The intersection of disability and religion concerns the manner in which disabled people are treated within religious communities, the religious texts of those religions, or the general input from religious discourse on matters relating to disability. [1] Studies on the relationship between religion and disability vary widely, with some postulating the existence of ableism [2] and others viewing religion as a primary medium through which to assist disabled people. [3] Religious exhortation often prompts adherents to treat people with disabilities with deference, however when the disability constitutes a mental illness such an approach may be slanted with an acknowledgement of the latter's naivete. [4] In religions with an eschatological belief in divine judgment, there are often traditions promulgating an exemption from judgement in the afterlife for mentally disabled people, as well as for children who die before reaching maturity due to both lacking an understanding of their actions in a manner analogous to the insanity defense. [5] Regarding the rationale behind God's creation of disabled people, some religions maintain that their contrast with the non-disabled permits the non-disabled to reflect and God to subsequently assess the level of gratitude shown by each individual for their health. [6]
In the book, The Words of my Perfect Teacher by Patrul Rinpoche, the author states that the presence of a disability that impedes an understanding of the concept of dharma will prevent a person from being able to practice Buddhism. [7]
Most Buddhists believe that bad karma (which arises from immoral actions) is the cause of disability. [8] [9] [10] Buddhists also believe in showing compassion towards people less fortunate than themselves (known as songsarn), including towards disabled people, which is believed by Buddhists to help build their own good karma. [10] This has mixed consequences for people with disabilities living in predominantly Buddhist societies. In societies where Buddhism is the main religion practiced, Buddhists with disabilities have reported that other people have condescending attitudes towards them. [11] The emphasis on compassion has been linked with a reluctance to encourage independence and social participation in people with disabilities. [12] In Thailand, the World Bank reports that because of Buddhism's teachings on showing compassion towards the weak, people often donate money to beggars with disabilities or charities that help disabled people. The World Bank argues that while this kindness can be admirable, it does not promote equality for people with disabilities. [13]
Throughout the history of Christianity, attitudes towards disability have varied greatly.
While disability in general is not attributed to divine punishment in the Bible, there are instances where physical disability is portrayed as a punishment for sin. In the New Testament, Jesus is often shown performing miraculous healing those with disabilities. Some believe Jesus still referred to sin as the cause of physical disability. [14] The Bible makes no reference to intellectual disability [15] Contrast this perspective to Christ healing the man born blind (John 9:1-12), where Jesus challenged the view that disability was punishment for sin. "His disciples asked him, "Rabbi, who sinned, this man or his parents, that he was born blind?" Jesus replied: Neither this man nor his parents sinned," said Jesus, "but this happened so that the works of God might be displayed in him."
In the Middle Ages, there were two prevailing approaches to those with disabilities. Some priests and scholars took the view that disability was a punishment from God for committing sins, as is often described in the Bible. Others believed that those with disabilities were more pious than non-disabled people. [16] Furthermore, Martin Luther held the view that disability was caused by sin, and is recorded to have recommended to the Prince of Dessau that a young boy with disabilities be drowned. When this suggestion was rebuked, Luther told the prince that Christians should pray for the Devil to be removed from the boy every day. [17]
Disability is still linked with sin in some denominations of the church and in some cultures where Christianity is the predominant religion. [17] In Ghana, people with mental illnesses and neurological disorders are routinely sent to prayer camps that are linked with Evangelical and Pentecostal churches, to try to overcome their disorder. Prayer camps have been condemned by Human Rights Watch because of the way that people in prayer camps are often treated. Human Rights Watch reports that people living in prayer camps are subject to being chained to objects for prolonged periods, being deprived of food and poor sanitation. [18] [19] Christians with disabilities also report feeling unwelcome when attending church. Many families of children with disabilities in the USA report feeling excluded from Church services because of the attitudes of other members of the congregation. [20]
On the other hand, some Christians feel that their faith means they have a duty to care for those with disabilities. [21] As well as this, the Archbishop of Canterbury, Justin Welby, has called for the church to become more accepting of those with disabilities. [22]
Ashtavakra who had eight physical deformities, was said to be the author of the Hindu religious text Ashtavakra Gita and was a revered Vedic sage. [23] He is shown to have triumphed over the scholars in King Janaka's court, who mocked his disabilities. [24] The 16th-century Hindu poet and singer Surdas, who was said to have composed more than 125,000 songs, is similarly revered as a great religious figure. [25] In ancient and medieval Hindu society, individuals with disabilities were considered for special employment jobs where their disability would be beneficial for their work; for example, kings who would hire persons with hearing and/or speech impairment to copy confidential government documents. [25]
The Bhagavad Gita emphasises detachment from the world and coming to view pain and suffering as neither positive or negative. In the case of suffering, while it brings discomfort, it can also be seen as a positive phenomenon, because it advances a person's spiritual development. [26] Hindu texts advocate that disabled people feeling hopeless should go forward in life with a positive manner and attitude by following Dharma. [27]
As with Buddhism, Hindus also believe that disability is caused by negative karma, but this is not imposed by an outside punitive force or God. [9] [28] Hinduism also views charitable actions, such as giving money to those in need, as a positive action that will help build a person's good karma for their next life. [29] Although disability can be treated as something that is very shameful societally, with some families confining disabled family members to the home, Hinduism stipulates that it is the Dharmic duty of all non-disabled individuals to care for those with a disability and extend charity to them. [30] In society, people with disabilities can also be pitied for their condition. [31]
In Islam, the cause of disability is not attributed to wrongdoing by the disabled person or their parents. Islam views disability as a challenge set by Allah. [32] The Qur'an urges people to treat people with intellectual disabilities with kindness and to protect people with disabilities. Muhammed is shown to treat disabled people with respect. [33]
In the early Islamic caliphate, Bayt al-mal was established to provide for money for people in need, which included disabled people, which was funded by zakat. [34]
In the 16th century, the Islamic scholar Ibn Fahd's book al-Nukat al-Zirâf argued that disability could be caused by disobeying a prophet and also be healed by prophets, although the books faced a widespread backlash at the time. [35]
In Saudi Arabia, there is a strong focus on equality for children and adults with special needs, which is based on Islam's views on disability. [33] Despite the Qur'an's teachings on treating disabled people with respect, some Muslim families report feelings of shame around having a disabled relative and refuse to allow a disabled person to participate in key aspects of Islam, such as attending the Mosque and fasting for Ramadan. [33]
In the Torah, disability is caused by Yahweh, as a punishment for transgressions. [36] Although, God also commands Jews in Israel to "not insult the deaf, or place a stumbling block before the blind". [37] As well as this, Halakha states that people should support sick people. [38]
A poll of American Jews with disabilities found that less than 1 in 5 Jews felt that Jewish institutions were doing "very well" or "extremely well" in including disabled people in community activities. [39] As well as this, Jewish day schools are exempt from the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act and the Americans with Disabilities Act. [39] In Israel, a study on the Haredi community found strong support for integrating children with disabilities into mainstream schools. [40]
Karma is an ancient Indian concept of action, work, or deed, and its effect or consequences. In Indian religions, the term more specifically refers to a principle of cause and effect, often descriptively called the principle of karma, wherein individuals' intent and actions (cause) influence their future (effect): Good intent and good deeds contribute to good karma and happier rebirths, while bad intent and bad deeds contribute to bad karma and bad rebirths. In some scriptures, however, there is no link between rebirth and karma. Karma is often misunderstood as fate, destiny, or predetermination.
Religious conversion is the adoption of a set of beliefs identified with one particular religious denomination to the exclusion of others. Thus "religious conversion" would describe the abandoning of adherence to one denomination and affiliating with another. This might be from one to another denomination within the same religion, for example, from Protestant Christianity to Roman Catholicism or from Sunnī Islam to Shīʿa Islam. In some cases, religious conversion "marks a transformation of religious identity and is symbolized by special rituals".
Reincarnation, also known as rebirth or transmigration, is the philosophical or religious concept that the non-physical essence of a living being begins a new life in a different physical form or body after biological death. In most beliefs involving reincarnation, the soul of a human being is immortal and does not disperse after the physical body has perished. Upon death, the soul merely becomes transmigrated into a newborn baby or an animal to continue its immortality. The term transmigration means the passing of a soul from one body to another after death.
Universalism is the philosophical and theological concept that some ideas have universal application or applicability.
Comparative religion is the branch of the study of religions with the systematic comparison of the doctrines and practices, themes and impacts of the world's religions. In general the comparative study of religion yields a deeper understanding of the fundamental philosophical concerns of religion such as ethics, metaphysics and the nature and forms of salvation. It also considers and compares the origins and similarities shared between the various religions of the world. Studying such material facilitates a broadened and more sophisticated understanding of human beliefs and practices regarding the sacred, numinous, spiritual and divine.
Religious nationalism can be understood in a number of ways, such as nationalism as a religion itself, a position articulated by Carlton Hayes in his text Nationalism: A Religion, or as the relationship of nationalism to a particular religious belief, dogma, ideology, or affiliation. This relationship can be broken down into two aspects: the politicisation of religion and the influence of religion on politics.
The Dalit Buddhist movement is a religious as well as a socio-political movement among Dalits in India which was started by B. R. Ambedkar. It re-interpreted Buddhism and created a new school of Buddhism called Navayana. The movement has sought to be a socially and politically engaged form of Buddhism.
Buddhism, also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion and philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It is the world's fourth-largest religion, with over 520 million followers, known as Buddhists, who comprise seven percent of the global population. Buddhism originated in the eastern Gangetic plain as a śramaṇa–movement in the 5th century BCE, and gradually spread throughout much of Asia via the Silk Road.
Merit is a concept considered fundamental to Buddhist ethics. It is a beneficial and protective force which accumulates as a result of good deeds, acts, or thoughts. Merit-making is important to Buddhist practice: merit brings good and agreeable results, determines the quality of the next life and contributes to a person's growth towards enlightenment. In addition, merit is also shared with a deceased loved one, in order to help the deceased in their new existence. Despite modernization, merit-making remains essential in traditional Buddhist countries and has had a significant impact on the rural economies in these countries.
Spiritual philosophy is any philosophy or teaching that pertains to spirituality. It may incorporate religious or esoteric themes. It can include any belief or thought system that embraces the existence of a reality that cannot be physically perceived. Concepts of spiritual philosophy are not universal and differ depending on one’s religious and cultural backgrounds. Spiritual philosophy can also be solely based on one’s personal and experiential connections.
Hinduism in Mongolia is a minority religion; it has few followers and only began to appear in Mongolia in the late twentieth century. According to the 2010 and 2011 Mongolian census, the majority of people that identify as religious follow Buddhism (86%), Shamanism (4.7), Islam (4.9%) or Christianity (3.5). Only 0.5% of the population follow other religions.
Criticism of Buddhism has taken numerous different forms, including philosophical and rational criticisms, but also criticism of praxis, such as that its practitioners act in ways contrary to Buddhist principles or that those principles systemically marginalize women. There are many sources of criticism, both ancient and modern, stemming from other religions, the non-religious, and other Buddhists.
Religion in Mongolia has been traditionally dominated by the schools of Mongolian Buddhism and by Mongolian shamanism, the ethnic religion of the Mongols. Historically, through their Mongol Empire the Mongols were exposed to the influences of Christianity and Islam, although these religions never came to dominate. During the communist period of the Mongolian People's Republic (1924–1992) all religions were suppressed, but with the transition to the parliamentary republic in the 1990s there has been a general revival of faiths.
Transfer of merit is a standard part of Buddhist spiritual discipline where the practitioner's merit, resulting from good deeds, is transferred to deceased relatives, to deities, or to all sentient beings.
The study of women and religion examines women in the context of different religious faiths. This includes considering female gender roles in religious history as well as how women participate in religion. Particular consideration is given to how religion has been used as a patriarchal tool to elevate the status and power of men over women. In addition, religion portrays gender within religious doctrines.
The relationship between religion and lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people can vary greatly across time and place, within and between different religions and sects, and regarding different forms of homosexuality, bisexuality, non-binary, and transgender identities. More generally, the relationship between religion and sexuality ranges widely among and within them, from giving sex and sexuality a rather negative connotation to believing that sex is the highest expression of the divine.
Secular Buddhism—sometimes also referred to as agnostic Buddhism, Buddhist agnosticism, ignostic Buddhism, atheistic Buddhism, pragmatic Buddhism, Buddhist atheism, or Buddhist secularism—is a broad term for a form of Buddhism based on humanist, skeptical, and agnostic values, valuing pragmatism and (often) naturalism, eschewing beliefs in the supernatural or paranormal. It can be described as the embrace of Buddhist rituals and philosophy for their secular benefits by people who are atheist or agnostic.
The representation of disability in children's literature is a matter of scholarly research, and has been a relevant subject particularly since the 1970s. However, disability representation is still a modern issue. A 2011 World Report on Disability conducted by the World Health Organization found that around 15% of the global population, 1 billion people, have a disability, yet in 2019 only 3.4% of children's books had disabled main characters. The quality of disability representation can vary depending on the specific disability portrayed. Even though society has included more diverse characters with disabilities, this representation must be handled with care to avoid promoting existing negative stereotypes.
Disability is poorly documented in the Middle Ages, though disabled people constituted a large part of Medieval society as part of the peasantry, clergy, and nobility. Very little was written or recorded about a general disabled community at the time, but their existence has been preserved through religious texts and some medical journals.
Crip, slang for cripple, is a term in the process of being reclaimed by disabled people. Wright State University suggests that the current community definition of crip includes people who experience any form of disability, such as one or more impairments with physical, mental, learning, and sensory, though the term primarily targets physical and mobility impairment. People might identify as a crip for many reasons. Some of these reasons are to show pride, to talk about disability rights, or avoid ranking types of disability.