Disability studies in education

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Disability studies in education (DSE) is a field of academic study concerned with education research and practice related to disability. DSE scholars promote an understanding of disability from a social model of disability perspective to "challenge social, medical, and psychological models of disability as they relate to education". [1] A DSE perspective situates disability within social and political context and is concerned with the civil and human rights of students with disabilities, including issues of equity, access, and inclusion in educational settings, curricula, and activities.

Contents

DSE emerged as a part of the broader, interdisciplinary field of disability studies and as a critique of special education (SPED), which aims to enhance individuals with disabilities' performance by focusing on changing their given educational environments and the limitations placed on them to foster growth and opportunities. SPED focuses on improving outcomes for individuals with disabilities without stigmatizing them with hopes of building a society that is more accepting of individuals with disabilities. [2] By contrast, DSE proponents argue that education should be inclusive of students with and without disabilities to best foster awareness and understanding of disabilities. SPED lacks the challenge of the social model of disability, which is seen in DSE. [2]

DSE is one manifestation of the disability rights movement. Its roots are in the United States, but its effects may be felt globally. [3] With the entry into force of the UN's Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, issues underpinning DSE can extend to efforts to hold states accountable for failure to serve a range of disability communities. [4]

History

DSE became more prominent around the 1990s when educators became leaders within the Society for Disability Studies (SDS) and research became more visible in the United States (U.S.) disability studies community. The SDS became a place in the U.S. that was labelled as the "clearinghouse of disability studies", and also held conferences and had a journal named, Disability Studies Quarterly. [5] At the forefront of the SDS was three members in the Disability Studies in Education, Phil Ferguson, Susan Gabel, and Susan Peters. [5] In the 1990s, these three individuals were highly active in the disability studies realm, keeping the connection between educational research visible within the disability studies community in the United States. In the late 1990s, DSE became more popular in Europe, Australia, and New Zealand. [6]

Some recognize the expansion and formalization of Disability Studies in education were caused by a small international conference funded by the Spencer Foundation and hosted by Linda Ware. This 1999 conference challenged the way the current ideology had decreased inclusive education and criticized the special education system. [7] Also in 1999, Scot Danforth submitted a proposal titled Ways of Constructing Lives and Disabilities: The Case for Open Inquiry to the national conference of The Association for Persons With Severe Handicaps (TASH). This led to questions being asked about why research is important and then the expansion of what is considered legitimate research in special education journals, conferences, etc. [8] It also led to new ways that ideate a different way of educating students with disabilities. [9] Susan Gabel and Linda Ware insisted on affiliating special education with the academic discipline, Disability Studies. From there, Disability Studies in education strengthened as its own discipline. [7]

Foundations

DSE scholarship is based on a social conception of disability that identifies barriers, attitudes, and actions that serve to systematically exclude individuals with disabilities society. These may include lack of resources for students and knowledge on how to effectively teach individuals with disabilities. [10] It is a reaction to the dominant medical model of disability which positions people with disabilities as having limitations outside of the "normal" or typical boundaries that require remediation and intervention. Examples of the medical model may look like professionals in an individualized education plan (IEP) being the authority. Their goal is to fix the disability or "normalize" the individual. [11] DSE has its origins in sociological theories of deviance, social stigma [12] [13] [14] and labeling theory [15] [16] [17] as social construction. [18] By 1970, there emerged critiques of labeling in special education, now referred to as ableism. [19] Ableism is combated in schools through educators recognizing and challenging the idea of normalcy, as well as integrating individualizing programs that both recognize disability while creating learning opportunities in order to foster participation in the classroom with peers. [20]

The social model of disability positions physical, intellectual, psychological, sensory, and emotional variations as natural and therefore requires societal changes in the response to those variations. The problem therefore resides not within the individual with impairments, but in the attitudes toward and treatment of people with disabilities. A DSE perspective is grounded in the belief that a collective social response to disability has resulted in systematic inequality, marginalization, discrimination, and oppression. There is also the recognition that disability is both a form of individuation and group identification. Because individual identities are complex and intersect with other identity categories (i.e. race, gender, social class, sexual orientation), there are varied ways that individuals may identify themselves as disabled. DSE can be supported by laws that make discrimination against people with disabilities illegal (i.e. Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973). [21]

Issues

DSE is concerned with critical issues concerning the education of people identified as disabled. Central questions of concern to DSE scholars are:

  1. What is an appropriate education for students with disabilities?
  2. What are criticisms of the medical model of disability in education?
  3. What counts as research and inquiry?
  4. What is inclusion and who is included?

Appropriate education for students with disabilities

DSE scholars promote academic activism in that they seek to counter the dominant discourse of the disabled student as deficient and abnormal. They criticize special education as an inadequate response to disability which seeks to remediate the individual in order for them to fit in with the norm. [22] They promote a social justice perspective in which the purpose of education is to accept and care for all students. [23] When putting a label on what is appropriate versus what is not can be hard to navigate without knowing the definition. An appropriate education for students with disabilities can be defined under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act as Free Appropriate Public Education (FAPE). [24] This includes education services that meet the individual's needs on the same level as non-disabled students. Keeping the needs of the child at the forefront of the educational plan is essential in creating an appropriate education. It also includes being in the least restrictive environment possible. Creating an appropriate education plan for students with disabilities, services should be designed in order to meet the individual's education needs while also not being physically excluded from a mainstream focus. [25] This also mean that a student with disabilities should receive the same quality of education services as a non-disabled student would. There also needs to be periodic Individualized Education Program (IEP) meetings with the IEP team where reevaluation takes place. The parents or guardians have legal rights to be involved, review records, and challenge placement or other IEP decisions. [24] Lastly, a student with disabilities should be able to participate or experience nonacademic services and extracurricular activities, like P.E., transportation, and groups or clubs sponsored by the school. [25]

Criticisms of the medical model in education

Using the medical model of disability in education is heavily criticized by DSE scholars. [26] The medical model of disability assumes that someone's disability limits their autonomy and therefore needs to be fixed/cured. In education, it is the responsibility of the student to work hard to fix/cure their disability and not society's responsibility to remove barriers. [26] Although it is the responsibility of the student to work towards "normalcy", they are not the authority. The professionals take the authoritative role over the caregivers/student and if the professionals believe that they cannot be "fixed", it may lead to social and/or educational exclusion. [27] Exclusion is a consequence of the medical model because it emphasizes the "sick role" that perpetuates stigmatizing attitudes towards students with disabilities. [28] In actuality, these same attitudes are misguided because many learning disabilities are not caused by biological factors and most do not need constant medical services. [29]

Research and inquiry

DSE scholars challenge research methodologies that serve to objectify, marginalize, and oppress disabled people. They promote research that is created by and accountable to disabled people, rather than portraying them as subjects. They recognize the value of interdisciplinary approaches within and outside the educational field and promote interaction among researchers from a variety of disciplinary perspectives. Research on DSE depends on who is telling their story, and who is being recorded in the research. The research is not intended to exclude some voices of the disability community, but to amplify all voices to share their stories. Research in DSE holds power because it can be used as a tool for others in society who deserve equity, inclusion, and dignity. [30] In DSE research there is no evidence to claim the research is scientific. Most of the research is made up of beliefs and assumptions. This is because researches are not free from theory free observation, thus causing observations to be influenced. [30] Scientific research procedures can objectify people with disabilities because they are looked at as subjects instead of people. [30]

Defining inclusion

A DSE perspective foregrounds the interests and voices of disabled students in their education. DSE scholars reject deficit models of disability and assume that all children have the right to equitable, full, and meaningful access to educational opportunities. [31] [32] At the same time, DSE scholars understand that special education ≠ inclusive education ≠ disability studies in education. When defining inclusion in the classroom, there is not a set definition. Rather, it is seen as more of a policy that has been created in the education realm for the integration of disabled and non-disabled children. [33] When creating this outlook on inclusion, it was seen more as a teaching based approach rather than integrating disability into education. This teaching based approach can be supported by inclusive curriculum in which intersectionality is both taught and celebrated. Through understanding disabilities at the intersection of race, gender, sexuality, etc., students are likely to relate to the curriculum as well as feel represented, thus fostering a deeper understanding of what inclusivity means in terms of identity and disability. [31]

Inclusion was not something that was always accepted. There have been significant historical events that have helped create inclusive education environments. Some early attempts at creating an inclusive education stemmed from the United States Supreme Court decision Brown v. Board of Education in 1954, which prohibited racially segregated public education. [34] While this ruling did not directly affect the disability community, it ruled segregation in schools as unconstitutional, making a start to the inclusion of all students in the classroom. Next was the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, more specifically Section 504, under which people with disabilities were now included in the United States civil rights. This allowed for accommodations that granted full participation and inclusion in schools. [34] Section 504 forced schools to foster a more inclusive environment and made sure that students with disabilities were granted similar opportunities, benefits, and achievements as students with disabilities. [34] Section 504 has a large impact on the education and inclusion of people with disabilities and continues to be followed.

Related Research Articles

The three models of deafness are rooted in either social or biological sciences. These are the cultural model, the social model, and themedicalmodel. The model through which the deaf person is viewed can impact how they are treated as well as their own self perception. In the cultural model, the Deaf belong to a culture in which they are neither infirm nor disabled, but rather have their own fully grammatical and natural language. In the medical model, deafness is viewed undesirable, and it is to the advantage of the individual as well as society as a whole to "cure" this condition. The social model seeks to explain difficulties experienced by deaf individuals that are due to their environment.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Disability</span> Impairments, activity limitations, and participation restrictions

Disability is the experience of any condition that makes it more difficult for a person to do certain activities or have equitable access within a given society. Disabilities may be cognitive, developmental, intellectual, mental, physical, sensory, or a combination of multiple factors. Disabilities can be present from birth or can be acquired during a person's lifetime. Historically, disabilities have only been recognized based on a narrow set of criteria—however, disabilities are not binary and can be present in unique characteristics depending on the individual. A disability may be readily visible, or invisible in nature.

Special education is the practice of educating students in a way that accommodates their individual differences, disabilities, and special needs. This involves the individually planned and systematically monitored arrangement of teaching procedures, adapted equipment and materials, and accessible settings. These interventions are designed to help individuals with special needs achieve a higher level of personal self-sufficiency and success in school and in their community, which may not be available if the student were only given access to a typical classroom education.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Neurodiversity</span> Non-pathological explanation of variations in mental functions

The neurodiversity paradigm is a framework for understanding human brain function that recognizes the diversity within sensory processing, motor abilities, social comfort, cognition, and focus as neurobiological differences. The neurodiversity paradigm argues that diversity in human cognition is normal and that some conditions generally classified as disorders, such as autism, are differences and disabilities that are not necessarily pathological.

People with disabilities in the United States are a significant minority group, making up a fifth of the overall population and over half of Americans older than eighty. There is a complex history underlying the U.S. and its relationship with its disabled population, with great progress being made in the last century to improve the livelihood of disabled citizens through legislation providing protections and benefits. Most notably, the Americans with Disabilities Act is a comprehensive anti-discrimination policy that works to protect Americans with disabilities in public settings and the workplace.

Disability studies is an academic discipline that examines the meaning, nature, and consequences of disability. Initially, the field focused on the division between "impairment" and "disability", where impairment was an impairment of an individual's mind or body, while disability was considered a social construct. This premise gave rise to two distinct models of disability: the social and medical models of disability. In 1999 the social model was universally accepted as the model preferred by the field. However, in recent years, the division between the social and medical models has been challenged. Additionally, there has been an increased focus on interdisciplinary research. For example, recent investigations suggest using "cross-sectional markers of stratification" may help provide new insights on the non-random distribution of risk factors capable of exacerbating disablement processes. Such risk factors can be acute or chronic stressors, which can increase cumulative risk factors The decline of immune function with age and decrease of inter-personal relationships which can impact cognitive function with age.

An Individualized Education Program (IEP) is a legal document under United States law that is developed for each public school child in the U.S. who needs special education. It is created through a team of the child's parent(s), the student and district personnel who are knowledgeable about the child's needs. IEPs must be reviewed every year to keep track of the child's educational progress.

Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is an educational framework based on research in the learning theory, including cognitive neuroscience, that guides the development of flexible learning environments and learning spaces that can accommodate individual learning differences.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mainstreaming (education)</span> Placing disabled students in regular classrooms

Mainstreaming, in the context of education, is the practice of placing students with special education needs in a general education classroom during specific time periods based on their skills. This means students who are a part of the special education classroom will join the regular education classroom at certain times which are fitting for the special education student. These students may attend art or physical education in the regular education classrooms. Sometimes these students will attend math and science in a separate classroom, but attend English in a general education classroom. Schools that practice mainstreaming believe that students with special needs who cannot function in a general education classroom to a certain extent belong in the special education environment.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Inclusion (education)</span> Where disabled students spend most of their time with non-disabled students

Inclusion in education refers to including all students to equal access to equal opportunities of education and learning, and is distinct from educational equality or educational equity. It arose in the context of special education with an individualized education program or 504 plan, and is built on the notion that it is more effective for students with special needs to have the said mixed experience for them to be more successful in social interactions leading to further success in life. The philosophy behind the implementation of the inclusion model does not prioritize, but still provides for the utilization of special classrooms and special schools for the education of students with disabilities. Inclusive education models are brought into force by educational administrators with the intention of moving away from seclusion models of special education to the fullest extent practical, the idea being that it is to the social benefit of general education students and special education students alike, with the more able students serving as peer models and those less able serving as motivation for general education students to learn empathy.

In the United States, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) is a special education law that mandates regulation for students with disabilities to protect their rights as students and the rights of their parents. The IDEA requires that all students receive a Free and Appropriate Public Education (FAPE), and that these students should be educated in the least restrictive environment (LRE). To determine what an appropriate setting is for a student, an Individualized Education Plan (IEP) team will review the student's strengths, weaknesses, and needs, and consider the educational benefits from placement in any particular educational setting. By law the team is required to include the student's parent or guardian, a general education teacher, a special education teacher, a representative of the local education agency, someone to interpret evaluation results and, if appropriate, the student. It is the IEP team's responsibility to determine what environment is the LRE for any given student with disabilities, which varies between every student. The goal of an IEP is to create the LRE for that student to learn in. For some students, mainstream inclusion in a standard classroom may be an appropriate setting whereas other students may need to be in a special education classroom full time, but many students fall somewhere within this spectrum. Students may also require supplementary aids and services to achieve educational goals while being placed in a classroom with students without disabilities, these resources are provided as needed. The LRE for a student is less of a physical location, and more of a concept to ensure that the student is receiving the services that they need to be successful.

In clinical diagnostic and functional development, special needs refers to individuals who require assistance for disabilities that may be medical, mental, or psychological. Guidelines for clinical diagnosis are given in both the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders and the International Classification of Diseases 9th edition. Special needs can range from people with autism, cerebral palsy, Down syndrome, dyslexia, dyscalculia, dyspraxia, dysgraphia, blindness, deafness, ADHD, and cystic fibrosis. They can also include cleft lips and missing limbs. The types of special needs vary in severity, and a student with a special need is classified as being a severe case when the student's IQ is between 20 and 35. These students typically need assistance in school, and have different services provided for them to succeed in a different setting.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Inclusion (disability rights)</span> The fair incorporation of persons with disabilities in society

Inclusion, in relation to persons with disabilities, is defined as including individuals with disabilities in everyday activities and ensuring they have access to resources and opportunities in ways that are similar to their non-disabled peers. Disability rights advocates define true inclusion as results-oriented, rather than focused merely on encouragement. To this end, communities, businesses, and other groups and organizations are considered inclusive if people with disabilities do not face barriers to participation and have equal access to opportunities and resources.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Learning disability</span> Range of neurodevelopmental conditions

Learning disability, learning disorder, or learning difficulty is a condition in the brain that causes difficulties comprehending or processing information and can be caused by several different factors. Given the "difficulty learning in a typical manner", this does not exclude the ability to learn in a different manner. Therefore, some people can be more accurately described as having a "learning difference", thus avoiding any misconception of being disabled with a possible lack of an ability to learn and possible negative stereotyping. In the United Kingdom, the term "learning disability" generally refers to an intellectual disability, while conditions such as dyslexia and dyspraxia are usually referred to as "learning difficulties".

The term twice exceptional, often abbreviated as 2e, entered educators' lexicons in the mid-1990s and refers to gifted students who have some form of learning or developmental disability. These students are considered exceptional both because of their giftedness and because they are disabled or neurodivergent. Ronksley-Pavia (2015) presents a conceptual model of the co-occurrence of disability and giftedness.

A resource room is a type of support for students with disabilities in need of special education that allows them to be leave their general education classroom placement and go to another location for targeted instructional support. It is one of many support options for special education students around the world to help meet their needs and serves as a transition stage between a self-contained classroom and a general education classroom for special education students. In the resource room, students work with a special education teacher or aide in either a small group or individual instruction.

Ableism is discrimination and social prejudice against people with physical or mental disabilities. Ableism characterizes people as they are defined by their disabilities and it also classifies disabled people as people who are inferior to non-disabled people. On this basis, people are assigned or denied certain perceived abilities, skills, or character orientations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Youth and disability</span>

Approximately 180-220 million young people live with disabilities globally, with 80% living in the developing world, therefore lacking access to education, healthcare and employment [1]. Disability includes physical, mental or mental illness. Many young people live a healthy and stable life, although people with disabilities may have more obstacles than those without because of their possible limitations, created by physical weakness and social incapacity..

Co-teaching or team teaching is the division of labor between educators to plan, organize, instruct and make assessments on the same group of students, generally in the a common classroom, and often with a strong focus on those teaching as a team complementing one another's particular skills or other strengths. This approach can be seen in several ways. Teacher candidates who are learning to become teachers are asked to co-teach with experienced associate teachers, whereby the classroom responsibilities are shared, and the teacher candidate can learn from the associate teacher. Regular classroom teachers and special education teachers can be paired in co-teaching relationships to benefit inclusion of students with special needs.

Inclusive Classroom is a term used within American pedagogy to describe a classroom in which all students, irrespective of their abilities or skills, are welcomed holistically. It is built on the notion that being in a non-segregated classroom will better prepare special-needs students for later life. In the United States, the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 guaranteed civil rights to disabled people, though inclusion of disabled students progressed slowly until the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, after which almost half of US students with disabilities were soon in general classrooms.

References

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  2. 1 2 Baglieri, Susan; Valle, Jan W.; Connor, David J.; Gallagher, Deborah J. (2010-03-05). "Disability Studies in Education: The Need for a Plurality of Perspectives on Disability". Remedial and Special Education. 32 (4): 267–278. doi:10.1177/0741932510362200. S2CID   145088100.
  3. ↑ "History of Disability Studies in Education". Hunter College . Retrieved 2022-02-22.
  4. ↑ Lord, Phil (2020). "Access to Inclusive Education for Students with Autism: An Analysis of Canada's Compliance with the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities". Canadian Journal of Disability Studies. 20 (5): 328–346. doi: 10.15353/cjds.v9i5.700 . S2CID   234554813.
  5. 1 2 "History of Disability Studies in Education — Hunter College". www.hunter.cuny.edu. Retrieved 2020-12-13.
  6. ↑ "History of Disability Studies in Education — Hunter College". www.hunter.cuny.edu. Retrieved 2020-12-02.
  7. 1 2 Connor, David (2014-03-18). "The Disability Studies in Education Annual Conference: Explorations of Working Within, and Against, Special Education". Disability Studies Quarterly. 34 (2). doi: 10.18061/dsq.v34i2.4257 . ISSN   2159-8371.
  8. ↑ Baglieri, Susan; Valle, Jan W.; Connor, David J.; Gallagher, Deborah J. (2011). "Disability Studies in Education: The Need for a Plurality of Perspectives on Disability". Remedial and Special Education. 32 (4): 267–278. doi:10.1177/0741932510362200. ISSN   0741-9325. S2CID   145088100.
  9. ↑ Rubinoff, Teri Seyna (2017-04-03). "Reimagining Teacher Education's Response to Disability: From Summer Courses in Auxiliary Education to Disability Studies".{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  10. ↑ Carroll, J. M., Pattison, E., Muller, C., Sutton, A. (2020), "Bachelor's Degree Completion among College Students with a Disability", Sociological Perspectives, vol. 63, no. 5, Sage Journals, pp. 809–832, doi:10.1177/0731121420908896, PMC   8009488 , PMID   33795909 {{citation}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  11. ↑ Haegele, Justin Anthony; Hodge, Samuel (2016-03-09). "Disability Discourse: Overview and Critiques of the Medical and Social Models". Quest. 68 (2): 193–206. doi:10.1080/00336297.2016.1143849. ISSN   0033-6297. S2CID   148290920.
  12. ↑ Scambler, Graham (2009). "Health-related stigma". Sociology of Health & Illness. 31 (3): 441–455. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9566.2009.01161.x . PMID   19366430. S2CID   37994054.
  13. ↑ Bos, Arjan E. R.; Pryor, John B.; Reeder, Glenn D.; Stutterheim, Sarah E. (2013). "Stigma: Advances in Theory and Research". Basic and Applied Social Psychology. 35 (1): 1–9. doi:10.1080/01973533.2012.746147. ISSN   0197-3533. S2CID   143209417.
  14. ↑ Fitch, E. Frank (2002). "Disability and Inclusion: From Labeling Deviance to Social Valuing". Educational Theory. 52 (4): 463–477. doi:10.1111/j.1741-5446.2002.00463.x. ISSN   0013-2004.
  15. ↑ Shifrer, Dara (2013). "Stigma of a Label: Educational Expectations for High School Students Labeled with Learning Disabilities". Journal of Health and Social Behavior. 54 (4): 462–480. doi: 10.1177/0022146513503346 . ISSN   0022-1465. PMID   24311756.
  16. ↑ Smith, Ronald W.; Osborne, Lynn T.; Crim, D.; Rhu, Anne H. (2016). "Labeling Theory as Applied to Learning Disabilities: Survey Findings and Policy Suggestions". Journal of Learning Disabilities. 19 (4): 195–202. doi:10.1177/002221948601900403. ISSN   0022-2194. PMID   3701212. S2CID   22430142.
  17. ↑ Bernburg, Jón Gunnar (2019), Krohn, Marvin D.; Hendrix, Nicole; Penly Hall, Gina; Lizotte, Alan J. (eds.), "Labeling Theory", Handbook on Crime and Deviance, Handbooks of Sociology and Social Research, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 179–196, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-20779-3_10, ISBN   978-3-030-20778-6 , retrieved 2020-11-19
  18. ↑ Conrad, Peter; Barker, Kristin K. (2010). "The Social Construction of Illness: Key Insights and Policy Implications". Journal of Health and Social Behavior. 51 (1_suppl): S67–S79. doi: 10.1177/0022146510383495 . ISSN   0022-1465. PMID   20943584. S2CID   30019119.
  19. ↑ Gabel, S. L. (2005). Disability studies in education: Readings in theory and method (Vol. 3). Peter Lang.
  20. ↑ "Confronting Ableism - Educational Leadership". www.ascd.org. Archived from the original on 2021-02-04. Retrieved 2020-12-11.
  21. ↑ "Section 504, Rehabilitation Act of 1973 | U.S. Department of Labor". www.dol.gov. Retrieved 2020-11-12.
  22. ↑ Michailakis, Dimitris; Reich, Wendelin (2009). "Dilemmas of inclusive education". Alter. 3 (1): 24–44. doi: 10.1016/j.alter.2008.10.001 .
  23. ↑ Pearson, Holly (2016-05-26). "The impact of Disability Studies curriculum on education professionals' perspectives and practice: Implications for education, social justice, and social change". Disability Studies Quarterly. 36 (2). doi: 10.18061/dsq.v36i2.4406 . ISSN   2159-8371.
  24. 1 2 U.S. Department of Education. "Free Appropriate Public Education for Students With Disabilities: Requirements Under Section 504 of The Rehabilitation Act of 1973". ED.gov.
  25. 1 2 "Free Appropriate Public Education under Section 504". www2.ed.gov. Retrieved 2020-12-13.
  26. 1 2 Dalkilic, Maryam & Vadeboncoeur, Jennifer A. (2016). Re-framing Inclusive Education Through the Capability Approach: An Elaboration of the Model of Relational Inclusion. Global Education Review,3(3), 122-137.
  27. ↑ Bunbury, Stephen (2019-02-28). "Unconscious bias and the medical model: How the social model may hold the key to transformative thinking about disability discrimination". International Journal of Discrimination and the Law . 19: 26–47. doi: 10.1177/1358229118820742 .
  28. ↑ Reindal, Solveig Magnus (2008-05-01). "A social relational model of disability: a theoretical framework for special needs education?". European Journal of Special Needs Education. 23 (2): 135–146. doi:10.1080/08856250801947812. ISSN   0885-6257. S2CID   144921640.
  29. ↑ Massoumeh, Zandi; Leila, Jamshidi (2012-01-01). "An Investigation of Medical Model and Special Education Methods". Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences. 4th WORLD CONFERENCE ON EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES (WCES-2012) 02-05 February 2012 Barcelona, Spain. 46: 5802–5804. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.06.518 . ISSN   1877-0428.
  30. 1 2 3 Baglieri, Susan; Valle, Jan W.; Connor, David J.; Gallagher, Deborah J. (2010-03-05). "Disability Studies in Education". Remedial and Special Education. 32 (4): 267–278. doi:10.1177/0741932510362200. ISSN   0741-9325. S2CID   145088100.
  31. 1 2 Connor, David J.; Gabel, Susan L.; Gallagher, Deborah J.; Morton, Missy (2008-09-01). "Disability studies and inclusive education — implications for theory, research, and practice". International Journal of Inclusive Education. 12 (5–6): 441–457. doi:10.1080/13603110802377482. ISSN   1360-3116. S2CID   145647216.
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  33. ↑ Hodkinson, Alan (2011-01-01). "Inclusion: A Defining Definition?". Power and Education. 3 (2): 179–185. doi: 10.2304/power.2011.3.2.179 .
  34. 1 2 3 "What is Inclusive Education? | Maryland Coalition for Inclusive Education". www.mcie.org. Retrieved 2020-12-13.

[1]

  1. ↑ Rubinoff, Teri (2017-07-27). Reimagining Teacher Education's Response to Disability: From Summer Courses in Auxiliary Education to Disability Studies (PhD thesis). York University. Retrieved 2024-03-25.
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