Kushite religion

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Votive Plaque of Apedemak, The Naqa kiosk, Excavation by John Garstang, 1909-1910, in the Temple of Apedemak, Meroe Meroe, the City of the Ethiopians - being an account of a first season's excavations on the site, 1909-1910 (1911) (14578210660).jpg
Votive Plaque of Apedemak, The Naqa kiosk, Excavation by John Garstang, 1909-1910, in the Temple of Apedemak, Meroe

Kushite religion is the traditional belief system and pantheon of deities associated with the Ancient Kushites, who founded the Kingdom of Kush in the land of Kush (also known as Ta-Seti) in present-day Sudan. [1] [2]

Contents

History

Despite their close proximity to Ancient Egypt, a civilization that practiced what many historians consider one of the most extensive religious systems in the ancient world, Kushites possessed an intricate pantheon in their own right. [3] Due to the lack of Nubian texts and artifacts prior to their interactions with Egyptians, much of early Nubian religion is still unclear. Fortunately, archeologists have uncovered many elements of their practices via the burials of A Group, Napata, C Group, Kerma and via writings after many Nubians adopted the Egyptian language during the Napatan Period. [3]

Pre-Kush culture

Statue of Bastet with a lion head P1070019 Louvre statue deesse Bastet E3915 rwk.JPG
Statue of Bastet with a lion head

Excavations of early Nubian societies also uncovered hints as to how their daily lives greatly influenced their spiritual beliefs. The A Group Culture (ca. 3700-2800 BC) revealed the domestication of animals, agricultural cultivation, elaborate pottery that was polished red and black, and fine amulets, figurines and necklaces made of ivory. [3] These goods were also found in burials at the Terminal A Group Cemetery L at Qustul and suggest that Nubians in Lower Nubia also had ritualistic practices that were independent of Ancient Egyptian religion. The materials that comprised the burial goods also revealed that Nubians traded regularly with Egypt and peoples in Western Asia, who saw Nubia as "a corridor to sub-Saharan Africa" and its exotic goods of ebony, giraffe tails, elephants, stones, ostrich eggs, etc. [3] Archeologist Bruce Williams concluded that much of early Pre-Dynastic culture that's often attributed to Egypt is also Nubian in origin. He maintained that Nubia developed its own complex, Dynastic culture that was not an imitation of Egypt and that both emerging kingdoms "belonged to the 'great East African substratum'." [2]

During the Early Dynastic Period (ca. 3050-2685 BC) and the Old Kingdom Period (ca. 2685-2150 BC), Egypt's hunger to control Nubia and its lucrative trade routes and gold mines led to a military campaign into Nubia, increasing contact between the nations. [2] [3] The C Group Culture emerged circa 2300 BC. Archaeological digs revealed stone, circular graves "with the deceased in a flexed position surrounded by grave goods" in the early phase of the culture. By the next phase, burials had undergone a rapid "Egyptianization" with rectangular graves and Egyptian grave goods. Outside of C Group, the tomb biography about Pepy I by Weni the Elder revealed the names of six other Nubian kingdoms: Medja, Wawat, Yam, Irtjet and Setju. [3]

By the First Intermediate Period (ca 2150-2008 BC) and early Middle Kingdom Period (ca 2009-1760 BC), Nubia had full control of its land and peace with Egypt. Nubians also lived and work in the lands of their neighbor. Some scholars believe there is even evidence that Nubians married and birthed their way into the Egyptian monarchy. [3] Pharaoh Mentuhotep II and his queen consort, Kemsit, are said to have been of Nubian origin, due to his appointment of Nubian archers into the Egyptian army and depictions of her with a black or pink face. But it was Mentuhotep II who renewed Egypt's interest to control all of Nubia. At the beginning of the Twelfth Dynasty, this is finally accomplished by Amenemhat I, who also may have been of Nubian ancestry. [3]

The founding of Kush

Shallow, round graves with concave bottoms were discovered in Upper Egypt and Lower Nubia. These so-called pan-graves often contain simple jewelry such as the necklaces displayed here, non-Egyptian pottery, and large numbers of weapons. The people buried in "pan graves" were probably the Medjayu, nomads from the eastern Nubian desert. Pan-Grave-Necklace.jpg
Shallow, round graves with concave bottoms were discovered in Upper Egypt and Lower Nubia. These so-called pan-graves often contain simple jewelry such as the necklaces displayed here, non-Egyptian pottery, and large numbers of weapons. The people buried in "pan graves" were probably the Medjayu, nomads from the eastern Nubian desert.
Excavations of the city of Kerma Kerma city.JPG
Excavations of the city of Kerma

The "First Kingdom of Kush," with its capital at Kerma, was first mentioned during the Twelfth Dynasty in Egyptian writings. However, it's still unclear if Kush was a centralized, dominant power that united Nubia or if there were small, independent polities across Nubia. While Egypt's control over Nubia continued into the Second Intermediate Period (ca. 1685-1550 BC), Kerman culture revealed the determination of Nubians to propagate their indigenous, Nubian beliefs. [3] From the Early Kerma Period (ca. 2500-2050 BC) to the Classic Kerma Period (ca 1750-1450), they solidified their burial practices. In Kerma, the deceased were buried in large, elaborate, round tumuli. They were laid on top of cowhides or beds and positioned on their sides "in a flexed position with their faces looking north, heads pointed east and feet west." [3] They were also dressed in loincloths or wrapped in sheep skin, surrounded by grave goods of weapons, jewelry, mirrors, vessels of water, pottery, and other personal possessions. In Medja, the deceased were buried in "shallow, round graves," or pan graves, with grave goods that consisted of bow-and-arrows, cattle skulls, pottery, and jewelry. [3]

During the New Kingdom Period (ca 1550-1077 BC), Ahmose I and Thutmose I relaunched campaigns in Nubia, which lasted for eighty-eight years. These battles are believed to have ended circa 1460 BC when Nubia once again fell completely under Egyptian control. Nubians launched a serious of rebellions to free themselves from Egypt with most of them failing. [3] By the Third Intermediate Period (ca. 1076-723 BC), Napata was regarded as one of the most significant trade centers of the Old World, and Nubia was divided into independent cultures. King Alara (ca. 785-765 BC) united Nubia from Upper Nubia to the Third Cataract and formed the "Second Kingdom of Kush." King Kashta (ca. 765-753 BC) expanded the kingdom to include Lower Nubia and Thebes. Their conquests paved the way for King Piankhi (also called Piye) to conquer all of Egypt and found the Twenty-fifth Dynasty (ca. 722-655/53 BC), marking the beginning of the Late Period (ca. 722-332 BC). [3] During this era, aspects of Nubian religion began to undergo another "Egyptianization." Pre-existing Nubian deities that were associated with Egyptian deities took on the names of their Egyptian counterparts but kept their Nubian characteristics, creating new iconography. [3] The tomb of Alara (ca. early to mid-8th century BC) and other burials of the first Napatan Dynasty revealed a traditional Nubian royal burial with Egyptian elements. [3] [5]

Kendall noted that the occupant of Ku.9 (likely Alara):

"...was interred in the traditional Nubian manner, lying on a bed and placed in a small enclosed side-chamber at the bottom of a vertical shaft, the visible tomb superstructure incorporated many Egyptian features. The apex seems to have been adorned with a crudely cast, hollow bronze ba statue...The chapel had contained a plain, hard stone Egyptian-style offering table, and the chapel walls had been adorned with crude low relief. One block preserved what appeared to be the upper part of a male head, wearing a crown with a superstructure and streamers and a loop-like ornament over the brow, imitative of a uraeus..." [5]

Egyptian deities also began to undergo a "Nubianization" in Egypt. [3] Egyptians originally depicted Aman as a human-headed male, but by the New Kingdom both Egypt and Kush depicted him as a ram-headed male, a depiction very reminiscent of the indigenous Nubian ram-headed deities of water and fertility that were originally worshipped at Kerma. [3] While it is well-documented that Nubians worshipped Egyptian gods, such as Aman (also called Amen and Gem Aten) and Isis, artifacts also revealed that Egyptians also worshipped Nubian deities, such as Dedwen (also called Dedun) and Menhit. [3] There are also deities that were "shared" at the border of Lower Nubia and Upper Egypt and considered to be both Nubian and Egyptian, such as Bes, Bastet, Satis and Anaka. [3] Some historians suggested that Bes and Bastet have Nubian origins. [3] [6]

The fall of the 25th Dynasty of Egypt

Circa 655/53 BC, the Kingdom of Kush would lose their hold on territories north of Lower Nubia, marking the Twenty-fifth Dynasty as the last Kushite rulers of Egypt. Beginning in the Late Period, Kush and Egypt transitioned through centuries of diverse rulers, who assimilated Kushite/Egyptian culture and left traces of their own. The Neo-Assyrian Empire (ca. 671–663 BC) began conquest under Esarhaddon [7] and eventually defeated Pharaoh Taharqa (690-664 BC) under Ashurbanipal. [8] A conquered Egypt fell under the rule of Psamtik I. When his reign ended, Kushite influence over Egypt officially ended. [3] During Assyrian rule, the sacking of Thebes resulted in the destruction of numerous temples that were devoted to Kushite and Egyptian deities. [9] [10] The remainder of Assyrian rule was marked by conquest wars against the Babylonians and Medes (ca. 626-609 BC). [11] During this period, Egyptian royals once again gained control of the kingdom as the Assyrian Empire declined. [12]

Egypt was later conquered by the Achaemenid (Persian) Empire (ca. 524-330 BC) under Cambyses II, who founded the Twenty-seventh Dynasty (ca. 525-404 BC). [13] [14] Under Persian rule, Cambyses II and Ochus (also called Artaxerxes III) persecuted followers of traditional Egyptian religion. Both were known to instruct their guards to plunder temples, pillage towns, steal religious text, and slaughter sacred animals. [15] During the Hellenistic Greek Period, Egypt was conquered by the Macadonian Empire (ca. 332-323 BC) under Alexander the Great. [16] [3] Instead of positioning himself as a conqueror, Alexander proclaimed himself the "liberator" of Egypt. This implied that Greece was there to free the Egyptian people from the clutches of the old Egyptian pharaohs and pantheon. Further diminishing the role of Egyptian deities in governmental affairs, the cult of Alexander associated him with the Greek gods Zeus and Apollo rather than Amun and Ra. [17] After Alexander's death, the Ptolemaic Dynasty (305-30 BC) won control of Egypt under Ptolemy I and his son Ptolemy II. [3] [18] [19] The Greek pantheon continued to dominant Ptolemaic cults, with Ptolemy I and his dynasty being associated with them. [20]

Kushite religion after Egypt

Bas-Relief, Christian Nubia, British Museum, Egypt and Nubia Gallery, London, England, UK. Complete indexed photo collection at WorldHistoryPics.com. Bas-Relief, Christian Nubia (36221150520).jpg
Bas-Relief, Christian Nubia, British Museum, Egypt and Nubia Gallery, London, England, UK. Complete indexed photo collection at WorldHistoryPics.com.

Further south, Kush had entered its Meroitic Period (mid-3rd Century BC -mid-4th Century AD). The capital moved from Napata to Meroe in Upper Nubia. Away from the cults of traditional Egyptian religion, Meroitic Kushites created a new pantheon that centered Nubian deities and indigenous practices with little Egyptian influence. Apedemak, the lion protector god, and his consort, Amesemi, became the most prominent deities. Aman was depicted holding objects that were associated with Apedemak, such as sovereign arrows, emphasizing that Apedemak had more influence in Meroe. Nevertheless, Aman still maintained a presence as a representation of Nubian ram-headed gods, while Isis was absorbed and became a representation of traditional Nubian goddesses. [3]

Kushite rulers also redirected their attention to protecting their borders from invaders. In 319 BC, Ptolemy I dispatched an army to attack Kush. [3] In the 270s BC, Ptolemy II invaded Nubia and defeated the Kingdom of Kush, gaining access to Kushite territory and the control of lucrative gold deposits in a region known as Dodekasoinos. [21] Trade managed to continue between Kushites and Egyptians as Kush continued to secure war elephants, which were important to the Ptolemies. [3]

The Roman Empire (30 BC-641 AD) eventually conquered Egypt after Caesar Augustus defeated Julius Caesar and Cleopatra VII. [22] [3] During Roman rule, there was an even greater religious and political shift away from traditional Egyptian practices in Egypt. Roman emperors maintained their original titles, ending the use of the pharaoh title and the ruler's historical connection to Egyptian and Kushite deities. Imperial cults were also created in Egypt to honor of Augustus, but he was identified with Zeus and other Olympian gods. [23] [17] In 25 BC, Amanirenas, a Kushite Kandake, commanded an army of about 30,000 Nubian warriors and was successful in preventing the expansion of the Roman Empire into Nubia. She was the first of a long line of Kandake who ruled and protected Kush. [24] Despite the influences from the invaders of Egypt, Kushites continued to maintain cults for indigenous Nubian deities. [3]

By the mid-4th century, the Kingdom of Kush had fallen. Nubians, without a functioning kingdom and possibly desperate to maintain what little control they had left over the ivory trade, attacked the Kingdom of Aksum. Under King Ezana, Aksum responded with a large military force and plundered Meroë circa 350 AD. [25] [26] In the 5th century, Nubia split into three new kingdoms: Nobatia (ca. 350-590 AD) with its capital at Faras, Makuria (ca. 5th century-1518) with its capital at Dongola, and Alodia (ca. 6th century–c. 1500) with its capital at Soba. [26] Circa 580 AD, these kingdoms converted to Christianity [3] with the Temple of Taharqa being renovated to include a church. [3] Faras also became a religious center for Christian Nubian bishops. [26] With the advent of Christianity, most temples dedicated to indigenous Kushite deities were replaced with churches and monasteries dedicated to Yahweh. [3] Burial practices also changed from Kerman-style stone circles, Medjayu-style pan-graves and Meroitic-style tumuli with funerary goods to Christian-style rectangular graves with no funerary goods and a cross or small tombstone on top. [3] [27]

Deities

Aman (also called Asha Renu, Amen, Amun and Gem Aten) He was a ram-headed god with wavy horns and curled horns who was depicted wearing a large sun-disc. His name translates to "the Sun Disc is Found." [3] [28]
AmaneteNamed in an official's inscription from Karanog, more information has not been discovered about the deity. [3]
Amesemi The lunar, sky goddess of Meroë and consort of Apedemak, she was often depicted with a short, curly afro and a headdress topped with two falcons and a crescent moon. [3] [29] At the Temple of Aman in Naqa, her image was carved into a stele alongside Amanishakheto of Meroe and Apedemak. [30]
Anhur (also called Onuris) A hunting and war god who was the consort of Mehit or Atari when she was associated with Tefnut in the "Distant Goddess" motif during the Amarna Period. [3] [31] He is believed to be the god who hunted the Eye of Re in Nubia and her back to Re. [32]
Anaka (also called Anukis) A ram-headed god of divine protection that was associated with the water. She was also a part of a triad with Satis and Khnum. Collectively, they were seen as the source of Nile's yearly inundation. Her cult was at Kawa, where she appears as the consort of Aman and the associate of Satis. [3] She forms with triad of Elephantine with Satis and Khenmu. [3] [32]
Apedemak A war and protection lion god who was depicted with a lion head, often carrying large bows-and-arrows as he offered prisoners and dhurra (millet) to the ruling qore (king). The crops are evidence that he also has lunar aspects. [3] [33] He is also depicted walking elephants and lions on leashes. [3]
AqediseA lunar god who was considered the Nubian equivalent of Khonsu. [3]
Arensnuphis (possibly called Tabo) A war and hunter lion-head god of the desert who was often paired with Sabomakal. Their images were often positioned over the entrances of temples, emphasizing their roles as guardians. In human form, he also "wore a short kilt, a tall feather crown and divine beard." Originally of Nubia, he had a temple at Philae and was associated with Dedwen, Isis and Anhur. [3] [32]
AritenNamed in an official's inscription from Karanog, more information has not been discovered about the deity. [34] Her eminence in Nubia far exceeded that in Egypt, suggesting that she possibly had a Nubian origin or an indigenous Nubian equivalent. The Temple of Bastet at Tare (also called Per-Bast) was often visited by newly-crowned rulers and amulets with her depiction were also found in the burials of Nubian royals, revealing her importance to the protection the of the monarchy. [3] [35]
Bes A god associated with protection of Nubian women during childbirth, his image was found in a mammisi, or divine birth temple. His eminence in Kush far exceeded that in Egypt, suggesting that he possibly had a Nubian origin or an indigenous Nubian equivalent. [3] His Egyptian titles "Lord of Punt" and "Ruler of Nubia" also emphasize a beginning in Nubia. He was also depicted with Atari who is also associated with childbirth. [3]
BreithThe "divine brother" of Merul, he is depicted with a falcon body and a human head. More information has not been discovered about him. [3]
Dedwen (also called Dedun) Depicted as a lion protector god, he was first mentioned in Egyptian Pyramid Texts as a Nubian god of incense, who burned incense at the birth of royals. [36] [37] Due to his use of incense, he was also associated with fortune, prosperity and wealth. The Temple of Osiris-Dedwen (B 700) at Jebel Barkal, constructed at the request of Atlanersa, revealed that Aman-Re transformed into Osiris-Dedwen. He subsequently became associated with the protection of deceased Nubian royals. [38]
Khenmu (also called Khnum) The ram-headed god of virility and fertility was originally the Nubian god who fashioned human beings from the clay and then placed them in the womb of their mothers to be born into the earth. He forms with triad of Elephantine with Anaka and Satis. [32]
MakedekeNamed in an official's inscription from Karanog, more information has not been discovered about the deity. [3]
Mandulis (also Melul and Merul) A sun god who was depicted as god with a falcon body with a human head and the "divine brother" of Breith. He re-emerged during the Roman Period, where he appeared in the gateway at the Temple of Dendur with Emperor Augustus presenting he and Arensnuphis with offerings. [3] [39] The Temple of Kalabsha was also dedicated to him. [3]
MashNamed in an official's inscription from Karanog, more information has not been discovered about the deity. [3]
Mehit The lunar lion goddess during the Early Dynastic Period (31250-2613 BC) in Nubia and consort of Anhur, she is often depicted as a reclining lioness with three sticks jutting out from behind her. She is also identified as the "Distant Goddess." [32]
Menhit The solar and protective goddess of Nubian origin is often depicted as a reclining lioness. In one version of the "Distant Goddess" motif, the Eye of Re is said to either become or give birth to Menhit. [32]
Miket(also called Mekhit) The Meroitic lion goddess of war of Nubian origin was often associated with the moon and is often depicted as a roaring lionness. [3] [32] Some sources identify her as the subject of the "Distant Goddess" motif, instead of Mehit. In one legend, the Eye of Ra flees from Egypt. Her counterpart, Ra, sends another god to track her down in Nubia, where she transforms into a lioness. When she is returned to Ra, she either becomes or gives birth to Menhit. Afterwards, she's said to have become the consort of Anhur. [32]
Sabomakal (also called Sebiumeker) The Meroitic lion protector god possibly had origins as a supreme god in pre-dynastic Nubia, where he was associated with procreation and fertility. [32] He later became a war and hunter lion-head god of the desert who was often paired with Arensnuphis. Their images were often positioned over the entrances of temples, emphasizing their roles as guardians. In human form, he was also depicted "wearing a short kilt, the double crown of Egypt, and the divine beard." [3] [32] [40]
Satis A ram-headed goddess of divine protection that was associated with the water. [3] She was also depicted as a woman wearing the White Crown of Upper Egypt with antelope horns. [32] She was also reverenced as a war, hunting and fertility goddess. [41] Her first temple was built during the Naqada III period at Elephantine, where she was linked to the inundation of the Nile. She was also a part of the Elephantine triad with Anaka and Khenmu. [3] [32] During the Middle Kingdom, Mentuhotep II also constructed a temple in her honor. [3] She is associated with the Eye of Ra and "Distant Goddess" motif. [32]
Wusa (also called Isis) [42] The "Mistress of Kush" and "Mistress of Heaven, Earth, and the Underworld," she was an all-embracing mother and protector goddess. She was absorbed into the image of indigenous, Nubian mother goddesses and became a representation of the Queen Mothers and Kandakes of Kush. [3] Her Nubian cult was centered at Philae, but she also had temples located throughout the kingdom. She was also referred to as Weret-Kekau, which translates to "The Great Magic" and was associated with Nubian oracles and magic. [3] [32] As part of indigenous, Nubian custom, Kushites took pilgrimages to her Temple at Philae. [3]

Related Research Articles

Nubians are a Nilo-Saharan ethnic group indigenous to the region which is now Northern Sudan and southern Egypt. They originate from the early inhabitants of the central Nile valley, believed to be one of the earliest cradles of civilization. In the southern valley of Egypt, Nubians differ culturally and ethnically from Egyptians, although they intermarried with members of other ethnic groups, especially Arabs. They speak Nubian languages as a mother tongue, part of the Northern Eastern Sudanic languages, and Arabic as a second language.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Meroë</span> Ancient city along the eastern bank of the Nile River in Northern Sudan

Meroë was an ancient city on the east bank of the Nile about 6 km north-east of the Kabushiya station near Shendi, Sudan, approximately 200 km north-east of Khartoum. Near the site is a group of villages called Bagrawiyah. This city was the capital of the Kingdom of Kush for several centuries from around 590 BC, until its collapse in the 4th century AD. The Kushitic Kingdom of Meroë gave its name to the "Island of Meroë", which was the modern region of Butana, a region bounded by the Nile, the Atbarah and the Blue Nile.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Meroitic language</span> Extinct language

The Meroitic language was spoken in Meroë during the Meroitic period and became extinct about 400 AD. It was written in two forms of the Meroitic alphabet: Meroitic Cursive, which was written with a stylus and was used for general record-keeping; and Meroitic Hieroglyphic, which was carved in stone or used for royal or religious documents. It is poorly understood, owing to the scarcity of bilingual texts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nubian pyramids</span> Pyramids built by ancient Kushite kingdoms in present-day northern Sudan

The Nubian pyramids were built by the rulers of the ancient Kushite kingdoms. The area of the Nile valley known as Nubia, which lies in northern present-day Sudan, was the site of three Kushite kingdoms during antiquity. The capital of the first was at Kerma. The second was centered on Napata. The third kingdom was centered on Meroë. The pyramids are built of granite and sandstone.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kerma</span> Ancient Nubian capital city in Sudan

Kerma was the capital city of the Kerma culture, which was located in present-day Sudan at least 5,500 years ago. Kerma is one of the largest archaeological sites in ancient Nubia. It has produced decades of extensive excavations and research, including thousands of graves and tombs and the residential quarters of the main city surrounding the Western/Lower Deffufa.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kerma culture</span> Ancient Sudanese kingdom

The Kerma culture or Kerma kingdom was an early civilization centered in Kerma, Sudan. It flourished from around 2500 BC to 1500 BC in ancient Nubia. The Kerma culture was based in the southern part of Nubia, or "Upper Nubia", and later extended its reach northward into Lower Nubia and the border of Egypt. The polity seems to have been one of a number of Nile Valley states during the Middle Kingdom of Egypt. In the Kingdom of Kerma's latest phase, lasting from about 1700 to 1500 BC, it absorbed the Sudanese kingdom of Sai and became a sizable, populous empire rivaling Egypt. Around 1500 BC, it was absorbed into the New Kingdom of Egypt, but rebellions continued for centuries. By the eleventh century BC, the more-Egyptianized Kingdom of Kush emerged, possibly from Kerma, and regained the region's independence from Egypt.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jebel Barkal</span> Archaeological Site in Sudan

Jebel Barkal or Gebel Barkal is a mesa or large rock outcrop located 400 km north of Khartoum, next to Karima in Northern State in Sudan, on the Nile River, in the region that is sometimes called Nubia. The jebel is 104 m tall, has a flat top, and came to have religious significance for both ancient Kush and ancient Egyptian occupiers. In 2003, the mountain, together with the extensive archaeological site at its base, were named as the center of a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. The Jebel Barkal area houses the Jebel Barkal Museum.

Napata was a city of ancient Kush at the fourth cataract of the Nile founded by the Egyptian Amun cult for Egyptian pilgrims given by its, as suggested, Egyptian name. It is located approximately 1.5 kilometers from the east side of the river at the site of modern Karima, Sudan. It was the southernmost permanent settlement in the New Kingdom of Egypt and home to Jebel Barkal, the main Kushite cult centre of Amun. It was the sometime capital of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt and, after its fall in 663 BC, of the Kingdom of Kush. In 593 BC, it was sacked by the Egyptians and the Kushite capital was relocated to Meroë. Even after this move, Napata continued to be the kingdom's primary religious centre. The city was sacked a second time by the Romans in 23 BC but was rebuilt and continued as an important centre of the Amun cult.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Apedemak</span> Ancient Nubian deity

Apedemak or Apademak was the Chief deity in the ancient Kushite pantheon. Often depicted as a figure with a male human torso and a lion head, Apedemak was a war god worshiped by the Meroitic peoples inhabiting Kush. He has no Egyptian counterpart. As a war god, Apedemak came to symbolize martial power, military conquest, and empire for the Meroitic peoples. Apedemak is also closely associated with Amun, the state-sponsored Egyptian deity during the preceding Napatan period, and is assumed to hold an equal level of importance.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alara of Kush</span> Kushite King of Napata

Alara was a King of Kush, who is generally regarded as the founder of the Napatan royal dynasty by his 25th Dynasty Kushite successors and was the first recorded prince of Kush. He unified all of Upper Nubia from Meroë to the Third Cataract and is possibly attested at the Temple of Amun at Kawa. Alara also established Napata as the religious capital of Kush. Alara himself was not a 25th dynasty Kushite king since he never controlled any region of Egypt during his reign compared to his two immediate successors: Kashta and Piye respectively. Nubian literature credits him with a substantial reign since future Nubian kings requested that they might enjoy a reign as long as Alara's. His memory was also central to the origin myth of the Kushite kingdom, which was embellished with new elements over time. Alara was a deeply revered figure in Nubian culture and the first Kushite king whose name came down to scholars.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Amanishakheto</span> Kushite Kandake of Meroe

Amanishakheto was a queen regnant (kandake) of Kush who reigned in the early 1st century AD. In Meroitic hieroglyphs her name is written "Amanikasheto". In Meroitic cursive she is referred to as Amaniskheto qor kd(ke) which means Amanishakheto, Qore and Kandake.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kandake</span> Title of queenmothers in ancient Nubia

Kandake, kadake or kentake, often Latinised as Candace, was the Meroitic term for the sister of the king of Kush who, due to the matrilineal succession, would bear the next heir, making her a queen mother. She had her own court, probably acted as a landholder and held a prominent secular role as regent. Contemporary Greek and Roman sources treated it, incorrectly, as a name. The name Candace is derived from the way the word is used in the New Testament.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Senkamanisken</span> Kushite King

Senkamanisken was a Kushite King who ruled from 640 to 620 BC at Napata. He used royal titles based on those of the ancient Egyptian pharaohs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nubian architecture</span> Architecture from the African region of Nubia

Nubian architecture is diverse and ancient. Permanent villages have been found in Nubia, which date from 6000 BC. These villages were roughly contemporary with the walled town of Jericho in Palestine.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nubia</span> Region in northern Sudan and southern Egypt

Nubia is a region along the Nile river encompassing the area between the first cataract of the Nile and the confluence of the Blue and White Niles, or more strictly, Al Dabbah. It was the seat of one of the earliest civilizations of ancient Africa, the Kerma culture, which lasted from around 2500 BC until its conquest by the New Kingdom of Egypt under Pharaoh Thutmose I around 1500 BC, whose heirs ruled most of Nubia for the next 400 years. Nubia was home to several empires, most prominently the Kingdom of Kush, which conquered Egypt in the eighth century BC during the reign of Piye and ruled the country as its 25th Dynasty.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kingdom of Kush</span> Ancient kingdom in Nubia, Africa

The Kingdom of Kush, also known as the Kushite Empire, or simply Kush, was an ancient kingdom in Nubia, centered along the Nile Valley in what is now northern Sudan and southern Egypt.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt</span> Kushite rule in Egypt during the third intermediate period

The Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt, also known as the Nubian Dynasty, the Kushite Empire, the Black Pharaohs, or the Napatans, after their capital Napata, was the last dynasty of the Third Intermediate Period of Egypt that occurred after the Nubian invasion.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Triakontaschoinos</span>

The Triakontaschoinos, Latinized as Triacontaschoenus, was a geographical and administrative term used in the Greco-Roman world for the part of Lower Nubia between the First and Second Cataracts of the Nile, which formed a buffer zone between Egypt and later Rome on the one hand and Meroë on the other hand. The northern part of this area, stretching from the First Cataract south to Maharraqa, was known as the Dodekaschoinos or Dodecaschoenus. In the Ptolemaic and Roman periods the Dodekaschoinos was often annexed to Egypt or controlled from it, and the rest of the Triakontaschoinos sometimes was as well.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Military of ancient Nubia</span> Armed forces of the Nubian kingdoms

Nubia is a region along the Nile river encompassing the area between the first cataract of the Nile as well as the confluence of the blue and white Niles or, more strictly, Al Dabbah. Nubia was the seat of several civilizations of ancient Africa, including the Kerma culture, the kingdom of Kush, Nobatia, Makuria and Alodia.

References

  1. ↑ Mark, Joshua J. (2018-02-26). "The Kingdom of Kush". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2023-09-25.
  2. 1 2 3 Williams, Bruce B. (2011). "Relations Between Egypt and Nubia in the Naqada Period". In Teeter, Emily (ed.). Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization (PDF) (1st ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 87–91. ISBN   978-1-885923-82-0.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 Fisher, Marjorie M.; Lacovara, Peter; Ikram, Salima; D'Auria, Sue; Yellin, Janice W.; Knoblauch, Christian (2012). Ancient Nubia: African Kingdoms on the Nile. Cairo, Egypt: American University in Cairo Press. pp. 14–17, 20–25, 33–36, 38–40, 62, 124–127, 129–131, 132–135, 139, 177, 223, 296, 367, 388, 394, 406–408, 411. ISBN   9789774164781.
  4. ↑ ""Pan Grave" Necklace". www.brooklynmuseum.org. Retrieved 2023-09-25.
  5. 1 2 Kendall, Tim (1999). "The Origin of the Napatan State: El Kurru and Evidence for the Royal Ancestors". In Wenig, Steffen (ed.). Meroitica: Studien Zum Antiken Sudan. Germany: Harrassowitz Verlag · Wiesbaden. p. 65. ISBN   978-3-447-04139-3.
  6. ↑ Mackenzie, Donald A. (1907). Egyptian Myth and Legend: (with Historical Narrative, Notes on Race Problems, Comparative Beliefs, Etc. ). Independently Published. p. 312. ISBN   978-1-6733-4385-4.
  7. ↑ Frahm, Eckart (2017-06-12). "The Neo-Assyrian Period (ca. 1000–609 BCE)". A Companion to Assyria. John Wiley & Sons. p. 187. ISBN   978-1-4443-3593-4.
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  9. ↑ Petrie, William Matthew Flinders; Mahaffy, John Pentland; Milne, Joseph Grafton; Lane-Poole, Stanley (1905). A History of Egypt Vol. 3: From the XIXth to the XXXth Dynasties (5th ed.). New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 307–308.
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  41. ↑ Wilkinson, Richard H. (2003), "Satis", The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt , London: Thames & Hudson, pp.  164–6, ISBN   0-500-05120-8 .
  42. ↑ Quack, Joachim Friedrich (2018). "What is a Priest of Ēse, of Wusa, and of Isis in the Egyptian and Nubian World?". In Gasparini, Valentino; Veymiers, Richard (eds.). Individuals and Materials in the Greco-Roman Cults of Isis: Agents, Images, and Practices, Vol. 1. Boston · Leiden: Brill. pp. 108–109. ISBN   978-90-04-38134-6.
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