Nubian architecture is diverse and ancient. Permanent villages have been found in Nubia, which date from 6000 BC. These villages were roughly contemporary with the walled town of Jericho in Palestine.
Nubian architecture is diverse and ancient. Permanent villages have been found in Nubia, which date from 6000 BC. These villages were roughly contemporary with the walled town of Jericho in Palestine.
The earliest Nubian architecture used perishable materials, wattle and daub, mudbricks, animal hide, and other light and supple materials. Early Nubian architecture consisted of speos, structures derived from the carving of rock, an innovation of the A-Group culture (c. 3800-3100 BCE), as seen in the Sofala Cave rock-cut temple or the rock cut barial chambers of the Kushite monarchs in El Kurru. Other examples of rock cut architecture built by the Nubians include the temples of Beit Wali, Gerf Hussein, Temple of Derr, Temple of Mut and temple of Amada. Ancient Egyptians made widespread use of speos during the New Kingdom of Egypt. [1]
Two types of A-Group graves exist. One was oval in shape 0.8 metres (2 ft 7 in) deep. The second was oval in shape 1.3 metres (4 ft 3 in) deep with a deeper second chamber. [2]
The A-Group culture vanished, followed later by the C-Group culture (2400–1550 BCE). Settlements consisted of round structures with stone floors. Structural frame was achieved with wooden or pliant materials. Mudbricks became the preferred building 1094B.C.E materials as settlements became larger. Graves were circular cylindrical superstructures made of stoned wall. The pit was filled with gravel and stones, and covered with dried mud roof or hay roof. Later, during the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt (circa 1650 to 1550 BCE), an adobe chapel was placed to the north of the grave. Graves were from El Ghaba, Kadero, Sayala, and various other sites in northern Sudan. [3]
The C-Group culture was related to the Kerma Culture. Kerma was settled around 2400 BCE. It was a walled city containing a religious building, large circular dwelling, a palace, and well laid out roads. On the East side of the city, a funerary temple and chapel were laid out. It supported a population of 10,000 at its height in 1700 BCE. One of its most enduring structures was the deffufa, a mud-brick temple where ceremonies were performed on top. [4]
The deffufa is a unique structure in Nubian architecture. Three known deffufas exist: the Western Deffufa at Kerma, an Eastern Deffufa, and a third, little-known deffufa. The Western Deffufa is 50 by 25 metres (164 by 82 ft). It is 18 metres (59 ft) tall and comprises three stories. It was surrounded by a boundary wall. Inside were chambers connected by passageways. [5]
The Eastern Deffufa lies 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) east of the Western Deffufa. The Eastern Deffufa is shorter than the Western Deffufa, just two stories high. It is considered a funerary chapel, being surrounded by 30,000 tumuli or graves. It has two columned halls. The walls are decorated with portraiture of animal in color schemes of red, blue, yellow, and black and stone-laid floors. Exterior walls were layered with stone. The third deffufa is of similar structure as the Eastern Deffufa. [5] [6]
The Kerma graves are distinct. They are circular pits covered with white or black pebbles in a circular mound. Four huge graves in the southern part of the site exist. They lie in rows surrounded by smaller graves. The diameter is 9 metres (30 ft), covered with circular mounds of white and black desert pebbles 3 metres (9.8 ft) high. Underneath exists a complex structure. A pathway running along the diameter is laid with mud walls, supporting the above mound. The mud walls seemed to have been once decorated. The pathway goes to a chamber with a Nubian vault and a wooden door where the king is buried. The king's bed is elaborate with stone-carved legs. The vaulted chamber lies in the center of the structure. It is estimated 300 humans and 1000 cattle were probably sacrificed with the king to accompany him in the after-life. [7]
Between 1500–1085 BCE, Egyptian conquest and domination of Nubia was achieved. This conquest brought about the Napatan Phase of Nubian history, the birth of the Kingdom of Kush. Kush was immensely influenced by Egypt and eventually conquered it. During this phase we see the building of numerous pyramids and temples.
Of much spiritual significance to Nubian pharaohs was Jebel Barkal. Nubian pharaohs received legitimacy from the site. They held pharaonic coronation and consulted its oracle. It was thought to be the dwelling place of the deity Amun. Temples for Mut, Hathor, and Bes are also present. Thirteen temples and three palaces have been excavated.
The Temple of Amun at Jebel Barkal was arguably the most significant of the temples built in ancient Nubia. Originally constructed in the 15th century under Pharaoh Thutmose III, it was later reconstructed and modified by Kushite rulers during the 25th dynasty. In general, the architecture of most major Nubian temples was similar to the temple at Jebel Barkal.
The Temple of Amun at Jebel Barkal consisted of a pylon with entrance gates, courtyards, hypostyle halls, and a sanctuary, as well as storage rooms and, most likely, living quarters and kitchens. The temple, as well as the entire complex, was oriented facing East in order to signify the importance of the rising sun. [8] The layout of the temple generally mirrored Egyptian temple design with the exception of later Nubian modifications.
The original temple was constructed using talatat blocks that were made of limestone. The main entrance, pylon, and first courtyard, which contained ten columns, was constructed by Egyptian Pharaoh Amenhotep IV. Tutankhamun added an additional courtyard, while Ramses II contributed two more pylons, a hypostyle courtyard, and a chapel. The materials used during this period included a mixture of limestone, sandstone, and green tiles. [9]
The largest expansion occurred under Kushite ruler Piye (753-723 BCE), who gave the temple its final length of roughly 150 meters. Piye added a large farm containing more columns, and two additional pylons. Each pylon stood around 3.5 to 4 meters tall, while the column height ranged anywhere from 5 to 15 meters depending on its position in the temple. Finally, Piye added a long hypostyle hall with 50 columns made of bricks and sandstone.
As time went on, Piye and other Kushite rulers made small additions to the temple such as storage areas and possibly living quarters or residential areas for the priests. Other additions to the temple by Kushite rulers included renovations of chapels, altars and the main sanctuary. They also wanted to emphasize the connection between Jebel Barkal and Amun, so they added various different statues, symbols, hieroglyphs, and paintings depicting a range of scenes linking the Kushite Kingdom to Amun. Notable examples include the statues of Kush ruler Taharqa being found near the temple and Kushite rulers' names being incorporated in the sanctuary’s hieroglyphs. Overall, the architecture of the Temple of Amun at Jebel Barkal had a significant Kushite influence during the 25th dynasty.
The city of Napata has not been fully excavated. Some of the temples were started by various pharaohs and were added on by succeeding pharaohs, beginning with Egyptian pharaohs. Reisner excavated Jebel Barkal, labeling its monuments B for Barkal. Some are as follows: B200 (temple of Taharqa), B300 (Taharqa's other temple of Mut, Hathor and Bes), B500 (temple of Amun), B501 (outer court), B502 (hypostyle hall), B700 (temple), B800sub (temple of Alara of Nubia), B1200 (palace). Psamtik II of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt sacked the region in 593 BCE, destroying all Nubian statues in B500. [10]
Nubian pyramids were constructed on three major sites: El-Kurru, Nuri, and Meroë. More pyramids were constructed and for the longest time in Nubia than in Egypt. Nubia contains 223 pyramids. They were smaller than Egyptian pyramids. Nubian pyramids were for kings and queens. The general construction of Nubian pyramids consisted of steep walls, a chapel facing East, stairway facing East, and a chamber access via the stairway. [11] [12]
El-Kurru was the first major site. It is located 13 kilometres (8.1 mi) south from Jebel Barkal. It was made of sandstone. It range from 10 to 30 metres (33 to 98 ft) in height. About ten pharaohs and fourteen queens were buried at El-Kurru.[ citation needed ]
Nuri was another important pyramid site, 6 miles northeast of Jebel Barkal. It housed the tombs of twenty pharaohs and fifty four queens. The pharaoh's pyramids range from 39.5 to 65 metres (130 to 213 ft) in height. The queen's pyramids are 9 to 17 metres (30 to 56 ft). The tombs were cut out of bedrock. The pharaoh's chamber contained three interconnecting chambers. The queen's contain two interconnecting chambers.[ citation needed ]
The third Nubian Pyramid site, Meroë, consists of three cemeteries which are the location of approximately 200 pyramids. These three cemeteries are known as the Northern, Southern, and Western Cemeteries, based on respective location. [13] The Western Cemetery contains over 800 graves and 80 pyramidal structures, compared to the 38 superstructures in the Northern Cemetery and 24 located in the Southern Cemetery. [13] The construction of these pyramids spans from the 2nd century B.C.E to the 4th century C.E., with burial practices differing in each site. The Western Cemetery was typically used for the burial of non-ruling family members and elite individuals, while the Southern Cemetery was first selected for royal burials. After there was no available space left in the Southern Cemetery, rulers' burials continued in the Northern Cemetery. [14]
Nubian pyramidal construction varies in many ways from Egyptian construction. Besides typically recognized differences such as size and age, both of which the Gizeh pyramids exceed those in Meroe, the Sudanese structures have a much steeper incline, oriented to face between the North East and South, and were constructed with different organization. [14] For example, deposits were found under the corners of many pyramids at Meroë. These deposits contained ceramics, fragments of stones, and other precious items. [13] [15] The Meroitic pyramids contain burial chambers which were dug into the ground, and after the owner’s death, the superstructure was constructed. [15] This order of operations is unlike that in Egypt, where nobility often participated in the design and construction of their own pyramid and were placed in a burial chamber after death. [15] Similarly, the deposits were not typical of Egyptian burials.
In terms of construction, the remnants of cedar wood poles found in the center of stone shafts indicate the use of shaduf to lift each block. [15] It is therefore believed that the construction timeline often did not take more than a year to complete, even for the largest pyramids.
There has been some difficulty in determining the member of nobility who was buried at each pyramidal location. This is due to many factors, such as the lack of written records associated with the sites, poor preservation of inscriptions, difficulty with stratigraphic dating, and chronological gaps in nobility. [16] George Andrew Reisner, an American archeologist, created the basic framework for the dating of each pyramid based on his excavation in 1923. In his analysis he considered the architecture, prominence, and decoration of each structure. [17]
The ancient Nubians established a system of geometry including early versions of sun clocks. [18] [19] Many are located at the sites of Meroë. During the Meroitic period in Nubian history the ancient Nubians used a trigonometric methodology similar to the Egyptians. [20]
The Christianization of Nubia began in the 6th century AD. Its most representative architecture are churches. They are based on Byzantium basilicas. The structures are relatively small and made of mudbricks. The church is rectangular in shape with North and South isles. Columns are used to divide the nave. On the East side is the apse. The altar stood in front of the apse. The area between the altar and apse was called the haikal. At the West was a tower or upper room also in the South corner and North corner. Doors were in the North and South walls. A few churches such as Faras Cathedral survived. Church painting with biblical themes were extensive but few survived. The best surviving church painting were on the Rivergate Church of Faras and the Church of Ab El Qadir.[ citation needed ]
Vernacular architecture of the Christian period is scarce. Architecture of Soba is the only one that has been excavated . The structures are of sun dried bricks, same as present day Sudan, except for an arch. [21] [22]
One prominent feature of Nubian churches are vaults made out of mudbricks. The mudbrick structure was revived by Egyptian architect Hassan Fathy after rediscovering the technique in the Nubian village of Abu al-Riche. The technology is advocated by environmentalist as environmentally friendly and sustainable, since it makes use of pure earth without the need of timber. [23]
The conversion to Islam was a slow, gradual process, with almost 600 years of resistance. Most of the architecture of the period are mosques built of mudbricks. One of the first attempt at conquest was by Egyptian-Nubian, Ibn Abi Sarh. Ibn Abi Sarh was a Muslim leader who tried to conquer all Nubia in the 8th century AD. It was almost a complete failure. A treaty called the Baqt shaped Egyptian-Nubian relations for six centuries and permitted the construction of a mosque in the Nubian capital of Old Dongola for Muslim travelers. By the middle of the 14th century, Nubia had been converted to Islam. The royal Church of Dongola was converted into a mosque. Numerous other churches were converted to mosque. [24]
Graves were simple pits, with bodies pointing to Mecca. Some of the unique structures were the gubbas, graves reserved for Muslim saints. They were whitewashed domes made of adobe bricks. [25]
Taharqa, also spelled Taharka or Taharqo, was a pharaoh of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt and qore (king) of the Kingdom of Kush from 690 to 664 BC. He was one of the "Black Pharaohs" who ruled over Egypt for nearly a century, or one of the Nubian Pharaohs of Egypt, since the traditional representation of the 25th dynasty as "Black Pharaohs" has drawn criticism from scholars, specifically because the term suggests that other dynasties did not share similar southern origins.. They also argue that the term ignores the genetic continuum that linked ancient Nubians and Egyptians.
Piye was an ancient Kushite king and founder of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt, who ruled Egypt from 744–714 BC. He ruled from the city of Napata, located deep in Nubia, modern-day Sudan.
The Nubian pyramids were constructed by the rulers of the ancient Kushite kingdoms in the region of the Nile Valley known as Nubia, located in present-day northern Sudan. This area was the site of three ancient Kushite kingdoms. The capital of the first was at Kerma, the second was centered on Napata and the third was centered on Meroë.
Tantamani (Ancient Egyptian: tnwt-jmn, Neo-Assyrian: tanṭammanē,
Aspelta was a ruler of the kingdom of Kush. More is known about him and his reign than most of the rulers of Kush. He left several stelae carved with accounts of his reign.
Jebel Barkal or Gebel Barkal is a mesa or large rock outcrop located 400 km north of Khartoum, next to Karima in Northern State in Sudan, on the Nile River, in the region that is sometimes called Nubia. The jebel is 104 m tall, has a flat top, and came to have religious significance for both ancient Kush and ancient Egyptian occupiers. In 2003, the mountain, together with the extensive archaeological site at its base, were named as the center of a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. The Jebel Barkal area houses the Jebel Barkal Museum.
Napata was a city of ancient Kush at the fourth cataract of the Nile founded by the Egyptian Amun cult for Egyptian pilgrims given by its, as suggested, Egyptian name. It is located approximately 1.5 kilometers from the east side of the river at the site of modern Karima, Sudan.
Kashta was an 8th century BCE king of the Kushite Dynasty in ancient Nubia and the successor of Alara. His nomen k3š-t3 "of the land of Kush" is often translated directly as "The Kushite". He was succeeded by Piye, who would go on to conquer ancient Egypt and establish the Twenty-Fifth Dynasty there.
George Andrew Reisner Jr. was an American archeologist of Ancient Egypt, Nubia and Palestine.
Alara was a King of Kush, who is generally regarded as the founder of the Napatan royal dynasty by his 25th Dynasty Kushite successors and was the first recorded prince of Kush. He unified all of Upper Nubia from Meroë to the Third Cataract and is possibly attested at the Temple of Amun at Kawa. Alara also established Napata as the religious capital of Kush. Alara himself was not a 25th dynasty Kushite king since he never controlled any region of Egypt during his reign compared to his two immediate successors: Kashta and Piye respectively. Nubian literature credits him with a substantial reign since future Nubian kings requested that they might enjoy a reign as long as Alara's. His memory was also central to the origin myth of the Kushite kingdom, which was embellished with new elements over time. Alara was a deeply revered figure in Nubian culture and the first Kushite king whose name came down to scholars.
Senkamanisken was a Kushite King who ruled from 640 to 620 BC at Napata. He used royal titles based on those of the ancient Egyptian pharaohs.
Nuri is a place in modern Sudan on the west side of the Nile, near the Fourth Cataract. Nuri is situated about 15 km north of Sanam, and 10 km from Jebel Barkal.
Nubia is a region along the Nile river encompassing the confluence of the Blue and White Niles, and the area between the first cataract of the Nile or more strictly, Al Dabbah. It was the seat of one of the earliest civilizations of ancient Africa, the Kerma culture, which lasted from around 2500 BC until its conquest by the New Kingdom of Egypt under Pharaoh Thutmose I around 1500 BC, whose heirs ruled most of Nubia for the next 400 years. Nubia was home to several empires, most prominently the Kingdom of Kush, which conquered Egypt in the eighth century BC during the reign of Piye and ruled the country as its 25th Dynasty.
For other meanings of Kush, see Kush
El-Kurru was the first of the three royal cemeteries used by the Kushite royals of Napata, also referred to as Egypt's 25th Dynasty, and is home to some of the royal Nubian Pyramids. It is located between the 3rd and 4th cataracts of the Nile about 1 mile (1.6 km) west of the river in what is now Northern state, Sudan. El-Kurru was first excavated by George Reisner in 1918 and 1919 and after his death his assistant Dows Dunham took over his work and published the excavation report on El-Kurru in 1950. The El Kurru cemetery was primarily used from about 860 BC until 650 BC. The first tomb with a name attached to it is that of King Piye dating to about 750 BC, the sixteen earlier tombs possibly belong to Piye's royal predecessors. The last 25th dynasty king, Tantamani, was buried at El Kurru around 650 BC. The subsequent Napatan rulers chose to be buried at the royal cemetery at Nuri instead. However, in the mid-4th century the 20th king, whose name is unknown, chose to have his tomb, as well as that of his queen, built at El Kurru.
The Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt, also known as the Nubian Dynasty, the Kushite Empire, the Black Pharaohs, or the Napatans, after their capital Napata, was the last dynasty of the Third Intermediate Period of Egypt that occurred after the Kushite invasion.
The Temple of Amun is an archaeological site at Jebel Barkal in Northern State, Sudan. It is situated about 400 kilometres (250 mi) north of Khartoum near Karima. The temple stands near a large bend of the Nile River, in the region that was called Nubia in ancient times. The Temple of Amun, one of the largest temples at Jebel Barkal, is considered sacred to the local population. Not only was the Amun temple a main centre of what at one time was considered to be an almost universal religion, but, along with the other archaeological sites at Jebel Barkal, it was representative of the revival of Egyptian religious values. Up to the middle of the 19th century, the temple was subjected to vandalism, destruction, and indiscriminate plundering, before it came under state protection.
Nubia is a geographic and cultural region along the Nile River, stretching as far north as Aswan in southern Egypt upriver to the southern limit around the confluence of the Blue and White branches of the Nile River, near modern day Khartoum. Nubia was the seat of several civilizations of ancient Africa, including the Kerma culture, the Kingdom of Kush, Nobatia, Makuria and Alodia.
Kushite religion is the traditional belief system and pantheon of deities associated with the Ancient Kushites, who founded the Kingdom of Kush in the land of Nubia in present-day Sudan.
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