| Jamaican Maroon religion | |
|---|---|
| Type | Creole |
| Classification | Afro-Jamaican |
| Theology | Obeah |
| Origin | Slave era Jamaica |
| Merged into | Christianity |
The traditional Jamaican Maroon religion, otherwise known as Kumfu, [1] was developed by a mixing of West and Central African religious practices in Maroon communities. While the traditional religion of the Maroons was absorbed by Christianity due to conversions in Maroon communities, many old practices continued on. Some have speculated that Jamaican Maroon religion helped the development of Kumina and Convince. The religious Kromanti dance is still practiced today but not always with the full religious connotation as in the past. [2]
What can be deduced today about the religion's origins points to the idea that it is founded upon Akan religion but syncretized with other African beliefs. This is evident by the many specifically Akan aspects found in the religion. [3]
Very little was written about the original religion of the Jamaican Maroons because of little contact Maroons had with the outside world. What was written at the time by Bryan Edwards (a pro-slavery historian and planter) was the practice of Obeah by Maroons. When Anglican Christian churches were established in Maroon towns the traditional religion began to be practiced separately from Christianity and served a different religious purpose. As other non-Anglican churches appeared in Maroon communities they rallied against traditional Maroon beliefs and they became less popular. Today the Kromanti dance still is practiced on occasion even by self identified Christians. [4]
According to the faith a supreme deity named Yankipong rules the cosmos and is generally unconcerned with human life. Below Yankipong exists ancestor spirits called "duppies", "jumbies" or "bigiman". These spirits have hierarchies of their own and can be communicated with by humans so their powers can be used for worldly matters. The matter of spirits and their influence on Earth is considered to be Obeah (although the use of that specific term is controversial and some instead call it "science"). [4] It is believed that the omnipotent god "Yankipong" is the Jamaican Maroon's conception of the omnipotent god Nyame from Akan religion. [3] Other Akan deities are reported to have been recognized like Asase Yaa and Epo. The Akan based word "Kumfu" was used for the total spiritual system and understanding of the world. [1]
A priest of the religion is referred to as a "kumfu-man". The word "kumfu" itself has its origins Twi language. [3]
Ceremonies are involved in Jamaican Maroon religion but no worship of the god Yankipong is practiced, unlike in traditional Akan religion. [3] An important ceremony of the religion is the Kromanti dance which involves the direction of a "fete-man" (ritual specialist) and the sacrifice of an animal to the pakit (ancestral spirit). The purpose of the dance is for participants to be possessed by ancestral spirits. [5] The Jamaican Maroon Creole language is used during the Kromanti dance ceremony when addressing people possessed by old Maroon ancestors. [6]
Jankunu is a festival that was celebrated as far back as during Slavery. It is presently a street parade with music, dance and costumes. Its origin is assumed to have begun in the Bahamas, but is claimed by several other islands in the English speaking Caribbean. Evidence shows that its origin points strongly to Jamaica, and later spread throughout the Caribbean. This period is as early as the 18th century, and possibly earlier. Though stemming from the same origin, each celebration has been localized by different countries, and over time, evolved to be somewhat different. Jankunu is observed around Boxing Day, New Year's Day, and Easter holiday in some countries. These cultural parades are predominantly showcased in Jamaica, in the Bahamas it is originally called Junkanoo and dates all the way back to the 1700’s and is celebrated year round, and Belize where the music is also mainstreamed, and competition results are hotly contested. There are also Jankunu parades in Miami in June and Key West in October, where local black populations have their roots in the Caribbean. This tradition is one of the oldest dance celebration in Jamaica. In addition to being a cultural dance for the Garifuna people, this type of dancing is also performed in the Bahamas on their independence day and other historical holidays. Historically, Junkanoo parades were also found in southeastern North Carolina that can be traced back to Jamaican roots. However, the custom became less popular after slavery was abolished. The last known Jonkonnu celebration in the Southern United States was in Wilmington, North Carolina, in the late 1880s.
African diaspora religions, also described as Afro-American religions, are a number of related beliefs that developed in the Americas in various nations of the Caribbean, Latin America and the Southern United States. They derive from traditional African religions with some influence from other religious traditions, notably Christianity and Islam.
Obeah, or Obayi, is a series of African diasporic spell-casting and healing traditions found in the former British colonies of the Caribbean. These traditions derive much from traditional West African practices that have undergone cultural creolization. There is much regional variation in the practice of Obeah, which is followed by practitioners called Obeahmen and Obeahwomen.
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The Aluku are a Bushinengue ethnic group living mainly on the riverbank in Maripasoula in southwest French Guiana. The group are sometimes called Boni, referring to the 18th-century leader, Bokilifu Boni.
The Kwinti are a Maroon people, descendants of runaway African slaves, living in the forested interior of Suriname on the bank of the Coppename River, and the eponymous term for their language, which has fewer than 300 speakers. Their language is an English-based creole with Dutch, Portuguese and other influences. It is similar to the languages spoken by the Aluku and Paramaccan Maroons, and split from Sranan Tongo in the middle 18th century. The Kwinti had a population of about 300 in 2014 and adhere to the Moravian Church.
Espiritismo is a term used in Latin America and the Caribbean to refer to the popular belief that evolved and less evolved spirits can affect health, luck and other aspects of human life.
Jamaican Maroon language, Maroon Spirit language, Kromanti, Jamaican Maroon Creole or Deep patwa is a ritual language and formerly mother tongue of Jamaican Maroons. It is an English-based creole with a strong Akan component, specifically from the Fante dialect of the Central Region of Ghana. It is distinct from usual Jamaican Creole, being similar to the creoles of Sierra Leone (Krio) and Suriname such as Sranan and Ndyuka. It is also more purely Akan than regular Patois, with little to no contribution from other African languages. Today, the Maroon Spirit language is used by Jamaican Maroons. Another distinct ritual language consisting mostly of words and phrases from Akan languages, is also used by Jamaican Maroons in certain rituals including some involving possession by ancestral spirits during Kromanti ceremonies or when addressing those who are possessed and sometimes used as a kind of code.
Winti is an Afro-Surinamese traditional religion that originated in Suriname. It is a syncretization of the different African religious beliefs and practices brought in mainly by enslaved Akan and Fon people during the Dutch slave trade. The religion has no written sources, nor a central authority. The term is also used for all supernatural beings or spirits (Wintis) created by Anana, the creator of the universe.
Vodou drumming and associated ceremonies are folk ritual faith system of henotheistic religion of Haitian Vodou originated and inextricable part of Haitian culture.
Akan religion comprises the traditional beliefs and religious practices of the Akan people of Ghana and eastern Ivory Coast. Akan religion is referred to as Akom. Although most Akan people have identified as Christians since the early 20th century, Akan religion remains practiced by some and is often syncretized with Christianity. The Akan have many subgroups, so the religion varies greatly by region and subgroup. Similar to other traditional religions of West and Central Africa such as West African Vodun, Yoruba religion, or Odinani, Akan cosmology consists of a senior god who generally does not interact with humans and many gods who assist humans.
Kwinti is an English-based creole of Suriname closely related to Ndyuka. The language has less than 300 speakers, and split from Plantation Creole which is nowadays known as Sranan Tongo in the middle 18th century. Code-switching with Sranan Tongo and Dutch was common among the younger generation in 1973, and about 70% of the tribe have moved to the urban areas. UNESCO considers the language endangered.
Santigron is a Maroon village in Lelydorp, Suriname. The village of Santigron is along the Saramacca River not far from Paramaribo. It is one of Suriname's Maroon villages, where descendants of 18th Century run-away slaves live. Unlike in Brazil or Jamaica, some 20,000 Maroons are still living in Suriname 's rainforest and retain many aspects of their traditional Afro-American culture. The village was founded by Jajasie Adoemakeë in the middle of the 19th century. Adoemakeë started working at a nearby wood plantation, and claimed to have received ownership after the plantation owner died in 1861, however the deed was lost.
Myal is an Afro-Jamaican spirituality. It developed via the creolization of African religions during the slave era in Jamaica. It incorporates ritualistic magic, spiritual possession and dancing. Unlike Obeah, its practices focus more on the connection of spirits with humans. Over time, Myal began to meld with Christian practices and created the religious tradition known as Revivalism.
Convince, also known as Bongo or Flenke, is a religion from eastern Jamaica. It has roots in Kumina and Jamaican Maroon religion.
Comfa is a folk religion in Guyana also known as Spiritualism or Faithism. The word "Comfa" is used by non-practitioners as a generic term for spirit possession in Guyana. However, the word "Comfa" is also a term to define the greater folk religion involving spirit possession originating in Guyana.
Kromanti dance or Kromanti play is a Jamaican Maroon religious ceremony practiced by Jamaican Maroons. It is rooted in traditional African music and religious practices, especially those of the Akan people of Ghana. The name Kromanti derives from Kormantin where a historical slave fort in the coast of Ghana was located. Many slaves shipped to Jamaica during the Atlantic Slave trade originated from present–day Ghana in West Africa.
Kenneth M. Bilby is an American anthropologist, ethnomusicologist, and author. His published works include the books Words of Our Mouth, Meditations of Our Heart: Pioneering Musicians of Ska, Rocksteady, Reggae, and Dancehall (2016), Enacting Power: The Criminalization of Obeah in the Anglophone Caribbean, 1760–2011, True-Born Maroons (2005), and Caribbean currents: Caribbean music from rumba to reggae.
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