Philosophy of psychedelics

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Philosophy of psychedelics is the philosophical investigation of the psychedelic experience. While psychedelic, entheogenic or hallucinogenic substances have been used by many traditional cultures throughout history mostly for religious purposes, recorded philosophical speculation and analysis of these substances, their phenomenological effects and the relevance of these altered states of consciousness to philosophical questions is a relatively late phenomenon in the history of philosophy. Traditional cultures who use psychedelic substances such as the Amazonian and Indigenous Mexican peoples hold that ingesting medicinal plants such as Ayahuasca and Peyote allows one to commune with the beings of the spirit world.

Contents

Indian philosophy

The Indian Yogi and scholar Patanjali in his Yoga sutras (4.1) mentions that mystic powers (siddhaya) can arise from certain "herbs" or "healing plants" [1] (osadhi):

janmauṣadhi-mantra-tapaḥ samādhi jāḥ siddhayaḥ||
The mystic powers arise due to birth, herbs, mantras, the performance of austerity and samadhi. [2]

Later commentators on the Yoga sutras like Vyasa mention elixirs of the asuras, and also state these herbal concoctions can be found in this world. Adi Shankara meanwhile refers to the Vedic drink Soma. [2]

Vajrayana Buddhist Tantras mention the nectar "amrita" (literally "immortal", "deathless") which was drunk during rituals and which is associated in the tradition with 'spiritual intoxication'. [3] A biography of the scholar Gampopa mentions how one of his teachers stated that "You can obtain Buddhahood: by taking a medicine pill which will make you immortal like the sun and moon." [4] This is a reference to the Vajrayana practice of rasayana (Skt: "alchemy") to create certain potions or pills. According to M.L. Walter's study of Indo-Tibetan rasayana, ingestion of these substances were said to "strengthen the yogin and procure the siddhi for him, as well as bringing him to the final goal." [5] According to Chogyam Trungpa (1939 – 1987), a modern teacher in the Kagyu tradition:

amrita... is used in conferring the second abhisheka, the secret abhisheka. This transmission dissolves the student's mind into the mind of the teacher of the lineage. In general, amrita is the principle of intoxicating extreme beliefs, belief in ego, and dissolving the boundary between confusion and sanity so that coemergence can be realized. [6]

19th century

European literature such as Confessions of an English Opium-Eater by Thomas De Quincey (one of the first English commentators on Kant) [7] and Samuel Taylor Coleridge's Kubla Khan described the use and phenomenal character of mind-altering substances such as Opium. De Quincey held that Opium allowed one to access the earliest of memories and that therefore no memories were ever truly forgotten:

The minutest incidents of childhood, or forgotten scenes of later years, were often revived: I could not be said to recollect them; for if I had been told of them when waking, I should not have been able to acknowledge them as parts of my past experience. But placed as they were before me, in dreams like intuitions, and clothed in all their evanescent circumstances and accompanying feelings, I recognized them instantaneously […] I feel assured that there is no such thing as forgetting possible to the mind. [8]

Jacques-Joseph Moreau, who reported his experiments with mental patients and drugs, believed that “the hashish experience was a way to gain insight into mental disease.” [9]

The French Poet Baudelaire wrote about the effects of Hashish and Opium in Les Paradis artificiels (1860) and theorized about how they could be used to allow the individual to reach "ideal" states of mind. Charles Baudelaire was member of the 'Club des Hashischins', a Parisian literary group dedicated to the exploration of altered states of consciousness which included Jacques-Joseph Moreau and literary figures such as Victor Hugo, Alexandre Dumas, Gerard de Nerval, Honore de Balzac, and Theophile Gautier. [10] Baudelaire's opinion of the drug was generally negative, believing that it weakened and dampened artistic capacities, the personal Will and even the very identity of the hashish eater. He compared it to suicide and a false happiness, and saw wine as the true intoxicant of the artists. [11]

In the United States, The Hasheesh Eater (1857) an autobiographical book by Fitz Hugh Ludlow became popular. Ludlow wrote that a Marijuana user sought "the soul’s capacity for a broader being, deeper insight, grander views of Beauty, Truth and Good than she now gains through the chinks of her cell." [12] The American William James was one of the first academic philosophers to write about the effects of hallucinogenic substances in his The Subjective Effects of Nitrous Oxide (1882) in which he writes that the gas can produce a "tremendously exciting sense of an intense metaphysical illumination. Truth lies open to the view in depth beneath depth of almost blinding evidence. The mind sees all logical relations of being with an apparent subtlety and instantaniety to which its normal consciousness offers no parallel". [13] He goes on to say that the experience gave him the sense that the philosophy of Hegel was true. In his The Varieties of Religious Experience he likewise writes:

Nitrous oxide and ether, especially nitrous oxide … stimulate the mystical consciousness in an extraordinary degree. … [In] the nitrous oxide trance we have a genuine metaphysical revelation. … [Our] normal waking consciousness, rational consciousness as we call it, is but one special type of consciousness, whilst all about it, parted from it by the filmiest of screens, there lie potential forms of consciousness entirely different. [14]

It is also speculated that the philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche had psychedelic experiences brought on by the drugs he used to help with his various illnesses. These psychedelic experiences are thought to have influenced his philosophy, as he references 'the Dionysian' at the very beginning of his book The Birth of Tragedy. [15]

20th century

After using mescaline in 1953, Aldous Huxley wrote The Doors of Perception where he advanced the theory that psychedelic compounds could produce mystical experiences and knowledge, "what the visionary, the medium, even the mystic were talking about" and what eastern philosophy described with terms like satcitananda , godhead, suchness, shunyata , anatta and dharmakaya . [16] [ page needed ] Huxley also quotes the philosopher C. D. Broad, which held that the brain and nervous system might act as a reducing valve of all the stimuli in the universe:

According to such a theory, each one of us is potentially Mind at Large. But in so far as we are animals, our business is at all costs to survive. To make biological survival possible, Mind at Large has to be funneled through the reducing valve of the brain and nervous system. What comes out at the other end is a measly trickle of the kind of consciousness which will help us to stay alive on the surface of this Particular planet. [16] [ page needed ]

Huxley wrote that it was possible that certain human beings could, through drugs, meditation, etc. circumvent the reducing valve and experience something far beyond everyday consciousness. This experience Huxley saw as the source of all mysticism, a theory termed the perennial philosophy. He also discusses art and the legality of various drugs in the West as well as arguing for the importance for self-transcendence. Huxley's philosophical novel Island also described a utopian society that used a psychedelic substance for spiritual purposes.[ citation needed ]

In the early 1960s a group that eventually came to be called "Harvard Psychedelic Club" which included Timothy Leary, Huston Smith and Ram Dass administered psychedelics to Harvard students. The group experimented with psychedelics in experiments such as the Harvard Psilocybin Project. Huston Smith's last work, Cleansing the Doors of Perception, describes the Harvard Project in which he participated.[ citation needed ]

Ram Dass' Be Here Now and Tim Leary's The Psychedelic Experience: A Manual Based on The Tibetan Book of the Dead compared the psychedelic experiences to eastern philosophy and mystical states of consciousness. These books further popularized the idea that eastern - particularly Indian philosophical and spiritual insights could be obtained from using psychedelics. One of these experiences described in The Psychedelic Experience is that of ego death or depersonalization.[ full citation needed ]

The idea that the psychedelic experience could grant access to eastern spiritual insights was also promoted by the popular philosopher Alan Watts in his writings such as The Joyous Cosmology, who also argued that one should not remain dependent on them for spiritual growth: "If you get the message, hang up the phone. For psychedelic drugs are simply instruments, like microscopes, telescopes, and telephones. The biologist does not sit with eye permanently glued to the microscope, he goes away and works on what he has seen." [17]

Various psychologists during the 1960s also studied psychedelic substances and worked with psychedelic therapy and later developed various theories about their effects and significance. Stanislav Grof is known for his extensive work in LSD psychotherapy and for developing a theory which stated that the psychedelic experience allowed one to relive birth trauma and to explore the depths of the unconscious mind. Grof observed four levels of the LSD experience, which for him correspond to areas of the human unconscious: (1) abstract and aesthetic experiences (2) psychodynamic experiences (3) perinatal experiences, and (4) transpersonal experiences. Grof defined the last level as "experiences involving an expansion or extension of consciousness beyond the usual ego boundaries and beyond the limitations of time and/or space." [18] The field of transpersonal psychology focuses on this type of experience. Grof included topics such as consciousness, mysticism and metaphysics in his later writings.[ citation needed ]

The scientist and philosopher John C. Lilly discussed his experiments with psychedelics and altered states of consciousness in The Center of the Cyclone: An Autobiography of Inner Space and Programming and Metaprogramming in the Human Biocomputer . Other psychologists who studied and wrote on psychedelic use include Walter Pahnke, Ralph Metzner and Claudio Naranjo.[ citation needed ]

According to writer James Oroc, the 1990s brought about a second phase in modern psychedelic culture. The philosophical foundation of this new wave of psychedelic thought was based on the works of Alexander Shulgin, Alex Grey and Terence McKenna. [19]

Contemporary

Neuroscientist Rick Strassman has written about his research into the psychedelic N,N-Dimethyltryptamine in his book DMT: The Spirit Molecule (2001). In his book Strassman investigates the possible connection between natural DMT in mystical and Near Death Experiences and psychedelic states caused by outwardly administered DMT. He also describes the psychedelic experiences of the volunteers in his experiments and their encounter with certain strange "beings" after being administered DMT.[ citation needed ]

In 2012, University of California Press published the book Neuropsychedelia by anthropologist Nicolas Langlitz. [20] In this book, Langlitz recounts the findings of his fieldwork following scientists involved in reviving scientific research on psychedelics as well as his own philosophical reflections. He explains that Aldous Huxley's view expressed in The Doors of Perception—of the brain as a "reducing valve" which when released by the ingestion of a psychedelics produces a "perennial" mystical experience—has been very influential among contemporary psychopharmacologists. These scientists, Langlitz writes, have given Huxley's view a materialist "neurobiological reinterpretation" which Langlitz calls "mystic materialism". [21]

The philosopher Thomas Metzinger has discussed the effects of substances such as LSD, dimethyltryptamine, and mescaline in his Being No One (2003) and those of psilocybin in The Ego Tunnel (2009). [22] [ page needed ] [23] [ page needed ] Metzinger describes the hallucinatory component of the psychedelic experience as "epistemically vacuous," i.e., not a reliable source of knowledge. [21]

The American author Sam Harris discussed his use of psychedelics in his 2014 book Waking Up: A Guide to Spirituality Without Religion , which also attempts to argue for a naturalized spirituality.[ citation needed ]

The philosopher Peter Sjöstedt-Hughes' book Noumenautics was published by the independent publisher Psychedelic Press in 2015 and discusses psychedelic phenomenology and its metaphysical implications. In 2021 they published his Modes of Sentience covering similar themes.[ citation needed ]

In his non-academic encyclopedia of psychedelic culture and thought Psychedelia (2012), Patrick Lundborg developed a psychedelic philosophy he called "Unified Psychedelic Theory" (UPT) which draws from Platonism, the phenomenology of Husserl and Merleau-Ponty, Paul D. MacLean's Triune brain theory, the work of Eugen Fink, and other thinkers.[ citation needed ]

In 2021, the philosopher Chris Letheby's book Philosophy of Psychedelics was published by Oxford University Press. [24] Philosophy of Psychedelics is organised as a defence against what Letheby calls the 'Comforting Delusion Objection' to psychedelic therapy. The objection is that psychedelic therapy works by inducing non-naturalistic metaphysical beliefs, and so it is epistemically deficient if one adopts a philosophically naturalistic world-view. [4] Letheby concludes that the Comforting Delusion Objection fails, and that the epistemic status of psychedelic therapy, given philosophical naturalism, is good. [3]

In 2022, Christine Hauskeller and Peter Sjöstedt-Hughes' edited volume, Philosophy and Psychedelics was published by Bloomsbury. [25]

See also

Related Research Articles

Epiphenomenalism is a position on the mind–body problem which holds that physical and biochemical events within the human body are the sole cause of mental events. According to this view, subjective mental events are completely dependent for their existence on corresponding physical and biochemical events within the human body, yet themselves have no influence over physical events. The appearance that subjective mental states influence physical events is merely an illusion. For instance, fear seems to make the heart beat faster, but according to epiphenomenalism the biochemical secretions of the brain and nervous system —not the experience of fear—is what raises the heartbeat. Because mental events are a kind of overflow that cannot cause anything physical, yet have non-physical properties, epiphenomenalism is viewed as a form of property dualism.

<i>The Doors of Perception</i> Book by Aldous Huxley

The Doors of Perception is an autobiographical book written by Aldous Huxley. Published in 1954, it elaborates on his psychedelic experience under the influence of mescaline in May 1953. Huxley recalls the insights he experienced, ranging from the "purely aesthetic" to "sacramental vision", and reflects on their philosophical and psychological implications. In 1956, he published Heaven and Hell, another essay which elaborates these reflections further. The two works have since often been published together as one book; the title of both comes from William Blake's 1793 book The Marriage of Heaven and Hell.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Psychedelic drug</span> Hallucinogenic class of psychoactive drug

Psychedelics are a subclass of hallucinogenic drugs whose primary effect is to trigger non-ordinary mental states and/or an apparent expansion of consciousness. Sometimes, they are called classic hallucinogens, serotonergic hallucinogens, or serotonergic psychedelics, and the term psychedelic is sometimes used more broadly to include various types of hallucinogens or those which are atypical or adjacent to psychedelia such as MDMA or cannabis; this article uses the narrower definition of psychedelics. True psychedelics cause specific psychological, visual, and auditory changes, and oftentimes a substantially altered state of consciousness. Psychedelic states are often compared to meditative, psychodynamic or transcendental types of alterations of the mind. The "classical" psychedelics, the psychedelics with the largest scientific and cultural influence, are mescaline, LSD, psilocybin, and DMT. In particular, LSD has long been considered the paradigmatic psychedelic compound to which all other psychedelics are often or usually compared.

A bad trip is an acute adverse psychological reaction to classic hallucinogens. With proper screening, preparation, and support in a regulated setting these are usually benign. A bad trip on psilocybin, for instance, often features intense anxiety, confusion, and agitation, or even psychotic episodes. They manifest as a range of feelings, such as anxiety, paranoia, the unshakeable sense of one's inevitable and imminent personal demise or states of unrelieved terror that they believe will persist after the substance's effects have worn off. As of 2011, exact data on the frequency of bad trips are not available.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Club drug</span> Category of recreational drugs

Club drugs, also called rave drugs or party drugs, are a loosely defined category of recreational drugs which are associated with discothèques in the 1970s and nightclubs, dance clubs, electronic dance music (EDM) parties, and raves in the 1980s to today. Unlike many other categories, such as opiates and benzodiazepines, which are established according to pharmaceutical or chemical properties, club drugs are a "category of convenience", in which drugs are included due to the locations they are consumed and/or where the user goes while under the influence of the drugs. Club drugs are generally used by adolescents and young adults.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Entheogen</span> Psychoactive substances that induce spiritual experiences

Entheogens are psychoactive substances that induce alterations in perception, mood, consciousness, cognition, or behavior for the purposes of engendering spiritual development or otherwise in sacred contexts. The anthropological study has established that entheogens are used for religious, magical, shamanic, or spiritual purposes in many parts of the world. Entheogens have traditionally been used to supplement many diverse practices geared towards achieving transcendence, including divination, meditation, yoga, sensory deprivation, healings, asceticism, prayer, trance, rituals, chanting, imitation of sounds, hymns like peyote songs, drumming, and ecstatic dance. The psychedelic experience is often compared to non-ordinary forms of consciousness such as those experienced in meditation, near-death experiences, and mystical experiences. Ego dissolution is often described as a key feature of the psychedelic experience.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stanislav Grof</span> Czech psychiatrist

Stanislav "Stan" Grof is a Czech-born psychiatrist who has been living in the United States since the 1960s. Grof is one of the principal developers of transpersonal psychology and research into the use of non-ordinary states of consciousness for purposes of psychological healing, deep self-exploration, and obtaining growth and insights into the human psyche. In 1993, Grof received an Honorary Award from the Association for Transpersonal Psychology (ATP) for major contributions to and development of the field of transpersonal psychology, given at the occasion of the 25th Anniversary Convocation held in Asilomar, California. He also received the VISION 97 award granted by the Foundation of Dagmar and Václav Havel in Prague on October 5, 2007. In 2010, he received the Thomas R. Verny Award from the Association for Pre- and Perinatal Psychology and Health (APPPAH). On the other hand, Grof has been criticized by the skeptic group Český klub skeptiků Sisyfos in the Czech Republic for furthering what they view as nonscientific psychology too far outside the bounds of the materialistic philosophical underpinnings of modern science. He is the only person to have been awarded the anti-prize Erratic Boulder Award twice in that country. Grof was married to psychologist Brigitte Grof in 2014.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Panpsychism</span> View that mind is a fundamental feature of reality

In the philosophy of mind, panpsychism is the view that the mind or a mindlike aspect is a fundamental and ubiquitous feature of reality. It is also described as a theory that "the mind is a fundamental feature of the world which exists throughout the universe." It is one of the oldest philosophical theories, and has been ascribed to philosophers including Thales, Plato, Spinoza, Leibniz, William James, Alfred North Whitehead, Bertrand Russell, and Galen Strawson. In the 19th century, panpsychism was the default philosophy of mind in Western thought, but it saw a decline in the mid-20th century with the rise of logical positivism. Recent interest in the hard problem of consciousness and developments in the fields of neuroscience, psychology, and quantum physics have revived interest in panpsychism in the 21st century.

New mysterianism, or commonly just mysterianism, is a philosophical position proposing that the hard problem of consciousness cannot be resolved by humans. The unresolvable problem is how to explain the existence of qualia. In terms of the various schools of philosophy of mind, mysterianism is a form of nonreductive physicalism. Some "mysterians" state their case uncompromisingly ; others believe merely that consciousness is not within the grasp of present human understanding, but may be comprehensible to future advances of science and technology.

<i>Les Paradis artificiels</i>

Les Paradis Artificiels is a book by French poet Charles Baudelaire, first published in 1860, about the state of being under the influence of opium and hashish. Baudelaire describes the effects of the drugs and discusses the way in which they could theoretically aid mankind in reaching an "ideal" world. The text was influenced by Thomas de Quincey's Confessions of an English Opium-Eater and Suspiria de Profundis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Psychonautics</span> Methodology for describing and explaining the subjective effects of altered states of consciousness

Psychonautics refers both to a methodology for describing and explaining the subjective effects of altered states of consciousness, including those induced by meditation or mind-altering substances, and to a research cabal in which the researcher voluntarily immerses themselves into an altered mental state in order to explore the accompanying experiences.

A psychedelic experience is a temporary altered state of consciousness induced by the consumption of a psychedelic substance. For example, an acid trip is a psychedelic experience brought on by the use of LSD, while a mushroom trip is a psychedelic experience brought on by the use of psilocybin. Psychedelic experiences feature alterations in normal perception such as visual distortions and a subjective loss of self-identity, sometimes interpreted as mystical experiences. Psychedelic experiences lack predictability, as they can range from being highly pleasurable to frightening. The outcome of a psychedelic experience is heavily influenced by the person's mood, personality, expectations, and environment.

Christian de Quincey is an American philosopher and author who teaches consciousness, spirituality and cosmology at universities and colleges in the United States and Europe. He is also an international speaker on consciousness.

<i>The Hasheesh Eater</i> 1857 autobiographical book by Fitz Hugh Ludlow

The Hasheesh Eater (1857) is an autobiographical book by Fitz Hugh Ludlow describing the author's altered states of consciousness and philosophical flights of fancy while he was using a cannabis extract. In the United States, the book created popular interest in hashish, leading to hashish candy and private hashish clubs. The book was later popular in the counter-culture movement of the 1960s.

Numinous is a term derived from the Latin numen, meaning "arousing spiritual or religious emotion; mysterious or awe-inspiring." The term was given its present sense by the German theologian and philosopher Rudolf Otto in his influential 1917 German book The Idea of the Holy. He also used the phrase mysterium tremendum as another description for the phenomenon. Otto's concept of the numinous influenced thinkers including Carl Jung, Mircea Eliade, and C. S. Lewis. It has been applied to theology, psychology, religious studies, literary analysis, and descriptions of psychedelic experiences.

Ego death is a "complete loss of subjective self-identity". The term is used in various intertwined contexts, with related meanings. Jungian psychology uses the synonymous term psychic death, referring to a fundamental transformation of the psyche. In death and rebirth mythology, ego death is a phase of self-surrender and transition, as described by Joseph Campbell in his research on the mythology of the Hero's Journey. It is a recurrent theme in world mythology and is also used as a metaphor in some strands of contemporary western thinking.

Higher consciousness is the consciousness of God or, in the words of Dawn DeVries, "the part of the human mind that is capable of transcending animal instincts". While the concept has ancient roots, it was significantly developed in German idealism, and is a central notion in contemporary popular spirituality, including the New Age movement.

Mind at Large is a concept proposed by Aldous Huxley to help interpret psychedelic experience. He maintained that the human mind filters reality under normal circumstances and that psychedelic drugs remove the filter, exposing the user to a Mind at Large.

Researchers have noted the relationship between psychedelics and ecology, particularly in relation to the altered states of consciousness (ASC) produced by psychedelic drugs and the perception of interconnectedness expressed through ecological ideas and themes produced by the psychedelic experience. This is felt through the direct experience of the unity of nature and the environment of which the individual is no longer perceived as separate but intimately connected and embedded inside.

References

  1. ↑ Arthur Anthony Macdonell, Arthur Berriedale; Vedic Index of Names and Subjects, Volume 1; Volume 5
  2. 1 2 Bryant, Edwin F.; The Yoga Sutras of Patañjali: A New Edition, Translation, and Commentary, chapter IV
  3. 1 2 Gimian, Carolyn Rose; The Essential Chogyam Trungpa, Glossary
  4. 1 2 Stewart, J. M. The Life of Gampopa, The Incomparable Dharma Lord of Tibet, Snow Lion Publications, Ithaca, N. Y., USA, 1995, page 53.
  5. ↑ Walter, M. L, Preliminary Results from a study of two Rasayana systems in Indo-Tibetan Esoterism published in Tibetan Studies in Honour of Hugh Richardson (M. Aris, ed.), Aris & Phillips Ltd., Warminster, England 1980, page 319
  6. ↑ Trungpa, C.; Sacred Outlook: The Vajrayogini Shrine and Practice (in The Silk Route and the Diamond Path, D. E. Klimburg-Salter, editor ), UCLA Art Council, Los Angeles, 1982, page 236
  7. ↑ Stirling, James Hutchison (1867). "De Quincey and Coleridge Upon Kant," Fortnightly Review, Vol. 8, pp. 377–97.
  8. ↑ Quincey, Thomas de. Confessions of an English Opium-Eater and Other Writings.London: Penguin Books, 2003, 76
  9. ↑ Nahas, Gabriel G. Marihuana—Deceptive Weed. New York: Raven Press, 1973. see: Baudelaire on Drugs : Marijuana Consumption in the Age of Colonialism http://evitanza.bol.ucla.edu/baudelaire.html#_ftn15
  10. ↑ Levinthal, C. F. (2012). Drugs, behavior, and modern society. (6th ed.). Boston: Pearson College Div.
  11. ↑ Vitanza, Baudelaire on Drugs : Marijuana Consumption in the Age of Colonialism
  12. ↑ Ludlow, Fitz Hugh "The Visionary", The Hasheesh Eater 1857
  13. ↑ James; The Subjective Effects of Nitrous Oxide (1882), https://erowid.org/chemicals/nitrous/nitrous_article1.shtml
  14. ↑ James, William; The Varieties of Religious Experience, ch. XVI
  15. ↑ Traherne, Twain; The Psychedelic Nietzsche
  16. 1 2 Huxley, Aldous (1954). The Doors of Perception. Perennial Classics. ISBN   0-06-059518-3.
  17. ↑ The Joyous Cosmology: Adventures in the Chemistry of Consciousness (the quote is new to the 1965/1970 edition (page 26), and not contained in the original 1962 edition of the book).
  18. ↑ PSYPRESSUK CONTRIBUTORS; Realms of the Human Unconscious by Stanislav Grof PUBLISHED JANUARY 19, 2011 · UPDATED FEBRUARY 5, 2015, http://psypressuk.com/2011/01/19/literary-review-realms-of-the-human-unconscious-by-stanislav-grof/
  19. ↑ Oroc, James; The Second Psychedelic Revolution, http://realitysandwich.com/216613/the-second-psychedelic-revolution-part-one-the-end-of-acid/
  20. ↑ Langlitz, Nicolas (2012). Neuropsychedelia: The Revival of Hallucinogen Research since the Decade of the Brain (1st ed.). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. ISBN   9780520274822.
  21. 1 2 Langlitz; Nicolas; IS THERE A PLACE FOR PSYCHEDELICS IN PHILOSOPHY? Fieldwork in Neuro- and Perennial Philosophy, http://www.nicolaslanglitz.de/nicolaslanglitz.de/Texts_files/Langlitz%202016%20-%20IS%20THERE%20A%20PLACE%20FOR%20PSYCHEDELICS%20IN%20PHILOSOPHY%3F.pdf
  22. ↑ Metzinger, Thomas (2003). Being No One: The Self-Model Theory of Subjectivity. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. ISBN   0-262-13417-9.
  23. ↑ Metzinger, Thomas (2009). The Ego Tunnel: The Science of the Mind and the Myth of the Self. New York: Basic Books. ISBN   978-0465020690.
  24. ↑ Letheby, Chris (2021). Philosophy of Psychedelics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/med/9780198843122.001.0001. ISBN   978-0-19-884312-2.
  25. ↑ Philosophy and psychedelics : frameworks for exceptional experience. Christine Hauskeller, Peter Sjöstedt-H. London. 2022. ISBN   978-1-350-23163-4. OCLC   1291222794.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)

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