In Singapore about 11% of the total population is Taoist, including the 14.4% of Chinese Singaporeans identifying as Taoists.[1] In Malaysia, around 10% of Chinese Malaysians practice Chinese folk religions, corresponding to around 1% of the country's population.[2] However, numbers may be significantly larger since many folk religious Chinese register as "Buddhists" for census purposes. In Indonesia, Taosu Agung Kusumo, leader of the Majelis Agama Tao Indonesia, claims there are 5 million Taoist followers in the country as of 2009.[3]
By country
Indonesia
Kelenteng Thien Ie Kong (Temple of the Olden Lord of Heaven) in Samarinda, East Kalimantan province of Indonesia.
The Chinese folk religion of the Chinese Indonesians is named "Confucianism" or "Satya Dharma", and Chinese temples are called klenteng or vihara in the Indonesian language. It is officially recognised by the government as Agama Khonghucu or Religion of Confucius, which was chosen because of the political condition in Indonesia before the 1998 end of the rule of Suharto, who had forbidden all forms of Chinese religions; Indonesian Chinese could embrace only the five officially recognised religions, and many of them eventually converted to Buddhism or Christianity. Chinese Indonesians had their culture and religious rights restored only after the fourth president of Indonesia, Abdurrahman Wahid, issued a regulation that recognised "Confucianism" among the legal religions of the country. He said that:
All religions insist on peace. From this we might think that the religious struggle for peace is simple... but it is not. The deep problem is that people use religion wrongly in pursuit of victory and triumph. This sad fact then leads to conflict with people who have different beliefs.[4]
The first precept of Pancasila (the Five Basic Principles of the Indonesian state) stipulates belief in the one and only God. The Confucian philosophy is able to fulfill this, for Confucius mentioned only one God in his teaching, the Heaven or Shangdi. The Heaven possess the characteristic of Yuan Heng Li Zhen, or Omnipresent, Omnipotent, Omnibenevolent, Just.[5]
The Master said, "Great indeed was Yao as a sovereign! How majestic was he! It is only Heaven that is grand, and only Yao corresponded to it. How vast was his virtue! The people could find no name for it. How majestic was he in the works which he accomplished! How glorious in the elegant regulations which he instituted!" (VIII, xix, tr. Legge 1893:214)
Another movement in Indonesia is the Tridharma (Sanskrit: "law of the three"), syncretising elements of different religions, the Chinese three teachings amongst others.[6] After the fall of Suharto rule it is undergoing a process of systematisation of doctrines and rituals.[6] Tridharma temples always consist of three main rooms: the front room for Tian or God, the middle for the main deity of the temple, and the back room for the Founders of three religions and their pantheon: Confucius, Laozi, and Buddha. Several big Chinese population cities such as Medan, Batam, Bagansiapiapi and Singkawang have significant numbers of Chinese folk religion followers. There are also many Taoist associations in Indonesia.
Some local deities which are not known outside Indonesia includes Tan Hu Cin Jin from Banyuwangi-Bali, Tan Tik Siu from Tulungagung, Tan Oei Ji Sian Seng or Gi Yong Kong from Rembang-Lasem, and Tey Hai Cin Jin who is worshiped in the coastal cities of East and Middle Java.
Malaysia
Kwong Fook Kung Temple, a Chinese folk temple in Papar, Sabah.The Snake Temple in Penang, Malaysia, hosting a Chinese cult of the snake that is unique to the area.
In Malaysia the Malaysian Chinese constitute a large segment of the population, mostly adherents of Mahayana Buddhism. The Chinese traditional religion has a relatively significant registered following in the states of Sarawak (6%) and Penang (5%). Many other folk religious Chinese register as "Buddhists" in government surveys. Chinese temples are called tokong in the Malaysian language.
The Chinese folk religion was brought into Malaysia by Chinese emigrants in the 15th century, with small settlements and a Temple that were established in Malacca by Hokkien traders, but it was not until the 19th century that there was a mass migration of Chinese. They built temples dedicated to their Deities, schools, and cemeteries for those who died. The Chinese migration during the tin and gold mining days, which were a result of high demand for these products, prompted the need for temples for practices and religious rituals.[7]
A prominent cult is that of Tua Pek Kong (大伯公Dabo Gong), which has incorporated the cult of the Na Tuk Kong (拿督公Nadu Gong) and Datuk Keramat of local Malay origin. Other native and Thai Deities have been incorporated into the pantheon.
Thailand
Thailand has a large population of Thai Chinese, people of Chinese or partial Chinese origin (up to 14% of the population of the country). Most of those who follow Buddhism have been integrated into the Theravada Buddhist tradition of the country, with only a negligible minority still practicing Chinese Buddhism. However, many others have retained the Chinese folk religions and Taoism.[8] Despite the large number of followers and temples, and although they are practiced freely, these religions have no state recognition, their temples are not counted as places of worship, and their followers are counted as "Theravada Buddhists" in officially released religious figures.[8] In Thailand, Chinese temples are called sanchao (Thai: ศาลเจ้า).[8]
As in other Southeast Asian countries, the Chinese folk religion of Thailand has developed local features, including the worship of local gods.[8] Major Chinese festivals such as the Nian, Zhongqiu and Qingming are widely celebrated, especially in Bangkok, Phuket, and other parts of Thailand where there are large Chinese populations.[9]
The Chinese in the city of Phuket are noted for their nine-day vegetarian festival between September and October. During the festive season, devotees will abstain from meat, and mortification of the flesh by Chinese mediums is also commonly seen, along with rites devoted to the worship of Tua Pek Kong. Such traditions were developed during the 19th century in Phuket by the local Chinese with influences from Thai culture.[10]
Sizeable number of Chinese Singaporeans practice Taoism, which in the city state is used as a synecdoche for broader Chinese folk religion. Taoists in Singapore worship many Deities that frequently are embodied by historical ancestors and are subject to a complex Taoist hierarchy of veneration. They also worship some deities of common origins, notably the Jade Emperor, Xuan Tian Shang Di, Lord Guan, and Tian Shang Sheng Mu. Other deities that are venerated and frequently kept at home as auspicious images include the Fu, Lu, and Shou. Caishen is also popularly venerated by many Chinese businessmen. However, certain deities are worshipped by a particular dialect group, and may not share a common devotion with other Chinese dialect groups. One interesting example is Qing Shui Zhu Shi (祖師公); this particular deity is mainly worshipped by the Hokkien, particularly from Anxi County. Buddhist Bodhisattvas like Guanyin or Di Zang Wang are popularly worshipped in Singapore. Deities from other ethnicities such as Phra Phrom, Na Tuk Kong (拿督公) or Datuk Keramat are also venerated.
Adherents of Taoism or Chinese Folk Religion usually place their main altars/shrines inside their living room. This is more often seen among Chinese families, rather than individuals. The main Gods/Deities are enshrined at the centre of the top altar, and a tablet dedicated to the Guardians of Earth/Dizhushen (地主神) is placed at the bottom altar. Ancestral tablets are usually placed beside the statues/images of the main Gods/Deities at the top altar. Often, an incense burner to burn incense sticks is placed in front of the Gods/Deities, and a separate, smaller incense burner is placed in front of the ancestral tablet. Oil lamps may also be placed at altars, and fruit or flower offerings are also placed in front of the Gods/Deities as offerings. Some families may also have an altar dedicated to the Kitchen God (灶君) inside the kitchen.
Adherents usually install a small altar/shrine, painted red and gold, with the words "Heaven Official Bestows Blessings" (天官赐福) written on it outside the house, or simply a small incense burner filled with ash where incense sticks are placed. This is dedicated to Tian Gong (天公)/Jade Emperor (玉皇大帝) and is the first altar that they will worship. After they have worshipped toward the Heaven representing Tian Gong/Jade Emperor, they will proceed to worship at the main altar to the Gods/Deities, then to the ancestral tablets, and eventually to the Guardians of Earth/Dizhushen. The smoke emitted from burning incense sticks symbolizes their devotion and prayer, and at times requests to the Gods/Deities.
Around half (40%) of all Filipino Chinese, regardless of religion, still claim to practise ancestral worship. Chinese Filipinos, especially the older generations, have a tendency to pay respects to their deceased ancestors at least once a year, by going to the temple, the local Chinese cemetery or traditional burial grounds, such as the Manila Chinese Cemetery for those in Metro Manila, often burning candles, incense and joss paper money, presenting offerings like certain fruits or fruit juice tetra packs to the deceased, and decorating the tombstones, mausoleums, and ancestral tablets with joss paper. Chinese Filipino mausoleums or burial grounds frequently have altars for Houtu (后土), where candles and incense are lit.
The names of the gods are in transcribed Mandarin or certain Chinese dialects spoken by Southeast Asian Chinese populations:
Thin Kong (天公) "Lord of Heaven" also known as the Jade Emperor
Xuan Tian Shang Di (玄天上帝) or Siong Teh Gong (上帝公), Powerful Deity and was known as the Patron Deity of Ming Dynasty
Hou Tu (后土) or Di Mu Niang Niang (地母娘娘), known as Goddess Queen of the Earth
Xi Wang Mu (西王母), an ancient deity and was highly honored
Dou Mu Yuan Jun (斗母元君), Mother Goddess of the Big Dipper or Lady Mother of the Chariot
Kew Ong Yah (九皇爷), Nine Emperor Gods who symbolized the nine stars of the Big Dipper, was known in Malay as "Perayaan Dewa Sembilan Maharaja"
Guan Teh Gong (關帝公) or Guan Sheng Di Jun (關聖帝君) or "Lord Guan" - God of Military, Symbol of Righteousness and Justice, Patron Deity of police, businessmen and secret societies
Jiu Tian Xuan Nü (九天玄女) Lady of the Nine Heavens, an ancient Deity and also worshipped as Goddess of War
Ma Zu (媽祖) or Tian Shang Sheng Mu (天上圣母), Goddess of the sea, Patron Deity of fishermen, sailors and any occupations related to sea/ocean, also regarded as Patron Deity for Lim (林) Clan
Ong Yah Gong (王爺信仰), Divine Emissaries (代天巡狩) who tour the world of the living on behalf of the Jade Emperor, expelling disease and evil
Qing Shui Zhu Shi (清水祖師) or Cho Su Gong (祖師公), Patron Deity of Anxi County in Quanzhou
Bao Sheng Da Di (保生大帝), Patron Deity of Tong'an District in Xiamen, also worshipped as a Medicinal Deity
Guang Ze Zun Wang (廣澤尊王), Honorific King of Great Compassion, Patron Deity of Nan'an City in Quanzhou
He-He Er Xian (和合二仙), Immortals of Harmony and Union, associated with happy marriages
Hua Gong Hua Po (花公花婆) Patron Deities and Protector of children
Tai Yang Xing Jun (太陽星君) Sun God
Tai Yin Niang Niang (太陰娘娘) or Chang Er (嫦娥), Moon Goddess, worshipped by female devotees during Mid-Autumn Festival
Tai Sui (太歲) 60 Heavenly Officials who will be in charge of each year during the Chinese sixty years cycle
Fu, Lu, and Shou (福祿壽), Three deities of stars representing auspicious, good life and longevity.
Wu Ying Jiang Jun (五營將軍 The Celestial Generals of Five Directions)
Teh Choo Kong (地主公) "Earth Lord" or Di Zhu Shen (地主神) "God of the Purified Place"
Ho Yah Gong (虎爺公) "Tiger Deity" who guard the temples and was worshipped for protection against bad luck, dangers and enemies
Zao Jun (灶君), Kitchen God and also known as the Stove God
Men Shen (門神), Divine Guardians of doors and gates
Tua Li Yah Pek (大二爺伯), Underworld Deities who are in charge of escorting or arresting the spirits of the dead, also been highly regarded for their brotherhood spirit
Jin Qian Bo (金錢伯), Popularly known in English as Uncle Moneybags, who oversees incense money transmission from the living realm to the realm of the dead (Underworld)
She Mian Shen (四面神), also known as Four Faced Deity, who is also known as Brahma
Chinese temples in Indonesia and Malaysia are called kelenteng, klenteng, tokong or pekong in local Malay languages, or alternatively bio, the southern Chinese pronunciation of Mandarin miao (庙). In Thailand their name is sanchao (Thai: ศาลเจ้า). Items for Chinese religious practices in Southeast Asia are supplied at shén liào shāngdiàn (神料商店 "shops of goods for the gods").
In the myths and folk religion of Chinese culture, the Jade Emperor or Yudi is one of the representations of the primordial god.
Religion in China is diverse and most Chinese people are either non-religious or practice a combination of Buddhism and Taoism with a Confucian worldview, which is collectively termed as Chinese folk religion.
A City God, is a tutelary deity in Chinese folk religion who is believed to protect the people and the affairs of the particular village, town or city of great dimension, and the corresponding location in the afterlife. City God cults appeared over two millennia ago, and originally involved worship of a protective deity of a town's walls and moats. Later, the term came to be applied to deified leaders from the town, who serve in authority over the souls of the deceased from that town, and intervene in the affairs of the living, in conjunction with other officials of the hierarchy of divine beings. City Gods are considered above tudigongs, which themselves are above landlord deities.
Taoism in Singapore is the religion of about 8.8% of the country's entire population as per the 2020 census. The definition of "Taoism" in the country is included as part of the wider Chinese folk religion. In general, nearly all adherents of Taoism in Singapore are associated with the mainstream Zhengyi school. Larger proportion of older residents adhere to Taoism, as compared with those in younger age groups.
Chinese folk religion comprises a range of traditional religious practices of Han Chinese, including the Chinese diaspora. This includes the veneration of shen ('spirits') and ancestors, and worship devoted to deities and immortals, who can be deities of places or natural phenomena, of human behaviour, or progenitors of family lineages. Stories surrounding these gods form a loose canon of Chinese mythology. By the Song dynasty (960–1279), these practices had been blended with Buddhist, Confucian, and Taoist teachings to form the popular religious system which has lasted in many ways until the present day. The government of China generally tolerates popular religious organizations, but has suppressed or persecuted those that they fear would undermine social stability.
A Tudigong is a kind of Chinese tutelary deity of a specific location. There are several Tudigongs corresponding to different geographical locations and sometimes multiple ones will be venerated together in certain regions.
Phra Phrom is the Thai representation of the Hindu creator god Brahma. In modern Thailand, Phra Phrom is often worshipped outside of Hindu contexts by regular Buddhists, and, like many other Hindu deities, has usually come to represent guardian spirits in Thai animist beliefs, which coexist alongside Buddhist practices. He is regarded as the deity of good fortune and protection. The concept of Brahma is also represented in Buddhist cosmology as Brahmā or Mahabrahma, the lord of Brahmaloka, which may also be represented as Phra Phrom.
Religion in Taiwan is characterised by a diversity of religious beliefs and practices, predominantly those pertaining to the continued preservation of the ancient Chinese culture and religion. Freedom of religion is inscribed in the constitution of the Republic of China (Taiwan). The majority of Taiwanese people practice a combination of Buddhism and Taoism often with a Confucian worldview, which is collectively termed as Chinese folk religion.
Tua Pek Kong is a Taoist deity in the pantheon of Peranakan folk religion practiced by ethnic Chinese in Malaysia, Singapore, and parts of Indonesia.
Na Tuk Gong are local guardian spirits worshipped by overseas Chinese communities in Malaysia, Singapore and parts of Indonesia, especially Sumatra. An alternate more generic name for the cult is Datuk Gong, uniting Dato or Datuk from the local Malay word for 'grandfather', which is also used as an honorific title, and Kong or Gong from Chinese, also an honorific title. According to Taoist tradition, a Na Tuk Kong's could hold the official title 拿督尊王. Datuk Keramat, Datuk Gong and Na Tuk Kong all refer to the same deity. For the sake of clarity, the term Datuk, which is universally used to describe the spirit in Malaysia, will be used.
Xuanwu or Xuandi, also known as Zhenwu or Zhenwudadi, is a revered deity in Chinese religion, one of the higher-ranking deities in Taoism. He is revered as a powerful god, able to control the elements and capable of great magic. He is identified as the god of the north Heidi and is particularly revered by martial artists. He is the patron god of Hebei, Henan, Manchuria and Mongolia. As some Han Chinese migrated into the south from Hebei and Henan during the Tang-Song era, Xuanwu is also widely revered in the Guangdong, Guangxi and Fujian provinces, as well as among the overseas diaspora.
The Goddess of Mercy Temple, also known as Kuan Im Teng or Kong Hock Keong, is a Mahayana Buddhist temple within George Town in the Malaysian state of Penang. Located at Pitt Street, it was built in 1728, making it the oldest Buddhist temple in the state.
Malaysian folk religion refers to the animistic and polytheistic beliefs and practices that are still held by many in the Islamic-majority country of Malaysia. Folk religion in Malaysia is practised either openly or covertly depending on the type of rituals performed.
Religious use of incense has its origins in antiquity. The burned incense may be intended as a symbolic or sacrificial offering to various deities or spirits, or to serve as an aid in prayer.
Chinese temple architecture refer to a type of structures used as place of worship of Chinese Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism, or Chinese folk religion, where people revere ethnic Chinese gods and ancestors. They can be classified as:
Patriarch Ching Chwee, also known as Chó͘-su-kong, born Tan Chiau Eng was a Zen (Chan) Buddhist monk during the Northern Song from Anxi County, Quanzhou. He was said to have gained supernatural powers through his skill in learning and preaching the Dharma and meditation. Through this, he is said to have saved the town of Anxi during a period of drought, bringing rain as he went from place to place. In reverence, the villagers built shrines to him and hence became a deity in Chinese folk religion.
The Ma-Cho, Mazu or Ma Cho Temple is a Taoist temple to the Chinese Sea-Goddess Mazu located on Quezon Avenue in Barangay II, San Fernando, La Union in the Philippines. It was built in 1977 by a group of Filipino-Chinese devotees under the leadership of Dy Keh Hio and with the support of former Tourism Secretary Jose D. Aspiras.
Vihara Bahtera Bhakti is a Taoist temple located in Jakarta, Indonesia. The Chinese shrine, or klenteng, is located in the neighborhood of Ancol, hence it is more popularly known as Klenteng Ancol. It is dedicated to Da Bo Gong, a deity of land and wealth, and his wife. Established around 1650, it is one of the oldest Taoist temples in Jakarta.
Sanggar Agung Temple or Hong San Tang is a Chinese temple in Surabaya dedicated to Chinese deities and other Asian religious icons. It is located within the Pantai Ria amusement park and has become a tourist destination, even though it is originally a worship place for Tridharma followers. The name of Sanggar Agung is derived from Indonesian language which can be translated as Great Hall.
Chinese gods and immortals are beings in various Chinese religions seen in a variety of ways and mythological contexts.
↑ Bidang Litbang PTITD/Matrisia Jawa Tengah. 2007. Pengetahuan Umum Tentang Tri Dharma, First Edition (July 2007). Publisher: Benih Bersemi, Semarang, Indonesia.
1 2 Tsuda Koji. "Chinese Religion" in Modern Indonesia: Focusing on the Trend Toward Systematization in the Post-Soeharto Era. Tokyo University of Foreign Studies.
↑ Kamal Hassan; Ghazali bin Basri (eds.). Religions & Beliefs. Encyclopedia of Malaysia. Vol.10. ISBN981-3018-51-8.
1 2 3 4 Tatsuki Kataoka. Religion as Non-religion: The Place of Chinese Temples in Phuket, Southern Thailand. In Southeast Asian Studies, Vol. 1, No. 3, December 2012, pp. 461–485. Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Kyoto University.
↑ Tong Chee Kiong; Chan Kwok Bun (2001). "Rethinking Assimilation and Ethnicity: The Chinese of Thailand". In Tong Chee Kiong; Chan Kwok Bun (eds.). Alternate Identities: The Chinese of Contemporary Thailand. pp.30–34. ISBN978-98-12-10142-6.
↑ Jean Elizabeth DeBernardi (2006). The Way That Lives in the Heart: Chinese Popular Religion and Spirits Mediums in Penang, Malaysia. Stanford University Press. pp.25–30. ISBN0-8047-5292-3.
↑ Bernard Formoso. De Jiao - A Religious Movement in Contemporary China and Overseas: Purple Qi from the East. National University of Singapore, 2010. ISBN978-9971-69-492-0
↑ Yoshihara, Kazuo (26 August 1988). "Dejiao: A Chinese Religion in Southeast Asia". Japanese Journal of Religious Studies. 15 (2/3): 199–221. JSTOR30233386.
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