S; Yen, Ju-Chen; Lai, Ying-Hui; Loo, Jun-Hun; Lee, Chien-Liang; He, Chun-Lin; Lin, Marie (2014). "Taiwan Y-chromosomal DNA variation and its relationship with Island Southeast Asia". BMC Genetics. 2014 (15): 77. doi: 10.1186/1471-2156-15-77 . PMC   4083334 . PMID   24965575.
  232. Yin, Caiyong; Su, Kaiyuan; He, Ziwei; Zhai, Dian; Guo, Kejian; Chen, Xueyun; Jin, Li; Li, Shilin (3 July 2020). "Genetic Reconstruction and Forensic Analysis of Chinese Shandong and Yunnan Han Populations by Co-Analyzing Y Chromosomal STRs and SNPs". Genes. 11 (7): 743. doi: 10.3390/genes11070743 . PMC   7397191 . PMID   32635262.
  233. Jinke, Zhang; Wei, Dong; Guangfeng, Tang; Xiaoliang, Huang; Zhen, Yang; Xiaojun, Wang; Jie, Zhang; Yingjian, Zhao; Yiqing, Z. H. U.; Li, Jiang (15 February 2022). "Paternal genetic structure of Han and Hui male populations in Shandong". Acta Anthropologica Sinica. 41 (1): 65. doi:10.16359/j.1000-3193/AAS.2021.0007.
  234. Hurles, M; Sykes, B; Jobling, M; Forster, P (2005). "The Dual Origin of the Malagasy in Island Southeast Asia and East Africa: Evidence from Maternal and Paternal Lineages". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 76 (5): 894–901. doi:10.1086/430051. PMC   1199379 . PMID   15793703.
  235. 1 2 3 4 5 He, Guanglin; Wang, Mengge; Miao, Lei; Chen, Jing; Zhao, Jie; Sun, Qiuxia; Duan, Shuhan; Wang, Zhiyong; Xu, Xiaofei; Sun, Yuntao; Liu, Yan; Liu, Jing; Wang, Zheng; Wei, Lanhai; Liu, Chao; Ye, Jian; Wang, Le (28 March 2023). "Multiple founding paternal lineages inferred from the newly-developed 639-plex Y-SNP panel suggested the complex admixture and migration history of Chinese people". Human Genomics. 17 (1): 29. doi: 10.1186/s40246-023-00476-6 . PMC   10045532 . PMID   36973821.
  236. 1 2 Lu, Chuncheng; Zhang, Jie; Li, Yingchun; Xia, Yankai; Zhang, Feng; Wu, Bin; Wu, Wei; Ji, Guixiang; Gu, Aihua; Wang, Shoulin; Jin, Li; Wang, Xinru (2009). "The b2/b3 subdeletion shows higher risk of spermatogenic failure and higher frequency of complete AZFc deletion than the gr/gr subdeletion in a Chinese population". Human Molecular Genetics. 18 (6): 1122–30. doi: 10.1093/hmg/ddn427 . PMID   19088127.
  237. 1 2 3 Wen, B.; Li, H.; Lu, D.; Song, X.; Zhang, F.; He, Y.; Li, F.; Gao, Y.; et al. (September 2004). "Genetic evidence supports demic diffusion of Han culture" (PDF). Nature. 431 (7006): 302–05. Bibcode:2004Natur.431..302W. doi:10.1038/nature02878. PMID   15372031. S2CID   4301581. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 March 2009.
  238. Xue, Fuzhong; Wang, Yi; Xu, Shuhua; Zhang, Feng; Wen, Bo; Wu, Xuesen; Lu, Ming; Deka, Ranjan; Qian, Ji; et al. (2008). "A spatial analysis of genetic structure of human populations in China reveals distinct difference between maternal and paternal lineages". European Journal of Human Genetics. 16 (6): 705–17. doi: 10.1038/sj.ejhg.5201998 . PMID   18212820.
  239. Li, Hui (2008). "Paternal genetic affinity between western Austronesians and Daic populations". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 8 (1): 146. Bibcode:2008BMCEE...8..146L. doi: 10.1186/1471-2148-8-146 . PMC   2408594 . PMID   18482451.
  240. 1 2 Karafet, Tatiana; Hallmark, B; Cox, M.P.; Sudoyo, H; Downey, S; Lansing, J.S.; Hammer, M.F. (August 2010). "Major East–West Division Underlies Y Chromosome Stratification across Indonesia". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 27 (8): 1833–44. doi: 10.1093/molbev/msq063 . PMID   20207712.
  241. Karafet, Tatiana; Hagberg, L; Hanson, L. A.; Korhonen, T; Leffler, H; Olling, S (1981). "Balinese Y-chromosome perspective on the peopling of Indonesia: genetic contributions from pre-Neolithic hunter-gatherers, Austronesian farmers, and Indian traders". Ciba Found Symp. 80: 161–87. doi:10.1002/9780470720639.ch11. PMID   6114819.
  242. Yan, Shi; Wang, C.C.; Li, H; Li, S.L.; Jin, L (2011). "An updated tree of Y-chromosome Haplogroup O and revised phylogenetic positions of mutations P164 and PK4". European Journal of Human Genetics. 19 (9): 1013–15. doi:10.1038/ejhg.2011.64. PMC   3179364 . PMID   21505448.
  243. Zhao, Yong-Bin; Zhang, Ye; Zhang, Quan-Chao; Li, Hong-Jie; Cui, Ying-Qiu; Xu, Zhi; Jin, Li; Zhou, Hui; Zhu, Hong (2015). "Ancient DNA Reveals That the Genetic Structure of the Northern Han Chinese Was Shaped Prior to three-thousand Years Ago". PLoS ONE . 10 (5): e0125676. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1025676Z. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0125676 . PMC   4418768 . PMID   25938511.
  244. Gernet, Jacques (1996). A History of Chinese Civilization (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN   978-0-521-49781-7.
  245. 1 2 Wen, Bo; Li, Hui; Lu, Daru; Song, Xiufeng; Zhang, Feng; He, Yungang; Li, Feng; Gao, Yang; Mao, Xianyun; Zhang, Liang; Qian, Ji; Tan, Jingze; Jin, Jianzhong; Huang, Wei; Deka, Ranjan; Su, Bing; Chakraborty, Ranajit; Jin, Li (2004). "Genetic evidence supports demic diffusion of Han culture". Nature. 431 (7006): 302–305. Bibcode:2004Natur.431..302W. doi:10.1038/nature02878. PMID   15372031. S2CID   4301581.
  246. Crawford, Dorothy H.; Rickinson, Alan; Johannessen, Ingolfur (2014). Cancer Virus: The story of Epstein-Barr Virus. Oxford University Press (published 14 March 2014). p. 98.
  247. Entenmann, Robert Eric (1982). Migration and settlement in Sichuan, 1644-1796. Harvard University. p. 14. Archived from the original on 14 December 2021. Retrieved 30 March 2019.
  248. Shi, Zhihong (2017). Agricultural Development in Qing China: A Quantitative Study, 1661-1911. The Quantitative Economic History of China. BRILL. p. 154. ISBN   978-9004355248. Archived from the original on 14 December 2021. Retrieved 5 October 2020.
  249. Du, R; Xiao, C; Cavalli-Sforza, LL (1997). "Genetic distances between Chinese populations calculated on gene frequencies of 38 loci". Science China Life Sciences. 40 (6): 613–21. doi:10.1007/BF02882691. PMID   18726285. S2CID   1924085.
  250. Chen, Jieming; Zheng, Houfeng; Bei, Jin-Xin; Sun, Liangdan; Jia, Wei-hua; Li, Tao; Zhang, Furen; Seielstad, Mark; Zeng, Yi-Xin; et al. (2009). "Genetic Structure of the Han Chinese Population Revealed by Genome-wide SNP Variation". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 85 (6): 775–85. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2009.10.016. PMC   2790583 . PMID   19944401.
  251. McFadzean A.J.S., Todd D. (1971). "Cooley's anaemia among the tanka of South China". Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 65 (1): 59–62. doi:10.1016/0035-9203(71)90185-4. PMID   5092429.
  252. Gan, Rui-Jing; Pan, Shang-Ling; Mustavich, Laura F.; Qin, Zhen-Dong; Cai, Xiao-Yun; Qian, Ji; Liu, Cheng-Wu; Peng, Jun-Hua; Li, Shi-Lin; Xu, Jie-Shun; Jin, Li; Li, Hui (2008). "Pinghua population as an exception of Han Chinese's coherent genetic structure". Journal of Human Genetics. 53 (4): 303–13. doi: 10.1007/s10038-008-0250-x . PMID   18270655.
  253. Zhao, Yong-Bin; Zhang, Ye; Zhang, Quan-Chao; Li, Hong-Jie; Cui, Ying-Qiu; Xu, Zhi; Jin, Li; Zhou, Hui; Zhu, Hong (4 May 2015). "Ancient DNA Reveals That the Genetic Structure of the Northern Han Chinese Was Shaped Prior to 3,000 Years Ago". PLOS ONE. 10 (5): e0125676. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1025676Z. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0125676 . PMC   4418768 . PMID   25938511.

Further reading

Commons-logo.svg Media related to Han Chinese people at Wikimedia Commons