Peyote roadA peyote set such as this is used by the medicine man during the peyote ritual.Peyote ceremony tipi
Historically, many denominations of mainstream Christianity attempted to convert Native Americans to Christianity in the Western Hemisphere. These efforts were partially successful, because the religious practices, including those of the Native American Church, of many Native American tribes reflect Christian creeds. Although conversion to Christianity was a slow process, the tenets of the Native American Church were more readily accepted.[10]
Originally formed in the Oklahoma Territory, the Native American Church is monotheistic, believing in a supreme being called the Great Spirit. It was officially created in 1918.[2] The tenets of the Native American Church regard peyote as a sacred and holy sacrament and use it as a means to communicate with the Great Spirit (God), also referred to as the Creator.[10]
Beliefs of the church
Disease and death are believed to be a result of an imbalance in the individual. Besides peyote, other sacred plants, prayer, and fasting are used to cure this imbalance. Use of peyote is never for recreational purposes and the hallucinogenic effects of the plant are considered spiritual visions. To most Native Americans, visions are a communion with the metaphysical. However, not every member experiences hallucinogenic effects during peyote rituals. The plant is meant to heal or fix social, personal, and communal problems. Members believe the plant is safe for children and pregnant women.[11]
Relationship to Christianity
Some Native Americans dislike the beliefs of Christianity because of the history between natives and European Christian groups. Missionaries' attempts to alter or remove aspects of American Natives' heritage and culture have left many unable to reconcile with Christianity. On the other hand, some members are comfortable with a syncretic spiritual way that combines their Indigenous ways with some aspects of Christianity. The church included Protestant characteristics in its formation.[12]
Sects and differing traditions
There are multiple sects or traditions, or "ways" within the Native American Church. Two main ones are the Half-Moon way and the Cross-fire way. The Half-Moon way was introduced in 1914 or 1924, by James Seymour, who was a part of the Winnebago tribe. There are multiple differences between the Cross-fire way and the Half-Moon way.[13] In the Cross-fire way, a Bible is placed on an altar, baptism is practiced, and a minister is present. While in the Half-Moon way, no Bible is used, baptism is not practiced, and ministers are not present.[13] Many Cross-fire adherents, such as the Dakota Cross-fire and Winnebago Cross-fire members, strongly oppose the use of tobacco and smoking in rituals and ceremonies.[14] This seems to stem from the opposition at the time of many Protestant sects to the use of tobacco rather than being influenced by just one sect, such as the Jehovah Witnesses.[14] Historically, peyotists in the Winnebago and Wilson moon tribes preached in meetings, prophesied, and performed baptisms.[14]
Menomini Peyotism
Historically, Peyotism among the Menominee people is unique. Prayers were said in Menomini and ended with "In the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost. Amen" (this may be said in the Menomini version or in English), taken from the Trinitarian Baptismal Formula. Christian symbols were apparent in prayers, speeches, as well as paraphernalia. Catholicism was familiar, and many Catholic beliefs and practices were incorporated as a result of years of Catholic missionaries; however so, Protestantism has definitely had an influence.[15]
Differences in fireplaces
In the Native American Church, there are two main umbrella fireplaces (ceremonial peyote altars passed down generationally from family) that are conducted: the Half-Moon fireplace and the Cross-Fire fireplace.[16]
Half-Moon fireplace:
Uses a half-moon shaped sand altar, the color of sand and size used varying between tribes
Uses tobacco and corn-shucks during main sections of the service
Coal design patterns differ from tribe to tribe during the service
Staff is passed around the tipi during singing sections
Main four ceremonial songs sung
Cross-Fire fireplace:
Uses a horseshoe shaped sand altar, with a corresponding mound outside of the tipi parallel to the firepit – to represent the "grave of Jesus Christ"[16]
No tobacco used
Staff is placed upright in the ground and does not get passed around the ceremony during singing sections
Bible sections are recited and used according to the family's prayer for the particular service
Cross design within the coals to represent certain elements of Jesus Christ
Mainly Christian peyote songs sung, with the main four ceremonial songs appended to the Cross-fire
There are many variations of each fireplace, and they depend greatly on tribe and environment. There are also special fireplaces that do not fit exactly into either main style, so the above list is not definitive.
National organizational structure
Within the United States, there are two main umbrella chapters of the Native American Church:
Native American Church of the United States – the original 1913 charter enabled in Oklahoma territory. All chapters with this designation have no blood quantum requirements to attend ceremonies and all races, generally, are welcome. Most tribes that adopted the NAC early have an original chapter enacted with this charter.[16]
Native American Church of North America – an offshoot that originates from the late 1960s, the NAC of North America only allows Native Americans with a blood quantum of 1/4 or more to attend. This is enforced by tribal police via checking Certificates of Degree of Indian or Alaska Native Blood (CDIBs) and NAC membership cards. While in the minority nationally, major community figures in the peyote world are actively involved and defend its decision to only allow Native Americans to attend.[16]
There are other tribal-specific offshoots of both umbrella chapters, notably the Navajo, with major chapters in both states representing both the original charter and the NAC of North America.
Ceremony and roles
Followers of the Native American Church have differing ceremonies, celebrations, and ways of practicing their religion. For example, among the Lakota, the Cross-fire group uses the Bible for sermons, which the Half-Moon followers reject, even though they each teach a similar Christian morality.[4] Ceremonies commonly last all night, beginning Saturday evening and ending early Sunday morning. Scripture reading, prayer, singing, and drumming are included.[2] In general, the Native American Church believes in one supreme God, the Great Spirit, and the Trinity (God, Jesus, and the Holy Ghost), which is represented by the three leaders present in Half-Moon rituals.[17]
Ceremonies are generally held in a tipi and services must be conducted by a priest, pastor, or elder, known as the Roadman.[10] The Roadman is assisted by a Fireman, who cares for the holy fireplace, ensuring it burns consistently all night. The Roadman may use a prayer staff, a beaded and feathered gourd, a small drum, cedar, and his eagle feather to conduct services. The Roadman's wife or other female relative prepares four sacramental foods and the "second breakfast" that are part of the church services. Her part takes place very early, between 4:30 and 5:00 in the morning. The four sacramental foods are water, shredded beef or "sweet meat," corn mush, and a variety of berries. The sweet foods were added later to counterbalance the bitterness of the peyote consumed during the services. The second breakfast is like a typical American breakfast. It generally includes boiled eggs, toast, hash brown potatoes, coffee, and juice. This meal is served well after sunrise and just prior to the closing of the church services.
Church services are not regular Sunday occurrences but are conducted upon special request by a family, whether to celebrate a birthday, or hold a memorial or funeral service. Services begin at sundown on a Friday or Saturday evening and end at sunrise. Thus, a participant "sits up" all night, giving up a full night's rest as part of a small sacrifice to the Holy Spirit and Jesus.[10]
The church service ends the following day with a feast for the whole community, attended by all the participating members who are wide awake due to peyote, a stimulant. They generally do not feel the need to sleep until late afternoon, particularly after the feast. The sponsoring family the gives gifts to the Roadman and all his helpers to show their deep appreciation for their work.[10]
Common reasons for holding a service include the desire to cure illness, birthday celebrations, Christian holidays (such as Easter or Christmas), school graduations, and other significant life events.[18]
Music
Music during prayer services consists of the singer with his gourd rattle staff and the water-drummer with his water-drum. The singer sings four songs, concludes his set, and passes the staff, gourd, and drum to the next relative to sing.
There are only two musical instruments used in an authentic Native American Church prayer service:
Peyote gourd rattle – a gourd rattle made of wood (beaded and non-beaded), raw gourd shell, and sea stones used to sing peyote songs throughout the service. The wood is usually strong, hard-wood like Gabon ebony and Bodark to produce the appropriate tune for the rattle.
Water drum – a metal drum (usually cast-iron, brass or aluminum) filled with water and tied down with marbles/stones with an appropriate animal hide. When tied correctly, it produces a deep tone that can be manipulated with the thumb on the hide to change the sound as a relative is singing.[16]
Peyote songs of the Native American Church are in the peyote language, which parallels words in the Coahuilteco and Comecrudo languages of South Texas.[19] This language makes up all peyote songs sung around all fireplaces, no matter what tribe or denomination nationally.[16] The language was introduced by the Carrizo and Coahuiltecan people of South Texas[19] and is what people consider "straight" peyote songs.[citation needed]
That being said, many tribes incorporate their own language into peyote songs, which will assign that particular song to one particular tribe, instead of it being represented in an intertribal way as a "straight" song.[citation needed]
Artwork
Along with the founding of the Native American Church came new artwork and art techniques. European trade materials such as beads and metal were incorporated into artwork. Therefore, the category of "peyote art" includes traditional and contemporary styles. Many art pieces are ritual instruments or for ceremonial settings. These art objects include gourd rattles made of hardwoods, glass beads, leather fringe, and dyed horsehair. Furthermore, most objects, if they are associated with the church, are produced by men. Feather fans can be made from feathers from a variety of birds, including hawk, golden eagle, scissortail, magpie, macaw and other parrots, pheasant, roadrunner, and waterbird.[20]:42 These fans are one of the most important objects related to the church because they represent the bird symbolism in the religion.[20]:94 Moreover, there are also drum sticks and ritual staffs with carvings of tipis, birds, stars, sun patterns, and other symbols important to the church. However, there are also non-instrumental art pieces, such as paintings and jewelry.[20]:65–67
Persecution and law
As the United States government became more involved in the control of drugs, the Native American Church faced possible legal issues regarding their use of peyote.[2] The American Indian Religious Freedom Act of 1978,[21] also called the American Indian Religious Freedom Act (AIRFA), was passed to provide legal protection for the Church's use of the plant.[10]
In 1970, President Richard Nixon signed the Controlled Substances Act (CSA), which prohibited the possession of psychedelics such as peyote in the United States and classified them as controlled drugs. However, as a result of federal rulings such as US v. Boyll (1991) and the Religious Freedom Restoration Act of 1993, members of the Native American Church are allowed to transport, possess, and use peyote for religious purposes.[22][23] While such use has been declared legal without regard to race or tribal status in all US states other than Idaho and Texas, which have outlawed use by non-natives, the purchase of peyote from licensed distributors can only be made via permit by enrolled tribal members, who also must intend to use it for religious purposes only.[10] These distributors, located in Texas near the Mexican border, sell wild peyote gathered in its native range by collectors licensed by the U.S. drug Enforcement Administration and the Texas Department of Public Safety.[24] Cultivation of peyote is legal under the same circumstances as possession, where the cultivator must be licensed[25] and prove that plants are for use in Native American Church ceremonies or, in some states, for general religious ceremonies.[citation needed]
The Neo-American Church tried to claim LSD and marijuana as sacraments, seeking protection similar to that afforded to peyote use by the Native American Church. The courts ruled against them. The Peyote Way Church of God's failed federal lawsuit was rendered partially successful when the Arizona legislature (Ariz. Rev. Stat. § 13-3402) expanded the permitted use of peyote if connected "with the bona fide practice of a religious belief and as an integral part of religious exercise."[26]Colorado, New Mexico, Nevada and Oregon also allow for general religious use.[27]
Influential people
Prominent figures in the church's development include Chevato, Jim Aton, John Wilson, and Jonathan Koshiway. These people, and many others, played important roles in the introduction and adoption of the Native American Church.[18]
Victor Griffin, known as the last chief of the Quapaw tribe,[28] was noted for facilitating the incorporation of the Native American Church under Oklahoma law in 1911. He also helped spread the religion to some other related tribes in the region.[citation needed]
Led by James Mooney, early 20th-century anthropologists helped Peyotists by providing testimonies before legislative bodies and later encouraging the movement's leaders to consolidate peyote use into an established religion whose practice would be protected by law.[29]
Crow religion is the indigenous religion of the Crow people, Native Americans of the Great Plains area of the United States.
Entheogens are psychoactive substances, including psychedelic drugs, used in sacred contexts in religion for inducing spiritual development throughout history.
Peyote songs are a form of Native American music, now most often performed as part of services in the Native American Church. They are typically accompanied by a rattle and water drum, and are used in a ceremonial aspect during the sacramental taking of peyote.
Quanah Parker was a war leader of the Kwahadi ("Antelope") band of the Comanche Nation. He was likely born into the Nokoni ("Wanderers") band of Tabby-nocca and grew up among the Kwahadis, the son of Kwahadi Comanche chief Peta Nocona and Cynthia Ann Parker, an Anglo-American who had been abducted as an eight-year-old child during the Fort Parker massacre in 1836 and assimilated into the Nokoni tribe. Following the apprehension of several Kiowa chiefs in 1871, Quanah Parker emerged as a dominant figure in the Red River War, clashing repeatedly with Colonel Ranald S. Mackenzie. With European-Americans hunting American bison, the Comanches' primary sustenance, into near extinction, Quanah Parker eventually surrendered and peaceably led the Kwahadi to the reservation at Fort Sill, Oklahoma.
The Caddo people comprise the Caddo Nation of Oklahoma, a federally recognized tribe headquartered in Binger, Oklahoma. They speak the Caddo language.
The Religious Freedom Restoration Act of 1993, Pub. L. No. 103-141, 107 Stat. 1488, codified at 42 U.S.C. § 2000bb through 42 U.S.C. § 2000bb-4, is a 1993 United States federal law that "ensures that interests in religious freedom are protected." The bill was introduced by Congressman Chuck Schumer (D–NY) on March 11, 1993. A companion bill was introduced in the Senate by Ted Kennedy (D-MA) the same day. A unanimous U.S. House and a nearly unanimous U.S. Senate—three senators voted against passage—passed the bill, and President Bill Clinton signed it into law.
The Arapaho are a tribe of Native Americans from the western Great Plains, in the area of eastern Colorado and Wyoming. Traditional Arapaho music, described by Bruno Nettl, includes sacred and secular songs. Traditional music uses terraced descent type melodic motion, with songs consisting of two sections, each with a range of more than an octave and scales of four to six tones.
The eagle bone whistle is a religious object, used by some members of Native American spiritual societies in sacred ceremonies. They are made from bones of either the American bald eagle or the American golden eagle, and are considered powerful spiritual objects.
The American Indian Religious Freedom Act, Public Law No. 95–341, 92 Stat. 469, codified at 42 U.S.C. § 1996, is a United States federal law, enacted by joint resolution of the Congress in 1978. Prior to the act, many aspects of Native American religions and sacred ceremonies had been prohibited by law.
Native American or North American religions are the spiritual practices of the Native Americans in the United States and the Indigenous peoples in Canada. Ceremonial ways can vary widely and are based on the differing histories and beliefs of individual nations, tribes and bands. Early European explorers describe individual Native American tribes and even small bands as each having their own religious practices. Theology may be monotheistic, polytheistic, henotheistic, animistic, shamanistic, pantheistic or any combination thereof, among others. Traditional beliefs are usually passed down in the forms of oral histories, stories, allegories, and principles.
The peyote is a small, spineless cactus which contains psychoactive alkaloids, particularly mescaline. Peyote is a Spanish word derived from the Nahuatl peyōtl, meaning "caterpillar cocoon", from a root peyōni, "to glisten". Peyote is native to Mexico and southwestern Texas. It is found primarily in the Sierra Madre Occidental, the Chihuahuan Desert and in the states of Nayarit, Coahuila, Nuevo León, Tamaulipas, and San Luis Potosí among scrub. It flowers from March to May, and sometimes as late as September. The flowers are pink, with thigmotactic anthers.
Native American civil rights are the civil rights of Native Americans in the United States. Native Americans are citizens of their respective Native nations as well as of the United States, and those nations are characterized under United States law as "domestic dependent nations", a special relationship that creates a tension between rights retained via tribal sovereignty and rights that individual Natives have as U.S. citizens. This status creates tension today but was far more extreme before Native people were uniformly granted U.S. citizenship in 1924. Assorted laws and policies of the United States government, some tracing to the pre-Revolutionary colonial period, denied basic human rights—particularly in the areas of cultural expression and travel—to indigenous people.
"John Wilson the Revealer of Peyote" (c.1845–1901) was a Caddo medicine man who introduced the Peyote plant into a religion, became a major leader in the Ghost Dance, and introduced a new peyote ceremony with teachings of Christ. John Wilson's Caddo name was Nishkû'ntu, meaning "Moon Head."
Daniel C. Swan is an American cultural anthropologist and museum curator whose work has focused on documenting and interpreting the cultural history of the Americas. He has specialized particularly on the histories, social organizations, and cultures of Native North American peoples in Oklahoma, USA. His research on the history, significance, and artistic forms of the Native American Church has led to research and exhibition collaborations with artists and elders in a diversity of American Indian communities, both in Oklahoma and elsewhere in the Western United States. In addition to his work on American Indian topics, he has organized exhibitions and museum catalogs about cultural diversity in the American West and in the Western Hemisphere more broadly.
Tall Chief was a hereditary chief of the Quapaw Tribe and a peyote roadman. He served in this position after his father, Lame Chief, died in 1874, until his own death in 1918 at around 78 years old.
Victor Griffin was the elected chief of Quapaw Tribe of Indians and a peyote roadman from Quapaw, Oklahoma. Griffin was commonly called either Victor or Vic, and rarely used his first name, William. He conferred with every U.S. president during his term as chief.
Alfred Leo Smith was a Klamath Nation drug and alcohol counselor and Native American activist from Oregon.
Big moon peyotism was introduced as a variant of the Peyote religion in the 1880s that incorporated Christian, Caddo, and Delaware religious symbols with the consumption of peyote intertwined from Caddo and Delaware rituals. The plant itself, peyote, had been used for spiritual practice by the Mescalero Apache in the 1880, and their use of it influenced other tribes like the Comanche and Kiowa. Peyotism inquires all of the same traits found in other religions such as a doctrine, a ritual, and ethics. The doctrine includes the belief of the actuality of power, incarnation, and spirits. It soon spread all over the Indian Territory while its native people were searching for spiritual help. Peyotism at this point, was a spiritual path that was soon to be taken in Indian Territory. Around 1890, the Caddo, Delaware and Quapaw tribes became the first practitioners of peyote. Black Wolf, a practitioner from the Caddo tribe, brought the religion of little moon peyotism to the Osage people. Black Wolf had intrigued enough of the tribe that his peyote prayers and rituals had truth and value, so the people sent him to heal a sick person in their tribe. His prayers and rituals could not save their life, so peyotism was not being spread for a while. After the native people's dry spell towards peyotism, it returned to the Osage tribe around 1898.
Peyote Way Church of God, Inc. v. Thornburgh was a court case decided by the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit in which the Peyote Way Church of God challenged an exemption in the Controlled Substances Act that permitted members of the Native American Church to use peyote in religious ceremonies while not giving the same exemption to members of other churches. The court ruled that the exemption was primarily a political rather than a religious one and that all of Peyote Way's claims were without merit.
Reuben Alvis Snake Jr. (1937–1993) was an American Ho-Chunk (Winnebago) activist, educator, spiritual leader, and tribal leader. He served as a leader within the American Indian Movement (AIM) in the 1970s, and in the National Congress of American Indians in the 1980s. Snake worked towards the establishment of the American Indian Religious Freedom Act, which passed in 1994, after his death. He advocated for the use of religious, ceremonial peyote.
References
↑ Hagan, William T. Quanah Parker, Comanche Chief. Vol. 6. University of Oklahoma Press, 1995.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Walthill, Wynema Morris. "Native American Church". Encyclopedia of the Great Plains. University of Nebraska–Lincoln. Retrieved 28 June 2017.
↑ Jones, Peter N. (2007). "The Native American Church, Peyote, and Health: Expanding Consciousness for Healing Purposes". Contemporary Justice Review. 10 (4): 411. doi:10.1080/10282580701677477. S2CID144229868.
↑ Slotkin, J.S (1952). Menomini peyotism: a study of individual variation in primary group with a homogeneous culture. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society. pp.579–581.
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